LIMSwiki

Posted on July 23, 2020 By Robert Payne

Edit links

This article is about the common cereal. For other uses, see Oat (disambiguation).
"Oats" redirects here. For other cultivated and wild species of the genus, see Avena.

Oat
Oat plants with inflorescences
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Monocots
Clade: Commelinids
Order: Poales
Family: Poaceae
Subfamily: Pooideae
Genus: Avena
Species:
A. sativa
Binomial name
Avena sativa
L. (1753)

The oat (Avena sativa), sometimes called the common oat, is a species of cereal grain grown for its seed, which is known by the same name (usually in the plural). Oats appear to have been domesticated as a secondary crop, as their seeds resembled those of other cereals closely enough for them to be included by early cultivators. Oats tolerate cold winters less well than cereals such as wheat, barley, and rye, but need less summer heat and more rain, making them important in areas such as Northwest Europe that have cool wet summers. They can tolerate low-nutrient and acid soils. Oats grow thickly and vigorously, allowing them to outcompete many weeds, and compared to other cereals are relatively free from diseases.

Oats are used for human consumption as oatmeal, including as steel cut oats or rolled oats. Global production is dominated by Canada and Russia; global trade is a small part of production, most of the grain being consumed within the producing countries. Oats are a nutrient-rich food associated with lower blood cholesterol and reduced risk of human heart disease when consumed regularly. One of the most common uses of oats is as livestock feed; the crop can also be grown as groundcover and ploughed in as a green manure.

Origins

Phylogeny

Oat ancestry, showing how hexaploid species including the common oat Avena sativa derive from diploid and tetraploid species

Phylogenetic analysis using molecular DNA and morphological evidence places the oat genus Avena in the Pooideae subfamily. That subfamily includes the cereals wheat, barley, and rye; they are in the Triticeae tribe, while Avena is in the Poeae, along with grasses such as Briza and Agrostis.[1] The wild ancestor of Avena sativa and the closely related minor crop – A. byzantina – is A. sterilis, a naturally hexaploid wild oat, one that has its DNA in six sets of chromosomes. Genetic evidence shows that the ancestral forms of A. sterilis grew in the Fertile Crescent of the Near East.[2][3]

Analysis of maternal lineages of 25 Avena species using chloroplast and mitochondrial DNA showed that A. sativa's hexaploid genome derives from three diploid oat species (each with two sets of chromosomes); the sets are dubbed A, B, C, and D. The diploid species are the CC A. ventricosa, the AA A. canariensis, and the AA A. longiglumis, along with two tetraploid oats (each with four sets), namely the AACC A. insularis and the AABB A. agadiriana. Tetraploids were formed as much as 10.6 mya, and hexaploids as much as 7.4 mya.[4]

Domestication

Genomic study suggests that the hulled variety and the naked variety A. sativa var. nuda diverged around 51,200 years ago, long before domestication. This implies that the two varieties were domesticated independently.[5]

Oats are thought to have emerged as a secondary crop. This means that they are derived from what was considered a weed of the primary cereal domesticates such as wheat. They survived as a Vavilovian mimic by having grains that Neolithic people found hard to distinguish from the primary crop.[3]

Oats were cultivated for some thousands of years before they were domesticated. A granary from the Pre-Pottery Neolithic, about 11,400 to 11,200 years ago in the Jordan Valley in the Middle East contained a large number of wild oat grains (120,000 seeds of A. sterilis). The find implies intentional cultivation. Domesticated oat grains first appear in the archaeological record in Europe around 3000 years ago.[3][5][6]

Description

The oat is a tall stout grass, a member of the family Poaceae; it can grow to a height of 1.8 metres (5.9 ft). The leaves are long, narrow, and pointed, and grow upwards; they can be some 15 to 40 centimetres (5.9 to 15.7 in) in length, and around 5 to 15 millimetres (0.20 to 0.59 in) in width. At the top of the stem, the plant branches into a loose cluster or panicle of spikelets. These contain the wind-pollinated flowers, which mature into the oat seeds or grains.[7] Botanically the grain is a caryopsis, as the wall of the fruit is fused on to the actual seed. Like other cereal grains, the caryopsis contains the outer husk or bran, the starchy food store or endosperm which occupies most of the seed, and the protein-rich germ which if planted in soil can grow into a new plant.[8]

  • Botanical illustration
    Botanical illustration
  • Oat spikelets, containing the small wind-pollinated flowers
    Oat spikelets, containing the small wind-pollinated flowers
  • Panicle with spikelets containing seeds
    Panicle with spikelets containing seeds
  • 1 A. sterilis, 2 A. sativa, spikelet and base of outer grain of both cultivated species
    1 A. sterilis, 2 A. sativa, spikelet and base of outer grain of both cultivated species

Agronomy

Cultivation

Oats are annual plants best grown in temperate regions.[7] They tolerate cold winters less well than wheat, rye, or barley; they are harmed by sustained cold below −7 °C (20 °F).[9] They have a lower summer heat requirement and greater tolerance of (and need for) rain than the other cereals mentioned, so they are particularly important in areas with cool, wet summers, such as Northwest Europe.[7][10]

Oats can grow in most fertile, drained soils, being tolerant of a wide variety of soil types. Although better yields are achieved at a soil pH of 5.3 to 5.7, oats can tolerate soils with a pH as low as 4.5. They are better able to grow in low-nutrient soils than wheat or maize, but generally are less tolerant of high soil salinity than other cereals.[11]

  • Harvest in Jølster, Norway, c. 1890
    Harvest in Jølster, Norway, c. 1890
  • Harvesting oats in Brastad, Sweden, 2021
    Harvesting oats in Brastad, Sweden, 2021

Weeds, pests, and diseases

Main article: List of oat diseases
Oat leaf infected with crown rust

Oats can outcompete many weeds, as they grow thickly (with many leafy shoots) and vigorously, but are still subject to some broadleaf weeds. Control can be by herbicides, or by integrated pest management with measures such as sowing seed that is free of weeds.[12]

Oats are relatively free from diseases. Nonetheless, they suffer from some leaf diseases, such as stem rust (Puccinia graminis f. sp. avenae) and crown rust (P. coronata var. avenae).[13] Crown rust infection can greatly reduce photosynthesis and overall physiological activities of oat leaves, thereby reducing growth and crop yield.[14][15]

Oats are attacked by nematodes and by insects including aphids, armyworms, cockchafers, grasshoppers, thrips, and wireworms. Most of these pests are not specific to oats, and only occasionally cause significant damage to oat crops.[citation needed]

Processing

Fully-processed porridge oats, ready to cook

Harvested oats go through multiple stages of milling. The first stage is cleaning, to remove seeds of other plants, stones and any other extraneous materials. Next is dehulling to remove the indigestible bran, leaving the seed or "groat". Heating denatures enzymes in the seed that would make it go sour or rancid; the grain is then dried to minimise the risk of spoilage by bacteria and fungi. There may follow numerous stages of cutting or grinding the grain, depending on which sort of product is required. For oatmeal (oat flour), the grain is ground to a specified fineness. For home use such as making porridge, oats are often rolled flat to make them quicker to cook.[16]

Oat flour can be ground for small scale use by pulsing rolled oats or old-fashioned (not quick) oats in a food processor or spice mill.[17]

Production and trade

Oats production – 2022
Country Millions of tonnes
 Canada 5.2
 Russia 4.5
 Australia 1.7
 Poland 1.5
 Brazil 1.3
 Finland 1.2
 United Kingdom 1.1
World 26.4
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations[18]

In 2022, global production of oats was 26 million tonnes, led by Canada with 20% of the total and Russia with 17% (table). This compares to over 100 million tonnes for wheat, for example.[18] Global trade represents a modest percentage of production, less than 10%, most of the grain being consumed within producing countries. The main exporter is Canada, followed by Sweden and Finland; the US is the main importer.[19]

Oats futures are traded in US dollars in quantities of 5000 bushels on the Chicago Board of Trade and have delivery dates in March, May, July, September, and December.[20]

Genomics

Genome

Avena sativa is an allohexaploid species with three ancestral genomes (2n=6x=42; AACCDD).[21][22][23] As a result, the genome is large (12.6 Gb, 1C-value=12.85) and complex.[24][25] Cultivated hexaploid oat has a unique mosaic chromosome architecture that is the result of numerous translocations between the three subgenomes.[21][26] These translocations may cause breeding barriers and incompatibilities when crossing varieties with different chromosomal architecture. Hence, oat breeding and the crossing of desired traits has been hampered by the lack of a reference genome assembly. In May 2022, a fully annotated reference genome sequence of Avena sativa was reported.[21] The AA subgenome is presumed to be derived from Avena longiglumis and the CCDD from the tetraploid Avena insularis.[21]

Genetics and breeding

Species of Avena can hybridize, and genes introgressed (brought in) from other "A" genome species have contributed many valuable traits, like resistance to oat crown rust.[27][28] Pc98 is one such trait, introgressed from A. sterilis CAV 1979, conferring all stage resistance (ASR) against Pca.[29]

It is possible to hybridize oats with grasses in other genera, allowing plant breeders the ready introgression of traits. In contrast to wheat, oats sometimes retain chromosomes from maize or pearl millet after such crosses. These wide crosses are typically made to generate doubled haploid breeding material; the rapid loss of the alien chromosomes from the unrelated pollen donor results in a plant with only a single set of chromosomes (a haploid).[30][31][32]

The addition lines with alien chromosomes can be used as a source for novel traits in oats. For example, research on oat-maize-addition lines has been used to map genes involved in C4 photosynthesis. To obtain Mendelian inheritance of these novel traits, radiation hybrid lines have been established, where maize chromosome segments have been introgressed into the oat genome. This potentially transfers thousands of genes from a species that is distantly related, but is not considered a GMO technique.[33]

A 2013 study applied simple sequence repeat and found five major groupings, namely commercial cultivars and four landrace groups.[34][35]

Nutritive value

Nutrients

Uncooked oats
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy1,628 kJ (389 kcal)
66.3 g
Dietary fiber11.6 g
6.9 g
Saturated1.21 g
Monounsaturated2.18 g
Polyunsaturated2.54 g
16.9 g
Vitamins and minerals
VitaminsQuantity
%DV†
Thiamine (B1)
64%
0.763 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
11%
0.139 mg
Niacin (B3)
6%
0.961 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
27%
1.349 mg
Vitamin B6
7%
0.12 mg
Folate (B9)
14%
56 μg
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Calcium
4%
54 mg
Iron
28%
5 mg
Magnesium
42%
177 mg
Manganese
213%
4.9 mg
Phosphorus
42%
523 mg
Potassium
14%
429 mg
Sodium
0%
2 mg
Zinc
36%
4 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water8 g
β-glucans (soluble fiber) [36]4 g
USDA FoodData Central entry
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[37] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[38]

Uncooked oats are 66% carbohydrates, including 11% dietary fiber and 4% beta-glucans, 7% fat, 17% protein, and 8% water (table). In a reference serving of 100 g (3.5 oz), oats provide 389 kilocalories (1,630 kJ) and are a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of protein (34% DV), dietary fiber (44% DV), several B vitamins, and numerous dietary minerals, especially manganese (213% DV) (table).

Health effects

Regular consumption of oat products lowers blood levels of low-density lipoprotein and total cholesterol,[39] reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease.[40] The beneficial effect of oat consumption on lowering blood lipids is attributed to oat beta-glucan.[39][40] Oat consumption can help to reduce body mass index in obese people.[40]

The United States Food and Drug Administration allows companies to make health claims on labels of food products that contain soluble fiber from whole oats, as long as the food provides 0.75 grams of soluble fiber per serving.[41]

Uses

As food

When used in foods, oats are most commonly rolled or crushed into oatmeal or ground into fine oat flour. Oatmeal is chiefly eaten as porridge, but may also be used in a variety of baked goods, such as oatcakes (which may be made with coarse steel-cut oats for a rougher texture), oatmeal cookies and oat bread. Oats are an ingredient in many cold cereals, in particular muesli and granola; the Quaker Oats Company introduced instant oatmeal in 1966.[42] Oats are also used to produce milk substitutes ("oat milk").[43] As of late 2020, the oat milk market became the second-largest among plant milks in the United States, following almond milk, but exceeding the sales of soy milk.[44] As a mainstay of West Wales for centuries, until changes in farming practices in the 1960s, oats were used in many traditional Welsh dishes, including laverbread, a Welsh breakfast, and "cockles and eggs" served with oatbread.[45]

In Britain, oats are sometimes used for brewing beer, such as oatmeal stout where a percentage of oats, often 30%, is added to the barley for the wort.[46] Oatmeal caudle, made of ale and oatmeal with spices, was a traditional British drink and a favourite of Oliver Cromwell.[47][48]

Animal feed

A commercially prepared grain mix for horses, with crimped maize, oats, and barley mixed with molasses and pelleted supplement

Oats are commonly used as feed for horses when extra carbohydrates and the subsequent boost in energy are required. The oat hull may be crushed ("rolled" or "crimped") to make them easier to digest,[49] or may be fed whole. They may be given alone or as part of a blended food pellet. Cattle are also fed oats, either whole or ground into a coarse flour using a roller mill, burr mill, or hammermill. Oat forage is commonly used to feed all kinds of ruminants, as pasture, straw, hay or silage.[50]

Ground cover

Winter oats may be grown as an off-season groundcover and ploughed under in the spring as a green fertilizer, or harvested in early summer. They also can be used for pasture; they can be grazed a while, then allowed to head out for grain production, or grazed continuously until other pastures are ready.[51]

Other uses

Oat straw is used as animal bedding; it absorbs liquids better than wheat straw.[52] The straw can be used for making corn dollies, small decorative woven figures.[53] Tied in a muslin bag, oat straw has been used to soften bath water.[54]

Celiac disease

Main articles: Oat sensitivity and Gluten-related disorders

Celiac (or coeliac) disease is a permanent autoimmune disease triggered by gluten proteins.[55][56][57][58] It almost always occurs in genetically predisposed people, having a prevalence of about 1% in the developed world.[55][59][60] Oat products are frequently contaminated by other gluten-containing grains, mainly wheat and barley, requiring caution in the use of oats if people are sensitive to the gluten in those grains.[56][57][61][62] For example, oat bread often contains only a small proportion of oats alongside wheat or other cereals.[63] Use of pure oats in a gluten-free diet offers improved nutritional value,[57][64] but remains controversial because a small proportion of people with celiac disease react to pure oats.[56][65]

In human culture

In his 1755 Dictionary of the English Language, Samuel Johnson defined oats as "A grain, which in England is generally given to horses, but in Scotland supports the people."[66]

"Oats and Beans and Barley Grow" is the first line of a traditional folksong (1380 in the Roud Folk Song Index), recorded in different forms from 1870. Similar songs are recorded from France, Canada, Belgium, Sweden, and Italy.[67]

In English, oats are associated with sexual intercourse, as in the idioms "sowing one's (wild) oats", meaning having many sexual partners in one's youth,[68] and "getting your oats", meaning having sex regularly.[69]

References

  1. ^ Soreng, Robert J.; Peterson, Paul M.; Romaschenko, Konstantin; Davidse, Gerrit; Teisher, Jordan K.; Clark, Lynn G.; et al. (2017). "A worldwide phylogenetic classification of the Poaceae (Gramineae) II: An update and a comparison of two 2015 classifications". Journal of Systematics and Evolution. 55 (4): 259–290. doi:10.1111/jse.12262. hdl:10261/240149.
  2. ^ Burger, Jutta C.; Chapman, Mark A.; Burke, John M. (2008). "Molecular insights into the evolution of crop plants". American Journal of Botany. 95 (2): 113–122. doi:10.3732/ajb.95.2.113. PMID 21632337. S2CID 8521495.
  3. ^ a b c Zhou, X.; Jellen, E.N.; Murphy, J.P. (1999). "Progenitor germplasm of domesticated hexaploid oat". Crop Science. 39 (4): 1208–1214. doi:10.2135/cropsci1999.0011183x003900040042x. PMID 21632337. S2CID 8521495.
  4. ^ Fu, Yong-Bi (2018). "Oat evolution revealed in the maternal lineages of 25 Avena species". Scientific Reports. 8 (1): 4252. Bibcode:2018NatSR...8.4252F. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-22478-4. PMC 5844911. PMID 29523798.
  5. ^ a b Nan, Jinsheng; Ling, Yu; An, Jianghong; Wang, Ting; Chai, Mingna; Fu, Jun; Wang, Gaochao; Yang, Cai; Yang, Yan; Han, Bing (2022-12-28). "Genome resequencing reveals independent domestication and breeding improvement of naked oat". GigaScience. 12. doi:10.1093/gigascience/giad061. PMC 10390318. PMID 37524540.
  6. ^ Weiss, Ehud; Kislev, Mordechai E.; Hartmann, Anat (2006-06-16). "Autonomous Cultivation Before Domestication". Science. 312 (5780): 1608–1610. doi:10.1126/science.1127235. PMID 16778044.
  7. ^ a b c "Avena sativa: Common oat". Royal Botanic Gardens Kew. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
  8. ^ Arendt, Elke K.; Zannini, Emanuele (2013). "Oats". Cereal Grains for the Food and Beverage Industries. Elsevier. p. 243–283e. doi:10.1533/9780857098924.243. ISBN 978-0-85709-413-1.
  9. ^ Bliss, Rosalie Marion. "Hardy Oats Stand the Cold". USDA Agricultural Research Service. Retrieved 21 July 2024.
  10. ^ "Oat Growth Guide" (PDF). Quaker. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
  11. ^ Forsberg, Robert A. (1995). The Oat Crop. Suffolk: Chapman & Hall. pp. 223–224. ISBN 978-0-412-37310-7.
  12. ^ "Oats: weeds and integrated weed management". Government of Western Australia. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
  13. ^ Pratap, Aditya; Kumar, Jitendra (2014). Alien Gene Transfer in Crop Plants. Vol. 2 : Achievements and impacts. New York, NY: Springer Science+Business Media. p. 51. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-9572-7. ISBN 978-1-4614-9571-0. LCCN 2013957869. OCLC 870451823. S2CID 26278759. ISBN 978-1-4614-9572-7.
  14. ^ Nazareno, Eric S.; Li, Feng; Smith, Madeleine; Park, Robert F.; Kianian, Shahryar F.; Figueroa, Melania (May 2018). "Puccinia coronata f. sp. avenae : a threat to global oat production". Molecular Plant Pathology. 19 (5): 1047–1060. doi:10.1111/mpp.12608. PMC 6638059. PMID 28846186.
  15. ^ "Oat crown rust". Cereal Disease Laboratory. United States Department of Agriculture| Agricultural Research Service. 18 April 2008. Retrieved 15 November 2015.
  16. ^ Decker, Eric A.; Rose, Devin J.; Stewart, Derek (2014). "Processing of oats and the impact of processing operations on nutrition and health benefits". British Journal of Nutrition. 112 (S2): S58–S64. doi:10.1017/S000711451400227X. PMID 25267246.
  17. ^ Galvin, Meg; Romine, Stepfanie (2011). The SparkPeople Cookbook. Carlsbad, California: Hay House. p. 98. ISBN 978-1-4019-3132-2. OCLC 709682714.
  18. ^ a b "Oats production in 2022, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists)". UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT). 2024. Retrieved 29 May 2024.
  19. ^ Webster, Francis (2016). Oats. Elsevier Science. pp. 1–10. ISBN 978-0-12-810452-1.
  20. ^ "Oats". Deposits.org. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
  21. ^ a b c d Marone, Marina; Singh, Harmeet; Pozniak, Curtis (2022). "A technical guide to TRITEX, a computational pipeline for chromosome-scale sequence assembly of plant genomes". Plant Methods. 18 (128). BioMed Central: 128. doi:10.1186/s13007-022-00964-1. ISSN 1746-4811. PMC 9719158. PMID 36461065. S2CID 254152395.
  22. ^ Park, R. F.; Boshoff, W. H. P.; Cabral, A. L.; Chong, J.; Martinelli, J. A.; McMullen, M. S.; et al. (2022). "Breeding oat for resistance to the crown rust pathogen Puccinia coronata f. sp. avenae: achievements and prospects". Theoretical and Applied Genetics. 135 (11): 3709–3734. doi:10.1007/s00122-022-04121-z. PMC 9729147. PMID 35665827. S2CID 249381794. RFP ORCID 0000-0002-9145-5371.
  23. ^ Latta, Robert G.; Bekele, Wubishet A.; Wight, Charlene P.; Tinker, Nicholas A. (23 August 2019). "Comparative linkage mapping of diploid, tetraploid, and hexaploid Avena species suggests extensive chromosome rearrangement in ancestral diploids". Scientific Reports. 9 (1): 12298. Bibcode:2019NatSR...912298L. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-48639-7. PMC 6707241. PMID 31444367. S2CID 201283146. CPW ORCID 0000-0003-1410-5631.
  24. ^ Kole, Chittaranjan, ed. (2020). Genomic Designing of Climate-Smart Cereal Crops. pp. 133–169. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-93381-8. ISBN 978-3-319-93380-1. S2CID 211554462.
  25. ^ Yan, Honghai; Martin, Sara L.; Bekele, Wubishet A.; Latta, Robert G.; Diederichsen, Axel; Peng, Yuanying; Tinker, Nicholas A. (2016-01-17). "Genome size variation in the genus Avena". Genome. 59 (3): 209–220. doi:10.1139/gen-2015-0132. hdl:1807/71262. PMID 26881940. S2CID 22267641.
  26. ^ Kamal, Nadia; Tsardakas Renhuldt, Nikos; Bentzer, Johan; Gundlach, Heidrun; Haberer, Georg; Juhász, Angéla; et al. (2022-06-01). "The mosaic oat genome gives insights into a uniquely healthy cereal crop". Nature. 606 (7912): 113–119. Bibcode:2022Natur.606..113K. doi:10.1038/s41586-022-04732-y. ISSN 1476-4687. PMC 9159951. PMID 35585233. S2CID 248890897.
  27. ^ Ye, Chu-Yu; Fan, Longjiang (2021). "Orphan Crops and their Wild Relatives in the Genomic Era". Molecular Plant. 14 (1): 27–39. doi:10.1016/j.molp.2020.12.013. PMID 33346062. S2CID 229342158.
  28. ^ Maughan, Peter J.; Lee, Rebekah; Walstead, Rachel; Vickerstaff, Robert J.; Fogarty, Melissa C.; Brouwer, Cory R.; et al. (22 November 2019). "Genomic insights from the first chromosome-scale assemblies of oat (Avena spp.) diploid species". BMC Biology. 17 (1): 92. doi:10.1186/s12915-019-0712-y. PMC 6874827. PMID 31757219. S2CID 208225185.
  29. ^ Park, R.; Boshoff, W.; Cabral, A.; Chong, J.; Martinelli, J.; McMullen, M.; et al. (2022). "Breeding oat for resistance to the crown rust pathogen Puccinia coronata f. sp. avenae: achievements and prospects". Theoretical and Applied Genetics. Breeding towards Agricultural Sustainability. 135 (11). Springer Science and Business Media: 3709–3734. doi:10.1007/s00122-022-04121-z. ISSN 0040-5752. PMC 9729147. PMID 35665827. S2CID 249381794.
  30. ^ Thondehaalmath, Tejas; Kulaar, Dilsher Singh; Bondada, Ramesh; Maruthachalam, Ravi (2021). "Understanding and exploiting uniparental genome elimination in plants: insights from Arabidopsis thaliana". Journal of Experimental Botany. 72 (13): 4646–4662. doi:10.1093/jxb/erab161. PMID 33851980. S2CID 242417200. RB ORCID 0000-0002-8869-1947. RM ORCID 0000-0003-0036-3330.
  31. ^ Kynast, Ralf G.; Riera-Lizarazu, Oscar; Vales, M. Isabel; Okagaki, Ron J.; Maquieira, Silvia B.; Chen, Gang; et al. (2001). "A complete set of maize individual chromosome additions to the oat genome". Plant Physiology. 125 (3): 1216–1227. doi:10.1104/pp.125.3.1216. ISSN 0032-0889. PMC 65602. PMID 11244103. S2CID 22852580.
  32. ^ Ishii, Takayoshi (2017). "Wide Hybridization Between Oat and Pearl Millet". Oat. Methods in Molecular Biology. Vol. 1536. New York: Springer New York. pp. 31–42. doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-6682-0_3. ISBN 978-1-4939-6680-6. ISSN 1064-3745. PMID 28132141. S2CID 23707249.
  33. ^ Halford, Nigel G. (2019-01-15). "Legislation governing genetically modified and genome-edited crops in Europe: the need for change". Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 99 (1): 8–12. Bibcode:2019JSFA...99....8H. doi:10.1002/jsfa.9227. ISSN 0022-5142. PMC 6492171. PMID 29952140.
  34. ^ Riaz, Adnan; Hathorn, Adrian; Dinglasan, Eric; Ziems, Laura; Richard, Cecile; Singh, Dharmendra; et al. (2016). "Into the vault of the Vavilov wheats: old diversity for new alleles". Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution. 64 (3). Springer Science and Business Media: 531–544. doi:10.1007/s10722-016-0380-5. ISSN 0925-9864. S2CID 254499298.
  35. ^ Montilla-Bascón, G.; Sánchez-Martín, J.; Rispail, N.; Rubiales, D.; Mur, L.; Langdon, T.; et al. (2013). "Genetic Diversity and Population Structure Among Oat Cultivars and Landraces". Plant Molecular Biology Reporter. 31 (6). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 1305–1314. doi:10.1007/s11105-013-0598-8. eISSN 1572-9818. hdl:10261/95010. ISSN 0735-9640. S2CID 18581328.
  36. ^ "Oat and barley ß-glucans" (PDF). Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Government of Canada. 1 August 2008. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-05-13. Retrieved 27 July 2019.
  37. ^ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". FDA. Archived from the original on 2024-03-27. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
  38. ^ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). "Chapter 4: Potassium: Dietary Reference Intakes for Adequacy". In Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US). pp. 120–121. doi:10.17226/25353. ISBN 978-0-309-48834-1. PMID 30844154. Retrieved 2024-12-05.
  39. ^ a b Whitehead, Anne; Beck, Eleanor J.; Tosh, Susan; Wolever, Thomas M.S. (2014). "Cholesterol-lowering effects of oat β-glucan: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 100 (6): 1413–1421. doi:10.3945/ajcn.114.086108. PMC 5394769. PMID 25411276.
  40. ^ a b c Llanaj, Erand; Dejanovic, Gordana M.; Valido, Ezra; Bano, Arjola; Gamba, Magda; Kastrati, Lum; et al. (June 2022). "Effect of oat supplementation interventions on cardiovascular disease risk markers: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials". European Journal of Nutrition. 61 (4): 1749–1778. doi:10.1007/s00394-021-02763-1. PMC 9106631. PMID 34977959.
  41. ^ "Title 21--Chapter 1, Subchapter B, Part 101 - Food labeling - Specific Requirements for Health Claims, Section 101.81: Health claims: Soluble fiber from certain foods and risk of coronary heart disease". US Department of Health and Human Services, Food and Drug Administration. 1 April 2015. Retrieved 10 November 2015.
  42. ^ "Quaker Oats History". Quaker Oats Company. Retrieved 20 July 2024.
  43. ^ Hitchens, Antonia (6 August 2018). "Hey, Where's my oat milk?". The New Yorker. Retrieved 10 December 2018.
  44. ^ Watson, Elaine (25 September 2020). "Oatmilk edges past soymilk for #2 slot in US plant-based milk retail market". William Reed Business Media. Retrieved 20 December 2020.
  45. ^ Graves, Carwyn (4 December 2022). "Food Tales from Wales". Nation.Cymru. Retrieved 23 July 2024.
  46. ^ "Beer Judge Certification Program". BJCP. Retrieved 20 March 2024.
  47. ^ Smith, Eliza (1739). The Compleat Housewife. p. 169.
  48. ^ Albala, Ken (2003). Food in Early Modern Europe. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-313-31962-6.
  49. ^ "Oats: The Perfect Horse Feed?". Kentucky Equine Research. 2003-12-29. Retrieved 2023-06-20.
  50. ^ Heuzé, Valérie; Tran, Gilles; Boudon, Anne; Lebas, François (2016). "Oat forage". Feedipedia. Institut national de la recherche agronomique, CIRAD, Association Française de Zootechnie and FAO. Retrieved 27 March 2023.
  51. ^ "Grazing of Oat Pastures". eXtension. 2008-02-11. Archived from the original on 2017-11-23. Retrieved 2013-03-27.
  52. ^ "Alternative Bedding Materials". Farm Advisory Service. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
  53. ^ "Lancashire fringe (corn dolly)". University of Reading. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
  54. ^ Barbano, Paul (18 March 2020). "Since prehistoric times oat grass has been a major source of food for animals and humans". Cape Gazette. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
  55. ^ a b Biesiekierski, J.R. (2017). "What is gluten?". Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology (Review). 32 (Supplement 1): 78–81. doi:10.1111/jgh.13703. PMID 28244676. S2CID 6493455. Similar proteins to the gliadin found in wheat exist as secalin in rye, hordein in barley, and avenins in oats and are collectively referred to as "gluten." Derivatives of these grains such as triticale and malt and other ancient wheat varieties such as spelt and kamut also contain gluten. The gluten found in all of these grains has been identified as the component capable of triggering the immune-mediated disorder, coeliac disease.Open access icon
  56. ^ a b c La Vieille, Sébastien; Pulido, Olga M.; Abbott, Michael; Koerner, Terence B.; Godefroy, Samuel (2016). "Celiac Disease and Gluten-Free Oats: A Canadian Position Based on a Literature Review". Canadian Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology. 2016: 1–10. doi:10.1155/2016/1870305. PMC 4904695. PMID 27446825.
  57. ^ a b c Comino, Isabel; Moreno, Mde L.; Sousa, C. (2015). "Role of oats in celiac disease". World Journal of Gastroenterology. 21 (41): 11825–11831. doi:10.3748/wjg.v21.i41.11825. ISSN 1007-9327. PMC 4631980. PMID 26557006.
  58. ^ Fric, Premysl; Gabrovska, Dana; Nevoral, Jiri (2011). "Celiac disease, gluten-free diet, and oats: Nutrition Reviews©, Vol. 69, No. 2". Nutrition Reviews. 69 (2): 107–115. doi:10.1111/j.1753-4887.2010.00368.x. PMID 21294744.
  59. ^ Tovoli, Francesco (2015). "Clinical and diagnostic aspects of gluten related disorders". World Journal of Clinical Cases. 3 (3): 275–284. doi:10.12998/wjcc.v3.i3.275. ISSN 2307-8960. PMC 4360499. PMID 25789300.
  60. ^ Lamacchia, Carmela; Camarca, Alessandra; Picascia, Stefania; Di Luccia, Aldo; Gianfrani, Carmen (2014-01-29). "Cereal-Based Gluten-Free Food: How to Reconcile Nutritional and Technological Properties of Wheat Proteins with Safety for Celiac Disease Patients". Nutrients. 6 (2): 575–590. doi:10.3390/nu6020575. PMC 3942718. PMID 24481131.
  61. ^ Penagini, Francesca; Dilillo, Dario; Meneghin, Fabio; Mameli, Chiara; Fabiano, Valentina; Zuccotti, Gian (2013-11-18). "Gluten-Free Diet in Children: An Approach to a Nutritionally Adequate and Balanced Diet". Nutrients. 5 (11): 4553–4565. doi:10.3390/nu5114553. PMC 3847748. PMID 24253052.
  62. ^ de Souza, M. Cristina P.; Deschênes, Marie-Eve; Laurencelle, Suzanne; Godet, Patrick; Roy, Claude C.; Djilali-Saiah, Idriss (2016). "Pure Oats as Part of the Canadian Gluten-Free Diet in Celiac Disease: The Need to Revisit the Issue". Canadian Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology. 2016: 1–8. doi:10.1155/2016/1576360. PMC 4904650. PMID 27446824.
  63. ^ Sontag-Strohm, Tuula; Lehtinen, Pekka; Kaukovirta-Norja, Anu (2008). "Oat products and their current status in the celiac diet". Gluten-Free Cereal Products and Beverages. Elsevier. pp. 191–202. doi:10.1016/b978-012373739-7.50010-1. ISBN 978-0-12-373739-7.
  64. ^ Pinto-Sánchez, María Inés; Causada-Calo, Natalia; Bercik, Premysl; Ford, Alexander C.; Murray, Joseph A.; Armstrong, David; et al. (2017). "Safety of Adding Oats to a Gluten-Free Diet for Patients With Celiac Disease: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Clinical and Observational Studies". Gastroenterology. 153 (2): 395–409.e3. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2017.04.009. PMID 28431885.
  65. ^ Ciacci, Carolina; Ciclitira, Paul; Hadjivassiliou, Marios; Kaukinen, Katri; Ludvigsson, Jonas F.; McGough, Norma; et al. (2015). "The gluten-free diet and its current application in coeliac disease and dermatitis herpetiformis". United European Gastroenterology Journal. 3 (2): 121–135. doi:10.1177/2050640614559263. PMC 4406897. PMID 25922672.
  66. ^ Johnson, Samuel (1755). "Oats". Samuel Johnson's Dictionary Online. Retrieved 20 July 2024.
  67. ^ "Oats and Beans and Barley Grows". Joe-offer.com. Archived from the original on 18 September 2015. Retrieved 3 May 2024.
  68. ^ "sow one's (wild) oats: idiom". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 3 May 2024.
  69. ^ "to get your oats". Collins. Retrieved 3 May 2024.
source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oat

    by Robert Payne

    Follow me opinions Website

    Related Posts