FAIR and interactive data graphics from a scientific knowledge graph

Social ecology studies relationships between people and their environment, often the interdependence of people, collectives and institutions. It is the concept of how people interact with their surroundings, how they respond to it, and how these interactions impact society and the environment at large.^[1] Evolving out of biological ecology, human ecology, systems theory and ecological psychology, social ecology takes a “broad, interdisciplinary perspective that gives greater attention to the social, psychological, institutional, and cultural contexts of people-environment relations than did earlier versions of human ecology.”^[2] The concept has been employed to study a diverse array of social problems and policies within the behavioural and social sciences.^[3]

Social ecologists examine the larger picture of our "system" by examining how individuals, collectives, and institutions interact and depend on one another. This perspective enables a more efficient method of addressing the collective issues facing society^[4][5]

As described by Stokols,^[6] the core principles of social ecology include:

• Multidimensional structure of human environments—physical & social, natural & built features; objective-material as well as perceived-symbolic (or semiotic); virtual & place-based features
• Cross-disciplinary, multi-level, contextual analyses of people-environment relationships spanning proximal and distal scales (from narrow to broad spatial, sociocultural, and temporal scope)
• Systems principles, especially feedback loops, interdependence of system elements, anticipating unintended side effects of public policies and environmental interventions
• Translation of theory and research findings into community interventions and public policies
• Privileging and combining both academic and non-academic perspectives, including scientists and academicians, lay citizens and community stakeholder groups, business leaders and other professional groups, and government decision makers.
• Transdisciplinary values and orientation, synthesizing concepts and methods from different fields that pertain to particular research topics.^[7]

American environmental activist Murray Bookchin introduced the idea of social ecology.^[5] He makes the case that environmentalists should be less concerned with addressing the idea that humans can and should manage nature, and more with focusing on the specific symptoms of a problem^[5][8] Social ecology was built on top of this philosophy. According to Bookchin, society's divisions are detrimental to it as a whole. Human-made hierarchies are the root cause of all social and environmental problems and dysfunctions in human society.^[9] Bookchin thought that society and life should be viewed as an ecosystem, where all the components are equally vital to a stable, healthy, and sustainable environment, as opposed to a hierarchy^[10]

Murray Bookchin contends that rather than existing outside of nature, humans is a part of it. Bookchin distinguished between two types of nature: the first, or biotic, and the second, or human.^[11] For Bookchin, nature in its whole is an ever-evolving evolutionary process rather than a static condition like a breathtaking panorama.^[12] Not only the human organism but also human civilization is the product of this continuous evolutionary endeavor.^[11] It is not the intention of human reason or social structure to be freak mutations apart from the rest of nature. Rather, they are designed to interact with nature and advance its evolution in ways that other species cannot.^[13] Humans can assume their proper place in the ecosystem if the desire for supremacy is subdued.^[14] In a nutshell, Bookchin lays out the fundamental political framework that would enable this: a global order devoid of nation states, where political life is centered around towns linked by weak institutions that forbid them from taking advantage of one another.^[11] These municipalities would foster a real type of citizenship where the barriers between individual and group interests, as well as between human and ecological interests, would be eliminated. They would also naturally become part of their local ecosystems.^[11]

Bookchin's main advantage is that he provides strong arguments for why people should care about ecology in addition to self-preservation.^[11] The idea of "biocentrism," which prioritizes the needs of the environment over human needs and views humans as having equal value with non humans, and "anthropocentrism," which places an absolute emphasis on human interests, are two main points of contention in environmental ethics.^[15] Biocentrism is predicated on the idea that humans and the rest of nature are identical, whereas anthropocentrism is predicated on the idea that humans are superior to and distinct from nature.^[5] According to Bookchin, although being distinct from the rest of nature, people are nevertheless an essential component of it.^[5] Thus, in his opinion, neither biocentrism nor anthropocentrism is sufficient.^[11] This is particularly fascinating because it eliminates any notions that humans is completely separated from the natural world, allowing humanity to still recognize something unique about itself and find value in civilization and technological advancement. It also instills a sense of duty towards the natural world.^[11]

It is thought that if these values are applied to every aspect of society, there will be more equality and cooperation and hierarchies won't determine who wins and who loses.^[5] An essential component of a competent social worker's perspective is appreciating the significance of each "piece" to the system as a whole.^[16]

Social ecology promotes autonomous individual communities built on mutual assistance and cooperation. But Bookchin set himself apart from communalism by stressing decentralization and participatory democracy.^[17] This democratic deliberation purposefully promotes autonomy and self-reliance, as opposed to centralized state politics^[18]

Social class and power dynamics are the main lenses through which social ecology views society. Bookchin, however, took issue with Marxism's primary focus on economic inequality and its disregard for ecological issues.^[19]

Concern for the environment and the necessity of sustainable practices are shared by social ecology and environmentalism. But social ecology goes beyond conventional environmentalism, contending that social problems such as inequality, dominance, and hierarchy cannot be solved in a vacuum when it comes to ecological issues.^[20]

Deep ecology and social ecology promote a biocentric worldview and highlight the inherent value of nature. Bookchin, however, criticizes deep ecology for frequently focusing on individualistic solutions rather than taking into account the social causes of environmental problems.^[21]

Anarchism and social ecology are both movements that support individual and collective autonomy while criticizing hierarchical power structures.^[22] Bookchin, however, was not in agreement with many anarchists regarding the significance of democratic decision-making and social organization.

Several academic programs combine a broad definition of “environmental studies” with analyses of social processes, biological considerations, and the physical environment. A number of social ecology degree-granting programs and research institutes shape the global evolution of the social ecological paradigm. For example, see:

• College of the Atlantic
• UC Irvine School of Social Ecology
• Yale School of Forestry & Environmental Studies
• Cornell University College of Human Ecology
• New York University, Environmental Education
• The Institute for Social Ecology in Plainfield, VT
• The Institute for Social-Ecological Research, Frankfurt
• Institute of Social Ecology, Vienna
• Stockholm Resilience Centre

Most of the 120 listed programs at the link below are in human ecology, but many overlap with social ecology:

• Society for Human Ecology list of programs and institutions

• Social ecology (Bookchin)
• Social ecological model
• Ecology
• Environmental stewardship

• Conceptual social ecology
• Google scholar search on social ecological systems
• Article on expansion of social ecological systems science