Effects of the storage conditions on the stability of natural and synthetic cannabis in biological matrices for forensic toxicology analysis: An update from the literature
| Doi Suthep-Pui National Park | |
|---|---|
| อุทยานแห่งชาติดอยสุเทพ-ปุย | |
 Mae Sa waterfall | |
 | |
| Location | Chiang Mai Province, Thailand |
| Nearest city | Chiang Mai |
| Coordinates | 18°48′34″N 98°54′57″E / 18.80944°N 98.91583°E |
| Area | 257 km2 (99 sq mi) |
| Established | 14 April 1981[1] |
| Visitors | 328,659 (in 2019) |
| Governing body | Department of National Park, Wildlife and Plant Conservation (DNP) |
Doi Suthep–Pui National Park (Thai: อุทยานแห่งชาติดอยสุเทพ-ปุย) is a national park in Chiang Mai Province in Thailand. It includes Wat Phra That Doi Suthep, a Buddhist temple, and Bhubing Palace, the winter residence of the Thai royal family. The park is a protected area for flora, fauna, and habitat.[2]
History
The former name of the area is Doi Aoi Chang.[citation needed] The name Doi Suthep was inspired by a hermit named Prarusiwa Suthep who once lived in the local forest. In 1973, the Royal Forest Department proposed that this and 13 other forests be designated national parks. It became the 24th national park of Thailand when it was official established on 14 April 1981.[1] Today it includes 160,812 rai ~ 257 square kilometres (99 sq mi) of territory.[3]
Geography and climate
The mountainous landscape is part of the Thanon Thong Chai Range. The three main peaks are Doi Suthep, Doi Buak Ha, and Doi Pui, the latter of which is tallest at 1,685 metres (5,528 ft). The climate is cool, with an average temperature around 20 to 23 °C (68 to 73 °F). Low winter temperatures can reach 6 °C (43 °F). Late summer is the rainy season, with daily precipitation.[2]
Flora
More than 2,000 species of vascular plants have been documented in the national park.[1]
The park is forested, with evergreen forest above 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) and deciduous forest below. Mixed deciduous-evergreen forest occurs in gullies and along streams. Common trees include oaks, dipterocarps, and trees of the magnolia family.[2] There are many waterfalls.[4]
The forests in the park are divided into two main types of forests. Deciduous forests are found up to about 900-1,000 meters above sea level, while lower montane evergreen forests are found starting from about 900-1,000 meters above sea level.
The dipterocarp deciduous forest is primarily composed of Dipterocarpus tuberculatus, Dipterocarpus obtusifolius, Shorea siamensis, and Shorea obtusa. The oak species Quercus kerrii is also found in the deciduous forest. Other major non-dipterocarp tree species in the deciduous forest are Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Xylia xylocarpa, Terminalia mucronata, Terminalia alata, and Vitex peduncularis.[5][6]
The pine tree Pinus kesiya is found at higher elevations.
The montane evergreen forest primarily consists of Schima wallichii, Castanopsis acuminatissima, Castanopsis tribuloides, Magnolia baillonii, Magnolia garrettii, among other tree species. Tectona grandis and Cassia fistula used to be common, but are no longer widely found due to centuries of logging.[7][8]
Fungi
The park is home to diverse fungi species, many of which may be undescribed or have only been recently described.[9]
Fungi in the park primarily belong to the families Boletaceae, Agaricaceae and Russulaceae. A 2007 survey found 30 species of ascomycetes and 228 species of basidiomycetes in the forests surrounding Chiang Mai city.[10]
Different species and genera tend to occupy different ecological niches:[10]
- dry dipterocarp forests: Russula, Boletus, and Amanita
- wet dipterocarp forests: Amanita, Lactarius, and Russula
- pine forests: Lactarius and Amanita
- oak forests: Russula, Lactarius, Amanita, and Boletus
Mushrooms belonging to the genera Astraeus, Heimiella, Pterygellus, and Mycoamaranthus are also found in the park.[10]
Dozens of wild fungi species are locally harvested for human consumption. Mushrooms are often collected from dipterocarp forest floors during the rainy season from June to October. They include:[11][12]
| Species | Local Thai name |
|---|---|
| Amanita chepangiana | hed kai kao เห็ดไข่ขาว |
| Amanita hemibapha | hed kai luang เห็ดไข่เหลือง |
| Amanita princeps | hed kai kao เห็ดไข่ขาว |
| Astraeus hygrometricus | hed phor เห็ดเผาะ |
| Boletus firmus | hed nam pheung เห็ดน้ำผึ้ง |
| Cantharellus cibarius | hed kamin yai เห็ดขมิ้นใหญ่; hed mun pu yai |
| Cantharellus minor | hed kamin lek เห็ดขมิ้นเล็ก |
| Craterellus aureus | hef kamin luang krob เห็ดขมิ้นเหลืองกรอบ |
| Craterellus odoratus | hed kamin nang เห็ดขมิ้นหนัง |
| Heimiella retispora | hed pod maa |
| Heimiella subretispora | hed pod maa |
| Lactarius glaucescens | hed khaa |
| Lactarius piperatus | hed khing เห็ดขิง |
| Lactarius subpiperatus | |
| Lactarius volemus | hed faang เห็ดฟาง |
| Mycoamaranthus cambodgensis | hed kalum maa เห็ดกะหล่ำมา |
| Phaeogyroporus portentosus | hed haa |
| Pterygellus polymorphus (aff.) | |
| Russula alboareolata | hed nam paeng |
| Russula cyanoxantha | hed naa moi, hed nam maak |
| Russula densifolia | hed than lek |
| Russula lepida | hed daeng เห็ดแดง |
| Russula nigricans | hed than yai |
| Russula senecis | hed kor |
| Russula sp. | hed lom kao |
| Russula sp.1 | hed poong moo dam |
| Russula sp.2 (red) | hed daeng เห็ดแดง |
| Russula virescens | hed lom kra khiaw |
| Russula xerampelina | hed daeng luang เห็ดแดงเหลือง |
| Sinoboletus sp. | hed pod maa lek |
However, care must be taken to distinguish edible species from local poisonous species such as Amanita exitialis, Amanita fuliginea, Amanita fuligineoides, Amanita cf. virgineoides, Cantharocybe cf. gruberi, Chlorophyllum globosum, Chlorophyllum molybdites, Clitocybe sp., Coprinopsis lagopus, Entoloma cf. caespitosum, Entoloma cf. subclitocyboides, Inocybe sp., Megacollybia cf. fallax, Panaeolus cyanescens, Russula emetica,[13] Amanita gleocystidiosa, Cantharocybe virosa, and other poisonous species belonging to the genera Entoloma, Lactarius, and Tricholoma.[14]
Fauna
Animals in the park include the crocodile salamander (Tylototriton verrucosus). Mammals include the common muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak) and wild boar (Sus scrofa). More than 300 species of birds have been recorded in the area, including pheasants, eagles, parrots, bulbuls and minivets.[2][15]
Mammals
Small mammals found in the lower montane evergreen forest include the ferret-badger (Melogale personata), ground squirrel (Menetes berdmorei), noisy rat (Leopoldamys sabanus), lesser short-nosed fruit bat (Cynopterus brachyotis), while small mammals found in the deciduous forest include the common tree shrew (Tupaia glis), Burmese striped squirrel (Tamiops mcclellandii), belly-banded squirrel (Callosciurus flavimanus), white-bellied flying squirrel (Petinomys setosus), chestnut white-bellied rat (Niviventer fulvescens), yellow rajah rat (Maxomys surifer), root rat (Rattus rattus), and dark-tailed subspecies of Bower's white-toothed rat (Berylmys bowersi bowersi).[7]
Frugivorous mammals in the park include Pallas's squirrel (Callosciurus erythraeus), red-cheeked squirrel (Dremomys rufigenis), Phayre's flying squirrel (Hylopetes phayrei), Burmese striped squirrel (Tamiops mcclellandii), northern treeshrew (Tupaia belangeri), common palm civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus), masked palm civet (Paguma larvata), and northern pig-tailed macaque (Macaca leonina).[16]
Other small mammals found in the park are Rattus tanezumi, Rattus exulans, Rhizomys pruinosus, Hylomys suillus,[which?] and Crocidura vorax.[17]
Birds
Frugivorous birds include the black-crested bulbul (Pycnonotus flaviventris), mountain bulbul (Ixos mcclellandii), puff-throated bulbul (Alophoixus pallidus), and ashy bulbul (Hemixos flavala).[16]
In the Monthathan Waterfall area, bird species include:
- Top canopy: red-billed blue magpie (Urocissa erythroryncha), Eurasian jay (Garrulus glandarius), coppersmith barbet (Psilopogon haemacephalus), great barbet (Psilopogon virens), rosy minivet (Pericrocotus roseus), Asian paradise flycatcher (Terpsiphone paradisi)
- Middle canopy: bronzed drongo (Dicrurus aeneus), golden-fronted leafbird (Chloropsis aurifrons), red-whiskered bulbul (Pycnonotus jocosus), sooty-headed bulbul (Pycnonotus aurigaster), black-crested bulbul (Rubigula flaviventris), ashy woodswallow (Artamus fuscus), little green bee-eater (Merops orientalis)
- Lower canopy: white-crested laughingthrush (Garrulax leucolophus), lesser necklaced laughingthrush (Garrulax monileger), emerald dove (Chalcophaps indica), blue whistling thrush (Myophonus caeruleus), scaly-breasted partridge (Tropicoperdix chloropus), grey wagtail (Motacilla cinerea), white wagtail (Motacilla alba)
Reptiles and amphibians
Reptiles in the park include Platysternon megacephalum, Calotes emma alticristata, Pseudocalotes kakhienensis, Pseudocalotes microlepis, Gekko gecko, Ptychozoon kaengkrachanense, Tropidophorus thai, and the recently described gecko species Cyrtodactylus doisuthep.[18] Other reptiles reported from the park include the Rough-bellied Mountain Dragon (Acanthosaura lepidogaster), Green Keelback (Rhabdophis nigrocinctus), Reeve's Smooth Skink (Scincella reevesii), Assam Mountain Snake (Plagiopholis nuchalis), Berdmore's Water Skink (Tropidophorus berdmorei), Speckled Forest Skink (Eutropis macularia), Khasi Hills Keelback (Hebius khasiense), Burmese False Bloodsucker (Pseudocalotes microlepis), Sphenomorphus spp., and Scincella spp.[19]
Reptile and amphibian species vary according to elevation.[20] Frog species inhabiting mountainous streams include Amolops marmoratus, Limnonectes taylori, Sylvirana nigrovittata, and Odorrana chloronota.[21] The Doi Suthep caecilian (Ichthyophis youngorum) is named after Doi Suthep. The Dwarf Bush Frog (Philautus parvulus) and Limborg's Frog (Limnonectes limborgi) have also been reported from the park.[19]
Invertebrates
Thousands of insect species are found in the park, including 561 species of butterflies.[22]
Recreation
Activities in the park include walking and hiking, cycling, camping, tours of caves, waterfalls, and other features, observation of plants, birds, and butterflies, cultural and historical sightseeing, and stargazing.[4]
Location
| Doi Suthep–Pui National Park in overview PARO 16 (Chiang Mai) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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See also
References
- ^ a b c Maxwell, J. F.; Elliott, Stephen (2001). Vegetation and Vascular Flora of Doi Sutep-Pui National Park, Northern Thailand (PDF). Bangkok: The Biodiversity Research and Training Program (BRT).
- ^ a b c d "Doi Suthep–Pui National Park". Department of National Parks (Thailand). Archived from the original on 22 May 2013. Retrieved 15 October 2013.
- ^ ข้อมูลพื้นที่อุทยานแห่งชาติ ที่ประกาศในราชกิจจานุบกษา 133 แห่ง [National Park Area Information published in the 133 Government Gazettes]. Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plant Conservation (in Thai). December 2020. Retrieved 1 November 2022, no 24
- ^ a b c "National Parks in Thailand: Doi Suthep–Pui National Park" (PDF). Department of National Parks (Thailand). pp. 30–31. Retrieved 24 May 2017.
- ^ Khamyong, Nuttaluck, Prasit Wangpakapattanawong, Sutthathorn Chairuangsri, Angkhana Inta, and Pimonrat Tiansawat (2018). Tree Species Composition and Height-diameter Allometry of Three Forest Types in Northern Thailand. CMU J. Nat. Sci. (2018) Vol. 17(4).
- ^ Yarnvudhi, Arerut, Sarawood Sungkaew, Sutheera Hermhuk, Pasuta Sunthornhao, Surin Onprom (2016). Plant Diversity and Utilization on Ethnobotany of Local People at Hmong Doi Pui Village in Doi Suthep-Pui National Park, Chiang Mai Province. Thai J. For. 35(3): 136-146 (2016).
- ^ a b Putiyanan, Somporn and J.F. Maxwell (2006). Survey and Herbarium Specimens of Medicinal Vascular Flora of Doi Suthep-Pui. CMU Journal (2006) Vol. 5(2).
- ^ Marod, Dokrak, Sarawood Sangkaew, Aumporn Panmongkol, Atchara Jingjai (2014). Influences of Environmental Factors on Tree Distribution of Lower Montane Evergreen Forest at Doi Sutep-Pui National Park, Chiang Mai Province. Thai J. For. 33 (3) : 23-33 (2014).
- ^ Hyde, Kevin D.; Norphanphoun, Chada; Chen, Jie; Dissanayake, Asha J.; Doilom, Mingkwan; Hongsanan, Sinang; Jayawardena, Ruvishika S.; Jeewon, Rajesh; Perera, Rekhani H.; Thongbai, Benjarong; Wanasinghe, Dhanushka N.; Wisitrassameewong, Komsit; Tibpromma, Saowaluck; Stadler, Marc (2018). "Thailand's amazing diversity: up to 96% of fungi in northern Thailand may be novel". Fungal Diversity. 93 (1). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 215–239. doi:10.1007/s13225-018-0415-7. ISSN 1560-2745. S2CID 53812663.
- ^ a b c Sirisak BUTKRACHANG, Ekkarat BOONCHIENG, Uraporn SARDSUD, Morakot SUKCHOTIRATANA, Abhinya PLIKOMOL, Griangsak CHAIROTE and Pitoon NARONGCHAI. Wild Mushroom Database of Chiang Mai Community Forest. Asian Journal of Biology Education Vol. 3 (2007).
- ^ Sanmee, R (2003). "Nutritive value of popular wild edible mushrooms from northern Thailand". Food Chemistry. 82 (4). Elsevier BV: 527–532. doi:10.1016/s0308-8146(02)00595-2. ISSN 0308-8146.
- ^ Dell B, Sanmee R, Lumyong P and Lumyong S. Ectomycorrhizal fungi in dry and wet dipterocarp forests in northern Thailand - diversity and use as food.
- ^ Sittiporn Parnmen; Sujitra Sikaphan; Siriwan Leudang; Nattaphong Nantachaiphong; Chutimon Uttawichai; Sudarat Juntaporn; Kornchanok Porntaweesuk; Dutsadee Polputpisatkul; Panisa Getn-gern; Apiwat Tawatsin; Sathaporn Ramchiun (2016). "Poisonous Mushrooms of Thailand". Field Museum. Field Museum Field Guides.
- ^ TAWATSIN, Apiwat et al. Mushroom Poisoning in Thailand: Incidence and Intoxication to Human Health. Medical Research Archives, [S.l.], v. 6, n. 9, sep. 2018. ISSN 2375-1924. Date accessed: 18 Sep. 2021.
- ^ Elliot, Stephan; Cubitt, Gerald (2001). THE NATIONAL PARKS and other Wild Places of THAILAND. New Holland Publishers (UK) Ltd. pp. 72–77. ISBN 978-1-85974-886-2.
- ^ a b Rueangket, Apisada, Prateep Duengkaea, Sathid Thinkhampang, Dokrak Marod (2019). Utilization of fruit by frugivores in lower montane forest at Doi Suthep-Pui National Park, Chiang Mai province Archived 2020-09-02 at the Wayback Machine. Agr. Nat. Resour. 53 (2019) 457–464.
- ^ Saosoong, Sutasinee, Prateep Duengkae1, and Dokrak Marod (2014). Species diversity and abundance of small mammals in hill evergreen forest at Doi Suthep-Pui National Park, Chiang Mai Province. Journal of Wildlife in Thailand Vol.21 No.1 2014.
- ^ Kunya, Kirati, Aumporn Panmongkol, Olivier S. G. Pauwels, Montri Sumontha, Jiraporn Meewasana, Woraphot Bunkhwamdi & Siriwat Dangsri. 2014. A New Forest-Dwelling Bent-toed Gecko (Squamata: Gekkonidae: Cyrtodactylus) from Doi Suthep, Chiang Mai Province, northern Thailand. Zootaxa. 3811(2): 251–261. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.3811.2.6
- ^ a b Hakim, Jonathan (2014). Doi Suthep. Reptiles and Amphibians of Thailand.
- ^ "Doi Suthep from top to bottom". Field Herp Forum. 2010-06-07. Retrieved 2021-12-26.
- ^ Hakim, Jonathan (2016). A night on Doi Suthep. Reptiles and Amphibians of Thailand.
- ^ Inayoshi, Y. & A. Giudici. Basic list of Butterflies in Chiang Mai province, Thailand.
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