• Table of Contents
    {"ID":89932,"post_author":"26","post_date":"2023-03-21 12:05:03","post_date_gmt":"2023-03-21 16:05:03","post_content":"","post_title":"The Complete Guide to LIMS and Laboratory Informatics","post_excerpt":"","post_status":"publish","comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","post_password":"","post_name":"the-complete-guide-to-lims-and-laboratory-informatics","to_ping":"","pinged":"","post_modified":"2024-01-10 12:16:12","post_modified_gmt":"2024-01-10 17:16:12","post_content_filtered":"","post_parent":0,"guid":"https:\/\/www.limsforum.com\/?post_type=ebook&#038;p=89932","menu_order":0,"post_type":"ebook","post_mime_type":"","comment_count":"0","filter":"","holland":null,"_ebook_metadata":{"enabled":"on","private":"0","guid":"19EBE158-AB5E-459D-AAB5-E80061AA9A71","title":"The Complete Guide to LIMS and Laboratory Informatics","subtitle":"2024 Edition","cover_theme":"nico_21","cover_image":"https:\/\/www.limsforum.com\/wp-content\/plugins\/rdp-ebook-builder\/pl\/cover.php?cover_style=nico_21&subtitle=2024+Edition&editor=Shawn+Douglas&title=The+Complete+Guide+to+LIMS+and+Laboratory+Informatics&title_image=https%3A%2F%2Fs3.limsforum.com%2Fwww.limsforum.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2FFig3_Liscouski_SciStudGuideLabInfo23.png&publisher=LabLynx+Press","editor":"Shawn Douglas","publisher":"LabLynx Press","author_id":"26","image_url":"https:\/\/s3.limsforum.com\/www.limsforum.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/Biomedical_Engineering_Laboratory.jpg","items":{"b2ae5c9d1c1fbc17f89cfd4c92c2fb6e_type":"article","b2ae5c9d1c1fbc17f89cfd4c92c2fb6e_title":"Open-source laboratory informatics software","b2ae5c9d1c1fbc17f89cfd4c92c2fb6e_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics_software_(open_source)","b2ae5c9d1c1fbc17f89cfd4c92c2fb6e_plaintext":"\n\nLaboratory informatics software (open source)From LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchThis page exists as a complement to the category page Category:Laboratory informatics software (open source). Because category pages do not render in the book creator plug-in for this wiki, a separate page has been created to list the contents of the category page. \nLast updated January 2024.\n0\u20139\n\n3D Slicer\nA\n\nAI4Green\nB\n\nBASE\nBika LIMS\nC\n\nC4G BLIS\nCaisis\nCheminfo\nChemotion ELN\nClinViro\n\r\n\nD\n\nDcm4che3\nDicoogle\nE\n\nELabFTW\nElectronic Laboratory Notebook (GippLab software)\nG\n\nGalaxy (biomedical software)\nGNomEx\nGNU Health\nGNU LIMS\nI\n\nIndigo ELN\nIPath\nISkyLIMS\nISPyB\nITK\nJ\n\nJuliaBase\nJupyter Notebook\nK\n\nKalenis\nKNIME\nL\n\nLabKey Server\nLabStoRe\nLabTrove\nLabWiki\nLIMS for Dolibarr\nM\n\nMASTR-MS\nMetaLIMS\nMISO\nMyLabBook\nN\n\nNEMO\nNextGen Connect\nNotedELN\nNUcore\nO\n\nOpen enventory\nOpenBIS\nOpenChrom\nOpenClinic GA\nOpenClinica\nOpenELIS\nOpenEpi\nOpenMRS\nOpenSpecimen\nOsiriX\nP\n\nParkour\nS\n\nSciNote\nSciTran\nSENAITE\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics_software_(open_source)\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics_software_(open_source)<\/a>\nCategory: Open-source softwareNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 5 January 2024, at 19:53.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 5,068 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","b2ae5c9d1c1fbc17f89cfd4c92c2fb6e_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Laboratory_informatics_software_open_source rootpage-Laboratory_informatics_software_open_source skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Laboratory informatics software (open source)<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>This page exists as a complement to the category page <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Category:Laboratory_informatics_software_(open_source)\" title=\"Category:Laboratory informatics software (open source)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f24d9fe179ea3b951d9408c9871baee1\">Category:Laboratory informatics software (open source)<\/a>. Because category pages do not render in the book creator plug-in for this wiki, a separate page has been created to list the contents of the category page. \n<\/p><p><i>Last updated January 2024.<\/i>\n<\/p><p><b>0\u20139<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/3D_Slicer\" title=\"3D Slicer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43b64a4aa0f08300218472505e53703c\">3D Slicer<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><b>A<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/AI4Green\" title=\"AI4Green\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9ccbf092cd8068d15243cd15f0448100\">AI4Green<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><b>B<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/BASE\" title=\"BASE\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"36231d20d7206b3d9d0ca18dff0aac02\">BASE<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Bika_LIMS\" title=\"Bika LIMS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"daf3e2e28f594ad55c814ae802d43fcb\">Bika LIMS<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><b>C<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/C4G_BLIS\" title=\"C4G BLIS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bfa1af20f4a68dc928bd873f549e440e\">C4G BLIS<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Caisis\" title=\"Caisis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f1597c89e610cb842765bbe1344aede3\">Caisis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cheminfo\" title=\"Cheminfo\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"02d5da96fc39ea94937c7fef993f60e4\">Cheminfo<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chemotion_ELN\" title=\"Chemotion ELN\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"69d105f8f7c60427d4fe9a8f21a8019a\">Chemotion ELN<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ClinViro\" title=\"ClinViro\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b0b04f6f86788f0966853599743c210\">ClinViro<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><br \/>\n<b>D<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Dcm4che3\" title=\"Dcm4che3\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"483fdfbf249275826cb653b6ecf3038a\">Dcm4che3<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Dicoogle\" title=\"Dicoogle\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1066cc100606f420708c8df3d05753ef\">Dicoogle<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><b>E<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELabFTW\" title=\"ELabFTW\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"155590ac366985a7ee3cf74ade1df84a\">ELabFTW<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_Laboratory_Notebook_(GippLab_software)\" title=\"Electronic Laboratory Notebook (GippLab software)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dea89ae1bcb9a4b965d2bd045218cf8b\">Electronic Laboratory Notebook (GippLab software)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><b>G<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Galaxy_(biomedical_software)\" title=\"Galaxy (biomedical software)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ead5d6ebaa8d67744d2f68d454d89ce6\">Galaxy (biomedical software)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/GNomEx\" title=\"GNomEx\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ffe2672873462be87660d574029bf8b2\">GNomEx<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/GNU_Health\" title=\"GNU Health\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f7172a563b254c7b34c3805b4a845e7\">GNU Health<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/GNU_LIMS\" title=\"GNU LIMS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"98c7163d23fcaef02b49ee28e8fc27c6\">GNU LIMS<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><b>I<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Indigo_ELN\" title=\"Indigo ELN\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d95c86e43cf8c5a9596375526b635fa4\">Indigo ELN<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/IPath\" title=\"IPath\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8175744e54125ba35b7a4e55b5d88e12\">IPath<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISkyLIMS\" title=\"ISkyLIMS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"16ffd78887713ec9959998cc5a354c18\">ISkyLIMS<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISPyB\" title=\"ISPyB\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b0c65aaf9b995ec49fe71aaa92ba5f4c\">ISPyB<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ITK\" title=\"ITK\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8287ad289a65c7f1c8c70694639f0688\">ITK<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><b>J<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/JuliaBase\" title=\"JuliaBase\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"614d5a2fe0ad270b2728d542b247d1f9\">JuliaBase<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Jupyter_Notebook\" title=\"Jupyter Notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"26fd35430c10e009a142bbab5dbf617a\">Jupyter Notebook<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><b>K<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Kalenis\" title=\"Kalenis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c2b9d092b79a0e858b903a2c62bf3056\">Kalenis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/KNIME\" title=\"KNIME\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"18360a3b4b22798e231d7b26365dff87\">KNIME<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><b>L<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LabKey_Server\" title=\"LabKey Server\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"856c6fe009646beaaed7ecd21dda4932\">LabKey Server<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LabStoRe\" title=\"LabStoRe\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ba8165ff73389f2ea3bbdd241ec0f8d\">LabStoRe<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LabTrove\" title=\"LabTrove\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96314c6a72468722216b9af430141606\">LabTrove<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LabWiki\" title=\"LabWiki\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bf7948f993e7d91807ac9322f2079362\">LabWiki<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_for_Dolibarr\" title=\"LIMS for Dolibarr\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c3459798ccc788cd9e180b4f38d6d822\">LIMS for Dolibarr<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><b>M<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/MASTR-MS\" title=\"MASTR-MS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8e97b3a6750e0d0edfeb14613720dd24\">MASTR-MS<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/MetaLIMS\" title=\"MetaLIMS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cbcda0d43003f11a36cb1ff6ef6380ca\">MetaLIMS<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/MISO\" title=\"MISO\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"427c89f41b1bfd4c94e97cb1e4edee6f\">MISO<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/MyLabBook\" title=\"MyLabBook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5a80c25c470d73512bbd299802d378bc\">MyLabBook<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><b>N<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/NEMO\" title=\"NEMO\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6274dd71f17c0e0bbaa15d824ecace0\">NEMO<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/NextGen_Connect\" title=\"NextGen Connect\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"11c781d5ed6d6edda256267a626594f3\">NextGen Connect<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/NotedELN\" title=\"NotedELN\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81fcec07d8640bcc89a1714089fe733b\">NotedELN<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/NUcore\" title=\"NUcore\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c559b36f2ac0272b2b29668fe4516d93\">NUcore<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><b>O<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Open_enventory\" title=\"Open enventory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b3fe1fa2243591293cacf8ab2374f0d\">Open enventory<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/OpenBIS\" title=\"OpenBIS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3bbca2b6be0c273677fc99a9474e49ec\">OpenBIS<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/OpenChrom\" title=\"OpenChrom\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"586c3f92f680ab8c89b40007151a28e7\">OpenChrom<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/OpenClinic_GA\" title=\"OpenClinic GA\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3dba47138f97f4a956e9216f3f34b1b1\">OpenClinic GA<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/OpenClinica\" title=\"OpenClinica\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"de671e2b0ad26a1a28dcaad120e3fbb4\">OpenClinica<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/OpenELIS\" title=\"OpenELIS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b11b00d1e7409d55b58e9f82204cc2a3\">OpenELIS<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/OpenEpi\" title=\"OpenEpi\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"be3c1d39780208621bfc6371659c1a49\">OpenEpi<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/OpenMRS\" title=\"OpenMRS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bdb797cd304c9ac66336f395c2bb6dbd\">OpenMRS<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/OpenSpecimen\" title=\"OpenSpecimen\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ede30d8d1185cde6f70bb12423d3d496\">OpenSpecimen<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/OsiriX\" title=\"OsiriX\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bfde47f22774a57ce8c0c36c5dfabdb8\">OsiriX<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><b>P<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Parkour\" title=\"Parkour\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0f517597dab485a30c755ede0a7e3e29\">Parkour<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><b>S<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/SciNote\" title=\"SciNote\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fcafe5e3de96d8ba319b70f089a53ea0\">SciNote<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/SciTran\" title=\"SciTran\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8804a105e99334303940aa785c4cd5ea\">SciTran<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/SENAITE\" title=\"SENAITE\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2fde520de4f90d065aae386e2b0b0a4e\">SENAITE<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110164713\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.010 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.013 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 1\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 1\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 0\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 0.000 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:7918-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110164713 and revision id 57840. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics_software_(open_source)\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics_software_(open_source)<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","b2ae5c9d1c1fbc17f89cfd4c92c2fb6e_images":[],"b2ae5c9d1c1fbc17f89cfd4c92c2fb6e_timestamp":1704907035,"df2e12ebefc2379e95f3f1956aac4400_type":"article","df2e12ebefc2379e95f3f1956aac4400_title":"LIMSpec 2022 R2","df2e12ebefc2379e95f3f1956aac4400_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Book:LIMSpec_2022_R2","df2e12ebefc2379e95f3f1956aac4400_plaintext":"\n\nBook:LIMSpec 2022 R2From LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nLIMSpec 2022 R2\r\nBy Shawn E. Douglas\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nThis is a LIMSwiki book, a collection of LIMSwiki articles that can be easily saved, rendered electronically, and ordered as a printed book.\r\n\n\n\n\n\nEdit this book:\nBook&#160;Creator &#160;&#183; &#32;Wikitext \n\n\nSelect format to download:\n\nPDF&#160;(A4) &#160;&#183; &#32;PDF&#160;(Letter) \n\n \n\n\nOrder a printed copy from these publishers:\nPediaPress \n\n\n[&#160;Start&#160;] [&#160;FAQ&#160;] [&#160;Basic help&#160;] [&#160;Advanced help&#160;] [&#160;Feedback&#160;] [&#160;Recent Changes&#160;] \n\n\n\n\r\n\n\nLIMSpec 2022 R2 \nTitle: LIMSpec 2022 R2\nAuthor for citation: Shawn E. Douglas\nLicense for content: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International\nPublication date: December 2022\n\r\n\nMany specification documents for laboratory informatics systems have been compiled over the years. Most of them tend to focus on a potential client's \"wishlist\" of features for a given system. This updated version of a revised LIMSpec is different; it attempts to take a regulatory-, standards-, and guidance-based approach to building a specification document for laboratory informatics systems. The specification is built out upon on more than 100 resources, with ASTM E1578-18 Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics and its requirements list chief among them. After the introduction and methodology, various requirements are organized and listed in a methodical order, each supported by one or more regulations, standards, guidance, or accreditation requirements documents. Finally, LIMSpec 2022 closes with a few tips on putting the specification to use.\nThe December 2022 update focuses on the food and beverage industry, adding almost 30 new resources. Examples of significant additions include BRC Global Standards' Global Standard for Food Safety, Issue 8, Global Food Safety Initiative's Benchmarking Requirements Version 2020.1, and various other 21 CFR parts. Some verbiage on existing requirements was also slightly tweaked where necessary.\nThe table of contents is as follows: \n\n1. Introduction\nIntroduction and methodology\n2. Primary Laboratory Workflow\n1. Sample and experiment registration\n2. Sample management\n3. Core laboratory testing and experiments\n4. Results review and verification\n5. Sample, experiment, and study approval and verification\n6. Reporting\n3. Maintaining Laboratory Workflow and Operations\n7. Document and records management\n8. Resource management\n9. Compliance management\n10. Instrument and equipment management\n11. Batch and lot management\n12. Scheduled event management\n13. Instrument data capture and control\n14. Standard and reagent management\n15. Inventory management\n16. Investigation and quality management\n4. Specialty Laboratory Functions\n17. Production management\n18. Statistical trending and control charts\n19. Agriculture and food data management\n20. Environmental data management\n21. Forensic case and data management\n22. Clinical and public health data management\n23. Veterinary data management\n24. Scientific data management\n25. Health information technology\n5. Technology and Performance Improvements\n26. Instrument data systems functions\n27. Systems integration\n28. Laboratory scheduling and capacity planning\n29. Lean laboratory and continuous improvement\n30. Artificial intelligence and smart systems\n6. Security and Integrity of Systems and Operations\n31. Data integrity\n32. Configuration management\n33. System validation and commission\n34. System administration\n35. Cybersecurity\n36. Information privacy\n7. Closing remarks\nPutting LIMSpec to use\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Book:LIMSpec_2022_R2\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Book:LIMSpec_2022_R2<\/a>\nCategories: LIMSwiki books (community books)LIMSwiki books on softwareNavigation menuPage actionsBookDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsBookDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 4 January 2024, at 01:29.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 9,224 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","df2e12ebefc2379e95f3f1956aac4400_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-208 ns-subject page-Book_LIMSpec_2022_R2 rootpage-Book_LIMSpec_2022_R2 skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Book:LIMSpec 2022 R2<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><table class=\"ombox\" cellpadding=\"5%\" style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td rowspan=\"5\">\n<table style=\"background:#f1e2d3; color: black; text-align:left; border:1px solid darkgrey; width: 130px;\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background:gray; height: 3px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"height: 30px; text-align: right; vertical-align: top;\"><small><b>LIMSpec 2022 R2<\/b><br \/><i>By Shawn E. Douglas<\/i><\/small>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"background:gray;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td colspan=\"5\" style=\"height: 135px; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Specification_Types.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"0b4fca8e302427f3e103649612af8f74\"><img alt=\"Specification Types.jpg\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/1\/1c\/Specification_Types.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"125\" height=\"67\" \/><\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td>\n<td colspan=\"2;\">This is a <b><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMSWiki:Books\" title=\"LIMSWiki:Books\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"916f58183dda2f43e340d92ef17b35f8\">LIMSwiki book<\/a><\/b>, a collection of LIMSwiki articles that can be easily saved, rendered electronically, and ordered as a printed book.<br \/>\n<hr \/>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;\">\n<td class=\"nowrap;\"><i>Edit this book:<\/i><\/td>\n<td class=\"nowrap;\"><span style=\"font-size:larger\"><span class=\"plainlinks\" title=\"Open this book using LIMSwiki&#39;s book editing tool. The Book Creator allows you to easily add or remove articles, create or remove chapters, download and print PDF versions, and more.\">Book&#160;Creator<\/span>&#160;<span style=\"font-weight:bold;\">&#183;<\/span>&#32;<span class=\"plainlinks\" title=\"Edit this book using LIMSwiki&#39;s regular editing tool. See the &#91;Advanced&#93; link below for details.\"><\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;\">\n<td class=\"nowrap;\"><i>Select format to download:<\/i><\/td>\n<td class=\"nowrap;\" colspan=\"1;\"><span style=\"font-size:larger\">\n<p><span class=\"plainlinks\" title=\"Download a PDF version of this book, optimized for A4 paper (8.3 \u00d7 11.7 in, 210 \u00d7 297 mm).\">PDF&#160;(A4)<\/span>&#160;<span style=\"font-weight:bold;\">&#183;<\/span>&#32;<span class=\"plainlinks\" title=\"Download a PDF version of this book, optimized for Letter paper (8.5 \u00d7 11 in, 216 \u00d7 279 mm).\">PDF&#160;(Letter)<\/span>\n<\/p>\n<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;\">\n<td class=\"nowrap;\"><i>Order a printed copy from these publishers:<\/i><\/td>\n<td class=\"nowrap;\"><span style=\"font-size:larger\"><span class=\"plainlinks\" title=\"Preview this book with PediaPress, choose a cover image, pick a color for the cover, and more. The printed book is a softcover in A5 format (8.3 \u00d7 5.8 in, 210 \u00d7 148 mm), with professional-quality layout and printing.\">PediaPress<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"tvertical-align:bottom;\">\n<td style=\"text-align:center;\" colspan=\"2;\"><small>[&#160;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMSWiki:Books\" title=\"LIMSWiki:Books\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"916f58183dda2f43e340d92ef17b35f8\">Start<\/a>&#160;] [&#160;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Help:Books\/FAQ\" title=\"Help:Books\/FAQ\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5cc9155bfe9252688ac60b225367d099\">FAQ<\/a>&#160;] [&#160;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Help:Books\" title=\"Help:Books\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4249fc6a97715d385a8c82afef6b0e87\">Basic help<\/a>&#160;] [&#160;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Help:Books\/For_experts\" title=\"Help:Books\/For experts\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"25e7e0015014538ae1022c773a3555df\">Advanced help<\/a>&#160;] [&#160;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Help:Books\/Feedback\" title=\"Help:Books\/Feedback\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2f9ec9721f776835f90a023720cda7a\">Feedback<\/a>&#160;] [&#160;<span class=\"plainlinks\" title=\"See the recent edits made to the articles of this book.\">Recent Changes&#160;]<\/span><\/small>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<p><br \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"LIMSpec_2022_R2\"><i>LIMSpec 2022 R2<\/i><\/span><\/h2>\n<p><b>Title<\/b>: <i>LIMSpec 2022 R2<\/i>\n<\/p><p><b>Author for citation<\/b>: Shawn E. Douglas\n<\/p><p><b>License for content<\/b>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International<\/a>\n<\/p><p><b>Publication date<\/b>: December 2022\n<\/p><p><br \/>\nMany specification documents for <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">laboratory informatics<\/a> systems have been compiled over the years. Most of them tend to focus on a potential client's \"wishlist\" of features for a given system. This updated version of a revised LIMSpec is different; it attempts to take a regulatory-, standards-, and guidance-based approach to building a specification document for laboratory informatics systems. The specification is built out upon on more than 100 resources, with <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ASTM_E1578\" title=\"ASTM E1578\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"74b64479a39bee791aacc4605b78a061\">ASTM E1578-18<\/a> <i>Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics<\/i> and its requirements list chief among them. After the introduction and methodology, various requirements are organized and listed in a methodical order, each supported by one or more regulations, standards, guidance, or accreditation requirements documents. Finally, LIMSpec 2022 closes with a few tips on putting the specification to use.\n<\/p><p>The December 2022 update focuses on the food and beverage industry, adding almost 30 new resources. Examples of significant additions include BRC Global Standards' <i>Global Standard for Food Safety, Issue 8<\/i>, Global Food Safety Initiative's <i>Benchmarking Requirements Version 2020.1<\/i>, and various other 21 CFR parts. Some verbiage on existing requirements was also slightly tweaked where necessary.\n<\/p><p>The table of contents is as follows: \n<\/p>\n<dl><dt>1. Introduction<\/dt>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Introduction_and_methodology\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Introduction and methodology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a58610d5ca6de721882be7114c8ca86\">Introduction and methodology<\/a><\/dd>\n<dt>2. Primary Laboratory Workflow<\/dt>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Primary_Laboratory_Workflow#1._Sample_and_experiment_registration\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Primary Laboratory Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"61aff0fab36cdf9b9d726a3caf608cc1\">1. Sample and experiment registration<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Primary_Laboratory_Workflow#2._Sample_management\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Primary Laboratory Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"15457a38f6d575c440f33bcc732c18a2\">2. Sample management<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Primary_Laboratory_Workflow#3._Core_laboratory_testing_and_experiments\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Primary Laboratory Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"391eb403b8e74d30746c87a3dd134f66\">3. Core laboratory testing and experiments<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Primary_Laboratory_Workflow#4._Results_review_and_verification\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Primary Laboratory Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0275d5f4b1bd7bd8c861ef8f0795dfb6\">4. Results review and verification<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Primary_Laboratory_Workflow#5._Sample.2C_experiment.2C_and_study_approval_and_verification\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Primary Laboratory Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"99136bc05337b7583a7395cbd590656a\">5. Sample, experiment, and study approval and verification<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Primary_Laboratory_Workflow#6._Reporting\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Primary Laboratory Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"671d88f9d757ca0494ddc846debb4903\">6. Reporting<\/a><\/dd>\n<dt>3. Maintaining Laboratory Workflow and Operations<\/dt>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Maintaining_Laboratory_Workflow_and_Operations#7._Document_and_records_management\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Maintaining Laboratory Workflow and Operations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a764b39a539286107f8212ee654db87b\">7. Document and records management<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Maintaining_Laboratory_Workflow_and_Operations#8._Resource_management\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Maintaining Laboratory Workflow and Operations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe6f7831accf9866e7094abebdb6a6a1\">8. Resource management<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Maintaining_Laboratory_Workflow_and_Operations#9._Compliance_management\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Maintaining Laboratory Workflow and Operations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c4fcb640c65b0c1a19ddb8ac2a708071\">9. Compliance management<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Maintaining_Laboratory_Workflow_and_Operations#10._Instrument_and_equipment_management\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Maintaining Laboratory Workflow and Operations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bff44fcebcd26459117e31bbd8c99ea1\">10. Instrument and equipment management<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Maintaining_Laboratory_Workflow_and_Operations#11._Batch_and_lot_management\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Maintaining Laboratory Workflow and Operations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"294df292ed93e358a9df3501bb3de637\">11. Batch and lot management<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Maintaining_Laboratory_Workflow_and_Operations#12._Scheduled_event_management\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Maintaining Laboratory Workflow and Operations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e65f4869b4cef313b97d330551ce3dde\">12. Scheduled event management<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Maintaining_Laboratory_Workflow_and_Operations#13._Instrument_data_capture_and_control\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Maintaining Laboratory Workflow and Operations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c6dfe1e98f618e279fa954664ddfbb66\">13. Instrument data capture and control<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Maintaining_Laboratory_Workflow_and_Operations#14._Standard_and_reagent_management\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Maintaining Laboratory Workflow and Operations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f172b7fc3c58eff808f985a33cdba7e\">14. Standard and reagent management<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Maintaining_Laboratory_Workflow_and_Operations#15._Inventory_management\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Maintaining Laboratory Workflow and Operations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2d51a618475d6fdd30e9db36ce3c6512\">15. Inventory management<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Maintaining_Laboratory_Workflow_and_Operations#16._Investigation_and_quality_management\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Maintaining Laboratory Workflow and Operations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a831dc6b2450793264d359a92c01fa15\">16. Investigation and quality management<\/a><\/dd>\n<dt>4. Specialty Laboratory Functions<\/dt>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Specialty_Laboratory_Functions#17._Production_management\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Specialty Laboratory Functions\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4a86c66dbb770905efc543883944afb7\">17. Production management<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Specialty_Laboratory_Functions#18._Statistical_trending_and_control_charts\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Specialty Laboratory Functions\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5bf95a1f218d7809238a0eb597aff931\">18. Statistical trending and control charts<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Specialty_Laboratory_Functions#19._Agriculture_and_food_data_management\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Specialty Laboratory Functions\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3a680a3c3df3893b3027dc86b948be58\">19. Agriculture and food data management<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Specialty_Laboratory_Functions#20._Environmental_data_management\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Specialty Laboratory Functions\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73573980729cbd218a34c5c2e84eb661\">20. Environmental data management<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Specialty_Laboratory_Functions#21._Forensic_case_and_data_management\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Specialty Laboratory Functions\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5f931466bb9436d113fc17a04bc496cf\">21. Forensic case and data management<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Specialty_Laboratory_Functions#22._Clinical_and_public_health_data_management\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Specialty Laboratory Functions\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"16390a68203fc9b7cc3f655664554328\">22. Clinical and public health data management<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Specialty_Laboratory_Functions#23._Veterinary_data_management\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Specialty Laboratory Functions\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"358bde209d8d7ca4c22ace38b7fe75b4\">23. Veterinary data management<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Specialty_Laboratory_Functions#24._Scientific_data_management\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Specialty Laboratory Functions\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b6db2dcdf3009db85f6affb0fff9d348\">24. Scientific data management<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Specialty_Laboratory_Functions#25._Health_information_technology\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Specialty Laboratory Functions\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"94577196babcc5bb87b20331aa12d805\">25. Health information technology<\/a><\/dd>\n<dt>5. Technology and Performance Improvements<\/dt>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Technology_and_Performance_Improvements#26._Instrument_data_systems_functions\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Technology and Performance Improvements\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b7bf1eb07b0c58eaa599ed5a69c9298\">26. Instrument data systems functions<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Technology_and_Performance_Improvements#27._Systems_integration\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Technology and Performance Improvements\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"16790a3329a8f9a6998e3a9a5c30ec80\">27. Systems integration<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Technology_and_Performance_Improvements#28._Laboratory_scheduling_and_capacity_planning\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Technology and Performance Improvements\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef63a9ea25244968b723e4ea21c2b4ec\">28. Laboratory scheduling and capacity planning<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Technology_and_Performance_Improvements#29._Lean_laboratory_and_continuous_improvement\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Technology and Performance Improvements\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"85b819c0b9017f33292ab934d84712b4\">29. Lean laboratory and continuous improvement<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Technology_and_Performance_Improvements#30._Artificial_intelligence_and_smart_systems\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Technology and Performance Improvements\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ebbeb8bfec6319a409d1d0afffa6cbf\">30. Artificial intelligence and smart systems<\/a><\/dd>\n<dt>6. Security and Integrity of Systems and Operations<\/dt>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Security_and_Integrity_of_Systems_and_Operations#31._Data_integrity\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Security and Integrity of Systems and Operations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eedafbce6e4049ac527deb43a1e2311d\">31. Data integrity<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Security_and_Integrity_of_Systems_and_Operations#32._Configuration_management\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Security and Integrity of Systems and Operations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e972c3ebbff256d2241b0ba5e3831389\">32. Configuration management<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Security_and_Integrity_of_Systems_and_Operations#33._System_validation_and_commission\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Security and Integrity of Systems and Operations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"962b522f454655e6db263e82dc72efff\">33. System validation and commission<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Security_and_Integrity_of_Systems_and_Operations#34._System_administration\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Security and Integrity of Systems and Operations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4e61932b867065094a0b64f809b55574\">34. System administration<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Security_and_Integrity_of_Systems_and_Operations#35._Cybersecurity\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Security and Integrity of Systems and Operations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46f38a22c13a626b571bac684fbf12ae\">35. Cybersecurity<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Security_and_Integrity_of_Systems_and_Operations#36._Information_privacy\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Security and Integrity of Systems and Operations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"111b080aebf48e07f19c5b0f8f2b6a2e\">36. Information privacy<\/a><\/dd>\n<dt>7. Closing remarks<\/dt>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Putting_LIMSpec_to_use\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Putting LIMSpec to use\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5f527b047b67a208cce8ad6301dd8959\">Putting LIMSpec to use<\/a><\/dd><\/dl>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171715\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.591 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.069 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 143\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 5536\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 247\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 8\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 0\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 23.612 1 Template:Saved_book\n100.00% 23.612 1 -total\n 29.86% 7.050 2 Template:\u00b7\n 25.42% 6.003 1 Template:Pp-book-cover\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:11183-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171714 and revision id 57732. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Book:LIMSpec_2022_R2\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Book:LIMSpec_2022_R2<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","df2e12ebefc2379e95f3f1956aac4400_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/1\/1c\/Specification_Types.jpg"],"df2e12ebefc2379e95f3f1956aac4400_timestamp":1704907034,"de9b2109f3975a703634052af790b2d1_type":"article","de9b2109f3975a703634052af790b2d1_title":"Laboratory Information Systems Project Management: A Guidebook for International Implementations","de9b2109f3975a703634052af790b2d1_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Laboratory_Information_Systems_Project_Management:_A_Guidebook_for_International_Implementations","de9b2109f3975a703634052af790b2d1_plaintext":"\n\nLII:Laboratory Information Systems Project Management: A Guidebook for International ImplementationsFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search\nTitle: Laboratory Information Systems Project Management: A Guidebook for International Implementations\nAuthor for citation: Association of Public Health Laboratories (APHL)\nLicense for content: Copyright 2019, Association of Public Health Laboratories\nPublication date: May 2019\nWhile not a laboratory informatics course in itself, this APHL guidebook certainly contains a full class-worth of material. Developed over several years with funding from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), this guide collects comprehensive information from informaticians and laboratorians in multiple countries in regards to the implementation and project management of laboratory information systems (LIS) in the public health setting. According to APHL, the guide contains useful information for most anyone, from \"[n]ovices who are considering LIS\nin their laboratory for the first time ... [to] more experienced implementers who have questions on certain topics or are looking for a strategic approach to a problem.\"\nYou can find the guide using the program filter \"Informatics\": APHL Publications by Topic\n\r\n\nAbout the authors\nAPHL is a membership organization that focuses on providing resources to and promoting the importance of public health laboratories to national and global health. The organization works closely with not only public laboratories but also federal agencies and international entities to develop and implement regional and national health initiatives, as well as promote better access to diagnostic testing services. APHL also lends its expertise to the development of laboratory informatics systems, training, policy, and research programs.\n\nGeneral layout and contents of the guide \nThe guide contains six major sections as well as appendices and notes. An executive summary and introduction provide insight into the purpose of the guide, which constitutes a significant revision of their 2005 Guidebook for the Implementation of Laboratory Information Systems in Resource Poor Settings. (Archived here, for the curious.) They note \"[t]he overall organization and layout of each LIS Guide section reflects feedback and guidance from various in-country LIS implementation teams and information system subject matter experts.\"\nAfterwards, the \"Laboratory Information Systems (LIS) Overview\" discusses the differences between a LIS and a laboratory information management system (LIMS), as well as why a LIS is important, what it does, and how data can be managed with it. The next section \"Starting a National LIS Program\" details the implementation strategies, monitoring tools, team management, and sustainability concerns that go into a national LIS project. How the LIS becomes a project itself at the laboratory level is detailed thoroughly afterwards.\nThe guide's last major section gets into the core details of project management planning, including scheduling, quality management, procurement, human resources, communication, and risk management strategies. The appendices close out the guide.\n\nThe guide \n: The guide can be found on the APHL site, filtering by topic: \"Informatics\": APHL Publications by Topic\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Laboratory_Information_Systems_Project_Management:_A_Guidebook_for_International_Implementations\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Laboratory_Information_Systems_Project_Management:_A_Guidebook_for_International_Implementations<\/a>\nCategory: LII:Guides, white papers, and other publicationsNavigation menuPage actionsLIIDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsLIIDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 9 February 2022, at 20:07.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 7,740 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","de9b2109f3975a703634052af790b2d1_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-202 ns-subject page-LII_Laboratory_Information_Systems_Project_Management_A_Guidebook_for_International_Implementations rootpage-LII_Laboratory_Information_Systems_Project_Management_A_Guidebook_for_International_Implementations skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">LII:Laboratory Information Systems Project Management: A Guidebook for International Implementations<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"floatright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:APHL-Logo.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"91d3a596e43e3b4c047a1b96a0822ede\"><img alt=\"APHL-Logo.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/f\/f0\/APHL-Logo.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"240\" height=\"179\" \/><\/a><\/div>\n<p><b>Title<\/b>: <i>Laboratory Information Systems Project Management: A Guidebook for International Implementations<\/i>\n<\/p><p><b>Author for citation<\/b>: Association of Public Health Laboratories (APHL)\n<\/p><p><b>License for content<\/b>: Copyright 2019, Association of Public Health Laboratories\n<\/p><p><b>Publication date<\/b>: May 2019\n<\/p><p>While not a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">laboratory informatics<\/a> course in itself, this APHL guidebook certainly contains a full class-worth of material. Developed over several years with funding from the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention\" title=\"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"176aa9c9513251c328d864d1e724e814\">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention<\/a> (CDC), this guide collects comprehensive information from informaticians and laboratorians in multiple countries in regards to the implementation and project management of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system\" title=\"Laboratory information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64\">laboratory information systems<\/a> (LIS) in the public health setting. According to APHL, the guide contains useful information for most anyone, from \"[n]ovices who are considering LIS\nin their laboratory for the first time ... [to] more experienced implementers who have questions on certain topics or are looking for a strategic approach to a problem.\"\n<\/p><p>You can find the guide using the program filter \"Informatics\": <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.aphl.org\/Pages\/reportsbriefsresults.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">APHL Publications by Topic<\/a>\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<b>About the authors<\/b>\n<\/p><p>APHL is a membership organization that focuses on providing resources to and promoting the importance of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Public_health_laboratory\" title=\"Public health laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"34ffb658cb79bf322c65efaad95996f5\">public health laboratories<\/a> to national and global health. The organization works closely with not only public laboratories but also federal agencies and international entities to develop and implement regional and national health initiatives, as well as promote better access to diagnostic testing services. APHL also lends its expertise to the development of laboratory informatics systems, training, policy, and research programs.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"General_layout_and_contents_of_the_guide\">General layout and contents of the guide<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The guide contains six major sections as well as appendices and notes. An executive summary and introduction provide insight into the purpose of the guide, which constitutes a significant revision of their 2005 <i>Guidebook for the Implementation of Laboratory Information Systems in Resource Poor Settings<\/i>. (Archived <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170830041335\/https:\/\/www.aphl.org\/MRC\/Documents\/GH_2005October_LIS-Guidebook.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">here<\/a>, for the curious.) They note \"[t]he overall organization and layout of each LIS Guide section reflects feedback and guidance from various in-country LIS implementation teams and information system subject matter experts.\"\n<\/p><p>Afterwards, the \"Laboratory Information Systems (LIS) Overview\" discusses the differences between a LIS and a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00\">laboratory information management system<\/a> (LIMS), as well as why a LIS is important, what it does, and how data can be managed with it. The next section \"Starting a National LIS Program\" details the implementation strategies, monitoring tools, team management, and sustainability concerns that go into a national LIS project. How the LIS becomes a project itself at the laboratory level is detailed thoroughly afterwards.\n<\/p><p>The guide's last major section gets into the core details of project management planning, including scheduling, quality management, procurement, human resources, communication, and risk management strategies. The appendices close out the guide.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"The_guide\">The guide<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.aphl.org\/Pages\/reportsbriefsresults.aspx\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PDF.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/a6\/PDF.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a>: The guide can be found on the APHL site, filtering by topic: \"Informatics\": <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.aphl.org\/Pages\/reportsbriefsresults.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">APHL Publications by Topic<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110162756\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.018 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.028 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 11\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 0\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 0.000 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10885-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110162756 and revision id 46273. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Laboratory_Information_Systems_Project_Management:_A_Guidebook_for_International_Implementations\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Laboratory_Information_Systems_Project_Management:_A_Guidebook_for_International_Implementations<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","de9b2109f3975a703634052af790b2d1_images":["https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/f\/f0\/APHL-Logo.png"],"de9b2109f3975a703634052af790b2d1_timestamp":1704907033,"1f45c718e9ce1c7e28ab898c08c7b1a4_type":"article","1f45c718e9ce1c7e28ab898c08c7b1a4_title":"Justifying LIMS Acquisition and Deployment within Your Organization","1f45c718e9ce1c7e28ab898c08c7b1a4_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Justifying_LIMS_Acquisition_and_Deployment_within_Your_Organization","1f45c718e9ce1c7e28ab898c08c7b1a4_plaintext":"\n\nLII:Justifying LIMS Acquisition and Deployment within Your OrganizationFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search\nTitle: Justifying LIMS Acquisition and Deployment within Your Organization\nEdition: First Edition\nAuthors for citation: Joe Liscouski, Shawn E. Douglas\nLicense for content: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International\nPublication date: July 2023\n\r\n\nAs laboratory workflows become increasingly complex, personnel become shorter on time, and competition becomes more pronounced, lab managers turn to laboratory informatics solutions like the laboratory information management system (LIMS) to help gain practical and competitive advantage. However, acquiring and deploying a LIMS is no easy task, and simply presenting a handful of bullet-pointed potential benefits likely won't be enough to convince upper management and other critical stakeholders in the organization to go along with any proposed LIMS plan. Justification for the LIMS will need to be succinct and relevant, based on organizational goals, economic concerns, and practical realities. This guide will help you\u2014whether you are a lab manager, lab technician, or someone else in the organization with a stake in seeing laboratory operations improve\u2014understand what a LIMS is, what the alternatives are, what and why acquiring one looks like, and what needs to be considered in putting together a competent and persuasive LIMS project proposal. This guide also includes a handy Microsoft Excel workbook that will help act as a \"cheat sheet\" for persuading stakeholders to better buy into your vision of LIMS acquisition and deployment within your organization.\nThe table of contents for Justifying LIMS Acquisition and Deployment within Your Organization is as follows:\n\r\n\n\n1. Introduction to LIMS and its acquisition and deployment\n1.1 What is a laboratory information management system (LIMS)?\n1.2 What are the alternatives to a LIMS?\n1.3 LIMS acquisition then\n1.4 LIMS acquisition now\n1.5 Why a LIMS matters<\/dd>\n2. Organizational, economic, and practical justifications for a LIMS\n2.1 Organizational justifications: Why is it important?\n2.1.1 Why is acquiring a LIMS important to meeting the goals of your lab?\n2.1.2 What problems does the LIMS solve that currently affect your lab?\n2.1.3 What operational, financial, and personnel improvements do you expect to see in your lab because of LIMS implementation?\n2.1.4 Why is this important to the larger organization, as well as those outside the lab?<\/dd>\n2.2 Economic considerations and justifications\n2.2.1 On-premises vs. cloud LIMS\n2.2.2 Common and add-on costs\n2.2.3 Factors that can offset costs<\/dd>\n2.3 Practical considerations and justifications\n2.3.1 Tangible benefits\n2.3.2 Intangible benefits<\/dd><\/dd>\n3. Gaining buy-in from management and other stakeholders\n3.1 The importance of manager (and stakeholder) buy-in\n3.2 Pitching the LIMS project\n3.2.1 A note about focusing too much on ROI<\/dd>\n3.3 Developing a cheat sheet for management<\/dd>\n4. Closing remarks\nAppendix 1. LIMS Acquisition and Deployment Justification Workbook\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Justifying_LIMS_Acquisition_and_Deployment_within_Your_Organization\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Justifying_LIMS_Acquisition_and_Deployment_within_Your_Organization<\/a>\nCategory: LII:Guides, white papers, and other publicationsNavigation menuPage actionsLIIDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsLIIDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 25 July 2023, at 22:50.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 2,949 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","1f45c718e9ce1c7e28ab898c08c7b1a4_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-202 ns-subject page-LII_Justifying_LIMS_Acquisition_and_Deployment_within_Your_Organization rootpage-LII_Justifying_LIMS_Acquisition_and_Deployment_within_Your_Organization skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">LII:Justifying LIMS Acquisition and Deployment within Your Organization<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"floatright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Man_and_Woman_Shaking_Hands.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"c9486d1ed88697bb95506a9bc45ae8eb\"><img alt=\"Man and Woman Shaking Hands.jpg\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/2e\/Man_and_Woman_Shaking_Hands.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a><\/div>\n<p><b>Title<\/b>: <i>Justifying LIMS Acquisition and Deployment within Your Organization<\/i>\n<\/p><p><b>Edition<\/b>: First Edition\n<\/p><p><b>Authors for citation<\/b>: Joe Liscouski, Shawn E. Douglas\n<\/p><p><b>License for content<\/b>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International<\/a>\n<\/p><p><b>Publication date<\/b>: July 2023\n<\/p><p><br \/>\nAs <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33\">laboratory<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow\" title=\"Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8\">workflows<\/a> become increasingly complex, personnel become shorter on time, and competition becomes more pronounced, lab managers turn to <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">laboratory informatics<\/a> solutions like the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00\">laboratory information management system<\/a> (LIMS) to help gain practical and competitive advantage. However, acquiring and deploying a LIMS is no easy task, and simply presenting a handful of bullet-pointed potential benefits likely won't be enough to convince upper management and other critical stakeholders in the organization to go along with any proposed LIMS plan. Justification for the LIMS will need to be succinct and relevant, based on organizational goals, economic concerns, and practical realities. This guide will help you\u2014whether you are a lab manager, lab technician, or someone else in the organization with a stake in seeing laboratory operations improve\u2014understand what a LIMS is, what the alternatives are, what and why acquiring one looks like, and what needs to be considered in putting together a competent and persuasive LIMS project proposal. This guide also includes a handy Microsoft Excel workbook that will help act as a \"cheat sheet\" for persuading stakeholders to better buy into your vision of LIMS acquisition and deployment within your organization.\n<\/p><p>The table of contents for <i>Justifying LIMS Acquisition and Deployment within Your Organization<\/i> is as follows:\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Justifying_LIMS_Acquisition_and_Deployment_within_Your_Organization\/Introduction_to_LIMS_and_its_acquisition_and_deployment\" title=\"LII:Justifying LIMS Acquisition and Deployment within Your Organization\/Introduction to LIMS and its acquisition and deployment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8b79ce2e3f97684c79a00676b4b224fa\">1. Introduction to LIMS and its acquisition and deployment<\/a>\n<dl><dd>1.1 What is a laboratory information management system (LIMS)?<\/dd>\n<dd>1.2 What are the alternatives to a LIMS?<\/dd>\n<dd>1.3 LIMS acquisition then<\/dd>\n<dd>1.4 LIMS acquisition now<\/dd>\n<dd>1.5 Why a LIMS matters<\/dd><\/dl><\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Justifying_LIMS_Acquisition_and_Deployment_within_Your_Organization\/Organizational,_economic,_and_practical_justifications_for_a_LIMS\" title=\"LII:Justifying LIMS Acquisition and Deployment within Your Organization\/Organizational, economic, and practical justifications for a LIMS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4afc1caafd8f280aef0e576aee01e485\">2. Organizational, economic, and practical justifications for a LIMS<\/a>\n<dl><dd>2.1 Organizational justifications: Why is it important?\n<dl><dd>2.1.1 Why is acquiring a LIMS important to meeting the goals of your lab?<\/dd>\n<dd>2.1.2 What problems does the LIMS solve that currently affect your lab?<\/dd>\n<dd>2.1.3 What operational, financial, and personnel improvements do you expect to see in your lab because of LIMS implementation?<\/dd>\n<dd>2.1.4 Why is this important to the larger organization, as well as those outside the lab?<\/dd><\/dl><\/dd>\n<dd>2.2 Economic considerations and justifications\n<dl><dd>2.2.1 On-premises vs. cloud LIMS<\/dd>\n<dd>2.2.2 Common and add-on costs<\/dd>\n<dd>2.2.3 Factors that can offset costs<\/dd><\/dl><\/dd>\n<dd>2.3 Practical considerations and justifications\n<dl><dd>2.3.1 Tangible benefits<\/dd>\n<dd>2.3.2 Intangible benefits<\/dd><\/dl><\/dd><\/dl><\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Justifying_LIMS_Acquisition_and_Deployment_within_Your_Organization\/Gaining_buy-in_from_management_and_other_stakeholders\" title=\"LII:Justifying LIMS Acquisition and Deployment within Your Organization\/Gaining buy-in from management and other stakeholders\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dff54c12f9ca6a7431c9c0634a678766\">3. Gaining buy-in from management and other stakeholders<\/a>\n<dl><dd>3.1 The importance of manager (and stakeholder) buy-in<\/dd>\n<dd>3.2 Pitching the LIMS project\n<dl><dd>3.2.1 A note about focusing too much on ROI<\/dd><\/dl><\/dd>\n<dd>3.3 Developing a cheat sheet for management<\/dd><\/dl><\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Justifying_LIMS_Acquisition_and_Deployment_within_Your_Organization\/Closing_remarks\" title=\"LII:Justifying LIMS Acquisition and Deployment within Your Organization\/Closing remarks\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0bc1da54538717bfeae70f25ec6cbcd\">4. Closing remarks<\/a><\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Justifying_LIMS_Acquisition_and_Deployment_within_Your_Organization\/LIMS_Acquisition_and_Deployment_Justification_Workbook\" title=\"LII:Justifying LIMS Acquisition and Deployment within Your Organization\/LIMS Acquisition and Deployment Justification Workbook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f37e1d19cf9d95093f78c0104e22bdd3\">Appendix 1. LIMS Acquisition and Deployment Justification Workbook<\/a><\/dd><\/dl>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110064230\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.372 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.728 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 1\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 1\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 0\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 0.000 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:14291-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110064229 and revision id 52608. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Justifying_LIMS_Acquisition_and_Deployment_within_Your_Organization\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Justifying_LIMS_Acquisition_and_Deployment_within_Your_Organization<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","1f45c718e9ce1c7e28ab898c08c7b1a4_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/2e\/Man_and_Woman_Shaking_Hands.jpg"],"1f45c718e9ce1c7e28ab898c08c7b1a4_timestamp":1704907033,"d8b467af534a70312a21f63b61be26cd_type":"article","d8b467af534a70312a21f63b61be26cd_title":"The Application of Informatics to Scientific Work: Laboratory Informatics for Newbies","d8b467af534a70312a21f63b61be26cd_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:The_Application_of_Informatics_to_Scientific_Work:_Laboratory_Informatics_for_Newbies","d8b467af534a70312a21f63b61be26cd_plaintext":"\n\nLII:The Application of Informatics to Scientific Work: Laboratory Informatics for NewbiesFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchTitle: The Application of Informatics to Scientific Work: Laboratory Informatics for Newbies\nAuthor for citation: Joe Liscouski, with editorial modifications by Shawn Douglas\nLicense for content: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International\nPublication date: April 2021\n\nContents \n\n1 Introduction \n\n1.1 Intended audience \n\n\n2 Types of scientific and laboratory work \n\n2.1 Basic and applied research \n\n2.1.1 The research process \n\n\n\n\n3 Testing laboratories \n4 The laboratory notebook \n5 Using laboratory records \n6 Bringing informatics into the lab \n\n6.1 Backup strategy \n6.2 Witness review or sign-off \n6.3 Instrument-computer integration \n6.4 Expanding the research team \n\n\n7 Meeting the needs of the testing laboratory \n8 Other laboratory informatics systems \n\n8.1 Scientific data management system (SDMS) \n8.2 Laboratory execution system (LES) \n8.3 Instrument data system (IDS) \n\n\n9 Planning for laboratory informatics \n\n9.1 Education \n9.2 Planning \n9.3 Why projects fail \n\n\n10 Closing \n11 Footnotes \n12 About the author \n13 References \n\n\n\nIntroduction \nThe purpose of this piece is to introduce people who are not intimately familiar with laboratory work to the basics of laboratory operations and the role that informatics can play in assisting scientists, engineers, and technicians in their efforts. The concepts are important because they provide a functional foundation for understanding lab work and how that work is done in the early part of the twenty-first century (things will change, just wait for it).\n\nIntended audience \nThis material is intended for anyone who is interested in seeing how modern informatics tools can help those doing scientific work. It will provide an orientation to scientific and laboratory work, as well as the systems that have been developed to make that work more productive. It\u2019s for people coming out of school who have carried out lab experiments but not corporate research projects, for those who need to understand how testing labs work, and for IT professionals who may be faced with supporting computing systems in lab environments. It\u2019s also for those who may be tasked with managing projects to choose, install, and make informatics tools useful.\nFigure 1 shows the elements we\u2019ll be discussing in this piece. The treatment of the technical material will be on the lighter side, leaving in-depth subject matter to other works. Instrument data systems will be covered lightly, as any serious discussion becomes lengthy and discipline-specific very quickly; additionally, that material has been covered in other works.\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 1. Elements we\u2019ll be covering\n\n\n\nTypes of scientific and laboratory work \nScience is about seeking truthful answers to questions. Sometimes those questions are open-ended without any idea where they will lead you in answering them (e.g. \u201cWhy does water ice float?\u201d). Others are very specific, concerning material composition or properties (e.g., \u201cHow much lead is in this drinking water?\u201d, \u201cHow much does a butterfly weigh?\u201d). Still others may take some effort before you determine the best approach to working on them. The approach someone uses to address these questions depends on the nature of the question; some are destined for research, while others are addressed using specific test methods.\nThere are two types of research: basic and applied. Both can include field work, observations, experiments, models (mathematical, computer, and simulation), etc. Applied research is also done in testing or service laboratories, as with, for example, the development of new methods of analysis.\n\nBasic and applied research \nBasic research is open-ended, as you are looking into something without any idea of where the work will lead. It is often funded by grants through universities or government institutions; continued support depends on the perceived value of the research. Projects can range in size from the work of a single individual to a small team to large-scale groups studying astronomy, high-energy physics, engineering, the life sciences, or a number of fields.\nApplied research, on the other hand, is directed toward a goal. That goal could be a cure for a disease, the development of a COVID-19 vaccine, or work towards artificial intelligence (AI). As with basic research, until some early goals have been reached the work may begin with a single individual or a small team, and then the project scales up. The effort may be broken down into a set of more narrowly focused efforts, whose results will be combined as the development proceeds. Since applied research is goal-directed, funding will depend upon who benefits from those goals being met. Projects of national interest, including security, may be wholly or partially funded by the government. Projects with a commercial interest tend to be funded by corporate interests, including individual companies in their own laboratories or through contract research organizations with expertise useful to the program. Where there is interest from a number of corporate and\/or government groups, consortiums may form to distribute the cost and share in the results.\nBoth basic and applied research can be found in government institutions (including military groups, research and development agencies like the Defense Advanced Research Project Agency [DARPA], and task-specific institutions such as the National Institutes of Health [NIH]), public and private non-profit groups, corporations, consortia, and contract research organizations.\n\nThe research process \nThe research process begins with a question. Any question will do, including \u201cwhy is the sky blue?\u201d We\u2019ll bypass Greek mythology&#91;a&#93; by asking more questions and planning how to proceed to answer them. For example, \u201cIs the sky always blue?\u201d, \u201cWhen is\/isn\u2019t it?\u201d, and \u201cWhat other colors can it be?\u201d Once the process begins, it can include a number of steps, the choice and direction depending upon the nature of the research and the mindset of the researcher:\n\nObservations: This includes basic note-taking with support material (text, photos, drawings, charts, and scanned material). Research (e.g., as with basic astronomy, field biology) can be as simple as looking something up on Google or as complex as understanding how a virus works. Research is about asking questions and looking for answers, which often leads to more questions. It\u2019s a little like my granddaughter who always asks \u201cwhy?\u201d no matter how well I answer the previous question (or at least how well I think I did).\nEnhanced observations: This includes interacting with items under observation, as well as non-directed interactions, preliminary data gathering, and behavioral analysis.\nExperiments and information gathering: This includes organized experiments that are planned, directed, and purpose-driven, as well as data and information gathering.\nTeam building: This includes the creation of teams or networks of people working on the same or similar projects.\nAnalytics and reporting: This includes data and information analysis, data modeling (e.g., mathematical, computer algorithm, and simulation), information synthesis, and knowledge creation.\nTechnology acquisition: This includes gaining access to public, commercial, remote, and other types of databases to assist the research.\nPinning down a \u201ctypical\u201d approach to research isn\u2019t possible because the routes people follow are as individual as the researchers and their area of work are. However, this is generally not the case with testing labs.\n\nTesting laboratories \nIn addition to research labs, there are also testing or \"service\" laboratories. Service labs carry out specific test routines on samples and specimens; you may be familiar with them as quality control labs, clinical labs, toxicology labs, forensic science labs, etc. They are called service labs because they support other organizations, including research organizations, and they have similar modes of operation and work organization, running different tests depending on their area of specialization.\nContract testing labs are another flavor of service laboratories, acting as independent labs that do testing for a fee. These labs can offer capabilities and expertise that their customer doesn\u2019t have, either because the equipment is specialized and not frequently needed or because the customer is looking for a second opinion on an analysis.\nRegardless of the type of service lab, they all have one thing in common: the way they function. For a moment let\u2019s forget about science and think about something else. Take for example a company that does graphics printing as a service to graphic designers and marketing groups. The company could offer a variety of printing services:\n\nbusiness cards\nstationery (e.g., envelopes, letterhead, etc.)\npostcards\nbrochures\nsigns\ngraphics for trade shows (including mounting of an image on backing, lightboxes, etc.)\npostal marketing services\nIn this scenario, customers can come into the shop and drop off work to be done or place orders online (the company website provides a good description of their services and products). One of their biggest concerns is workflow management: what work is coming in, what is in progress, what is in quality control, and what is ready for delivery. Many activities may be associated with this workflow.\n\nOrder acceptance: Log the job into a log book, the go-to reference for work orders. Add the corresponding work order to a binder of work orders; work orders can be removed from the binders as needed (for example, when people are working on the job) and returned when completed. Comments are made on the work order and referenced to an individual\u2019s notebook for details. Work orders shouldn\u2019t be duplicated since people may not be aware of the duplicates and information may be lost. This does add some inefficiency to the process if a work order contains multiple components (e.g., brochures and trade show graphics); if someone needs to work on a task and someone else has the work order, they have to find it. Work orders contain the names of graphics files and their location. Then a check is made to ensure all the needed information is there, notifying people if something is missing. This includes checking to see if the graphics files are available, in the correct format, etc. The priority of the work is determined with respect to other work. Then the customer is notified of the work order status and the expected completion date.\nScheduling: The work order is assigned to one or more individuals for completion.\nPerforming the work: This is where the actual work is performed, including task coordination if an order has multiple components.\nCustomer service: This includes answering customer questions about the work order and addressing inquiries on completion date.\nDraft review: This involves obtaining customer sign-off on a prototype stage if required, making adjustments if needed, and then proceeding to completion.\nQuality control: This is where projects are reviewed and approved for completion.\nDelivery: This involves shipping the material back to the customer or notifying the customer the order is ready for pick-up.\nBilling: After satisfaction with the completed work is acknowledged, the work order is billed to the customer.\nWhen the shop has a large number of projects going on, such a manual, paper-based workflow is difficult and time-consuming to manage. Projects have to be scheduled so that they get done and don\u2019t interfere with other projects that might be on a tight deadline. And then there is inventory management, making sure you have the materials you need on hand when you need them. There is also the occasional rescheduling that occurs if equipment breaks down or someone is out sick. A simplified workflow based on the above is shown in Figure 2.\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 2. Simplified print shop workflow, with some details omitted for clarity\n\n\n\nLet's say our print shop has seven people working there. The owner manages the overall operation, and an administrator logs in work orders, notes the location of files that will be used on those orders, and does the final checkout of work, shipping, and billing. The remaining five people\u2014staff, although everyone is at the same organizational level\u2014take care of the actual production work; everyone is cross-trained, but some are more adept on some tasks than others.\nImagine you worked in this shop; how might your day go if you were one of the staff? The administrator will have prioritized the work depending on urgency and grouping similar work orders (or partial orders if there is request for multiple services) together. This is just a matter of efficiency: if you are using a particular piece of equipment and it has to be set up, calibrated, and cleaned when finished, you may as well make the most of that effort and run as many similar jobs as you can. Tracking down copies of work orders is an issue if someone is already working part of the order as there is only one copy so that notes and comments don\u2019t get lost. Each staff member has a notebook to keep track of work, any settings used on equipment, and comments about how the work progressed. These notebook entries are important and useful in case questions come up about a job, how it was run, and if any issues were encountered. As one set of jobs is completed, you move on to the next set. Inventory has to be checked to make sure that the needed materials are on-hand or ordered; if something is missing work has to be rescheduled. The workflow is a continual, organized mix of tasks, with people scheduling time on equipment as needed.\nYou can begin to appreciate how difficult the manual, paper-based workflow in a shop like that is to manage, particularly when it depends upon people communicating clearly. It is the same workflow as any service-oriented business, from a florist to a repair shop. What differs is the size of the organization, the complexity of the work, and the education needed to perform the required tasks.\nNow let's get back to the service laboratory. The print shop workflow is much like the structural workflow of such a laboratory. In the end, it\u2019s the nature of the tasks; the complexity of equipment, instrumentation, and electronic systems used; and the education needed to carry out the work that sets the service laboratory apart from other service operations. However, there is one other, critical aspect that sets it apart: most service labs have to meet federal or industry regulations (e.g., the ISO 9000 family of standards) for their operations. \nAs noted earlier, there are many different types of service laboratories. The basic workflow is the same (see Figure 3 for one perspective on the commonalities of research and service laboratories), but the nature of the testing separates one from another. A water testing lab uses different test procedures than a toxicology lab does, or a clinical lab. Those working in different types of labs have to learn how to run different tests, and they also have to learn about the materials they work with. After all, people's observations about the material tested will differ depending upon how much experience they have with different kinds of materials. \n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 3. This diagram represents one perspective on the relationship between laboratory types. This is a bit simplified, particularly on the roles of research labs. Large research facilities, or those in which waiting for test results impacts the progress of research work, may incorporate a \u201cservice lab\u201d function within their operations; the same workflow, just a merger of boxes. The downside of doing that is the loss of independent verification of test results, as people sometimes see what they want to see. This can be addressed by having critical and random samples analyzed independently.\n\n\n\nWhile workflows vary between research and service labs, there is one consistent factor that cuts across both: record keeping.\n\nThe laboratory notebook \nThe laboratory notebook has been a fixture in scientific work for centuries. The laboratory notebook is essentially a diary and can contain text, drawings, pasted photos, illustrations, charts, and so on. Historically, at least until the mid-1970s, it was a paper document that has evolved as legal and regulatory considerations have developed. Figure 4 shows part of Dr. Alexander Graham Bell\u2019s notebook.\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 4. Pages 40-41 of Alexander Graham Bell Family Papers in the Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, Public Domain\n\n\n\nThe format of today\u2019s paper notebooks has changed somewhat, and the process of using it has become more rigorous. Take for example Scientific Bindery Productions, a modern manufacturer of professional laboratory notebooks. The description for their duplicate lined notebook includes the following elements&#91;1&#93;:\n\ntable of contents\ninstructions page, for how to use the notebook and address patent protection\nheaders and footers, with legally defensible language\nheaders that include title, project number, and book number fields, as well as a \"work continued from page\" section\nfooters that include signature, date, disclosed to, and understood by fields, as well as a \"work continued to page\" section\nThe details of some of these points are called out in Figure 5, courtesy of Dr. Raquel Cumeras.\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 5. A lab notebook example, courtesey of Dr. Raquel Cumeras, Science 2 Knowledge blog, 2019\n\n\n\nOver the years, several guidelines have been published about the use of laboratory notebooks. Examples include:\n\nGood manufacturing practice (GMP) and good laboratory practice (GLP) recordkeeping, from David West, St. Louis Community College, Center for Plant and Life Sciences&#91;2&#93;\nNIH scientific recordkeeping guidelines, from the National Institutes of Health&#91;3&#93;\nGeneral laboratory notebook guidelines, from Science editor Elisabeth Pain&#91;4&#93;\nA Google search of \"guidelines for maintaining laboratory notebooks\" or something similar will provide more examples, including those developed by leading universities.\nAt this point, you\u2019re probably wondering why we\u2019re spending so much time on this. The point: good record keeping is the foundation for documenting scientific work regardless of the media, be it paper or electronic. Yes, the laboratory notebook has an electronic equivalent: the electronic laboratory notebook (ELN). These ELNs and other laboratory informatics systems have to support everything paper systems do or they will fail in ensuring the integrity of documented work.\n\nUsing laboratory records \nLaboratory records, whether in laboratory notebooks or some other format, can be acted upon in many ways. Laboratory personnel interact with them by:\n\nrecording observations, results, instrument data output, photos, and charts\ndescribing research processes, goals, and results\nensuring the authenticity of laboratory work\nplanning and collaborating on experiments\nextracting information for reporting\nbacking up data\nquerying data\nsharing data\npublishing data\narchiving and retrieving data\nsecuring data\nEverything on that list can be done with paper records; however, those activities are easier, faster, and less error prone with electronic systems. Paper records aren\u2019t going away anytime soon, for example when needing to record comments and information that may not have been provided for in electronic systems. This is particularly true as a project team expands from one person to more people. However, the need to have shared access to information becomes a limiting factor in productivity when we rely on paper-based systems. Paper-based systems also depend upon the proximity of people working together, something that became problematic during the COVID-19 pandemic. Social distancing requirements made sharing paper-based notebook pages more challenging, requiring scanning and emailing. This was perhaps feasible for small amounts of physical materials, but less so for large projects with significant paper-based records.\nThat brings up another important point concerning ownership: whose data is it? When people are handed a notebook, they are told \u201cthis is your notebook, a place to write down your work and observations, and you are responsible for it.\u201d Depending upon how employment or consulting contracts are written, the content that goes into the notebook belongs to whoever is paying for the work. When I worked in a lab, the notebook I used as mine was referenced by others as \u201cyour notebook\u201d (it even had my name on it) even though it wasn\u2019t mine but rather the company\u2019s property. Yet when it was filled, they took possession of it and archived it. This concept of ownership has become a stumbling block in some organizations when they decide to install an ELN or laboratory information management system (LIMS), particularly if there are people who have been working there for a long time and have ingrained behaviors. Those people become concerned that someone is going to see their work in an incomplete state before they\u2019ve reviewed and completed it. It\u2019s their work and they don\u2019t want anyone to look at it until it\u2019s done. While the true owners of the work have always had that right, they may not have exercised it, respecting people\u2019s privacy until the work is complete. If you\u2019re considering an informatics system, does it address that concern about ownership?\n\nBringing informatics into the lab \nSo far this guide has hinted at the implications of adding laboratory informatics systems into the laboratory, but now it's time to discuss it further. Deciding how and when to bring such systems into the lab depends on a number of factors.\n1. What is the lab's budget? If an informatics implementation can't be properly funded, don\u2019t start that implementation until it can be. The cost of a laptop computer is trivial compared to the total cost of implementation.\n2. Do we have in-house access to educated and experienced IT support? That staff should understand that laboratory operations are not just another PC- or Microsoft-dominated arena, but rather an environment which has needs for informatics solutions beyond the typical office solutions. For example, laboratory instruments need to be connected to computers, and the resulting data stores should ideally be integrated to make the data more actionable.\n3. Are laboratory staff ready to use the technologies and take responsibility for the things that go with it? Staff must be trained in more than how to operate an instrument. Can they back up data? Do they understand the security and data privacy risks associated with handling the data?\n4. Are organizational policies flexible enough to allow practical use of the technology while still keeping security and data privacy risks in mind? The organization should have some sort of network access both internally and externally. Remote access should be possible, particularly given the circumstances surrounding pandemics and the like. A balanced policy on taking an organizational laptop out of the laboratory should be in place. Policies on cameras should also be reasonable, allowing researchers to capture images of samples and specimens for their notebooks. If organizational policies are too restrictive, the technology's usefulness is largely overshadowed.\n5. What are the lab's space constraints? The size of a lab and the experiments it must conduct can affect the choice of informatics tools.\n6. What is the nature of the lab's operations? Is it a research lab, service lab, or a combination of both? If you are in a service lab situation, bringing in informatics support as early as possible is essential to your workflow and sanity. You want to minimize having to deal with two separate processes and procedures: the old way we did it (paper-based) and the informatics-supported way.\n7. Is your lab\u2019s operation governed by external regulatory requirements? If it\u2019s going to be in the future, you may as well start as though it currently is. Note that everything should be validated, regardless of whether or not the lab is subject regulations. Validation isn't done to satisfy regulators but rather to prove that a process works properly. If you don\u2019t have that proof, what\u2019s the point of using that process? Do you really want to trust what a process produces without proof that it works?\nMost of the points above are easily understood, but let's go into further detail. Let's start by looking at a simple case of you and your project, where you are the sole contributor, without any need for regulatory oversight. Your primary need is to record your planning notes, observations, results, etc. There are tools within the world of computer software to help with this, most notably the word processor. If you have access to one of those, you probably also have access to spreadsheets and other applications that can make your efforts far easier than working with paper. If you search Google for \u201cword processors as lab notebooks\u201d you will find a number of references, including Dr. Martin Engel's guide to using Microsoft OneNote as an ELN&#91;5&#93; and Labforward's 2020 ELN selection guide.&#91;6&#93;\nHowever, simply switching from paper to electronic doesn't mean you're done. There's more to consider, like developing backup policies, addressing witness review, connecting to instruments, and addressing the effects of team expansion, including expanding to more comprehensive purpose-built informatics solutions.\n\nBackup strategy \nYou have the electronic documentation tools and the skills to use them, but what else do you need? A backup strategy is imperative. Imagine a scenario where you are using a desktop computer, laptop, or tablet to do your work and it has one copy of the document you\u2019ve been working on for weeks. You press the power button one morning and nothing happens. However, you are not (completely) worried or panicked but rather largely calm because:\n\nyou have a local backup on removable media (e.g., flash drive, disk), several instances, in fact, that were backed up at least daily, with backups containing everything on the system you were using (you may have a separate backup of your project);\nyou have a remote backup on your organization's servers (perhaps on a virtual machine);\nyou have a cloud-based backup of at least your project files, and as much of the system files that the cloud storage permits (depending on bandwidth and cost), all secured with two-factor authentication; and\ndepending on the operating system you are using, you may have built-in backup-and-recover abilities, e.g. as with Mac OS X's \"Time Machine\" functionality.\nYou've done these things because you've asked yourself \"how much is my work worth to me and my organization?\"\n\nWitness review or sign-off \nThe need for a witness review or sign-off can occur for several reasons, including a potential patent filing or proof that the work was done and data recorded properly, on a certain date, in case it is challenged. One of the ramifications is that you have to identify a second person to be that witness (though this would also be the case if you were using a paper notebook).\nA second issue is that you would have to format the pages of your word processor document (using templates) so as to emulate a signature block and page numbering structure that meets the requirements noted earlier for paper notebooks. You also have to provide a means for either physical (printouts) or electronic signatures (e.g., Adobe Acrobat and other applications provide a useful template that could be used as a lab notebook in this case, doing a cut-and-paste from a Word file). You would also have to ensure that once dated and signed, no edits could be made to that material. If you choose the printed route, then you\u2019re back to paper management. One possibility for dealing with that is to scan the signed pages and upload them to a secure server using the file server's date and time stamp system, or to a document management system to demonstrate that documents haven\u2019t been changed.\nThere is another possibility for time-stamping printed material that is scanned with a high-quality scanner. The concept of machine identification code or \"tracking dots\" allows a set of barely perceptible, forensically traceable colored dots to be printed onto pages, with the arrangement of the dots providing information that identifies the printer (by serial number), as well as the date and time a page was printed. Recent research has demonstrated ways to decode these dots for analysis, particularly as part of printer forensics.&#91;7&#93;&#91;8&#93;\n\nInstrument-computer integration \nUsing a computer to host a laboratory notebook raises another concern: how can lab instruments or separate instrument data systems connect to automatically transmit data and information to the computer? Controlled data collection will require software beyond a simple word processor, though many of today's ELN vendors provide integration components with their solutions. This connection, possibly using a spreadsheet import, will greatly improve laboratory productivity and the reliability of data transfers.\n\nExpanding the research team \nIncreasing the size of your project by adding more people will have a significant impact on the complexity of using a more electronic laboratory workflow. However, while the basic issues of sharing, collaboration, etc. are not any different than they would be if paper-based notebooks were in use, the electronic solutions to handling those issues are much more useful. At the core of an expanded laboratory operation is getting personnel to agree on how they are going to communicate data and information, how they are going to collaborate using that data and information, and how they will make that agreement sustainable. There is going to be some small allowance for individual approaches to laboratory activities, but critical matters such as data organization and management need to be strictly adhered to. As such, there are several issues to be mindful of.\n1. How will data and information be organized and compiled? If multiple people are contributing to a project, the results of their work need to be organized in one place so that the status of the work can be ascertained, missing data can be identified, and material is easier to work with. As a project's direction evolves, the formatting and content may change, potentially requiring a complete overhaul of the data structure. That is just a consequence of the way research programs progress.\n2. How will data and information be updated, versioned, and retained? If your lab works with paper files, this isn't so difficult. The lab may have one printed file detailing experimental methods, and when that method file gets updated, the old printed document is removed and the new one added. In labs where each person has their own individual method file, the process would be repeated for each person. As such, there's no confusion as to the current version; methods would have revision histories so that you would know why they were changed. In cases where those methods are kept in electronic files, more attention has to be paid to ensuring that old method files are archived, and that everyone is working with the same version. This means clear communications procedures are essential. Additionally, the name of the file should have the current revision information; don\u2019t rely on the computer's creation or modification dates for files.\n3. How is access to common files controlled? Having people edit or add to common files without careful lockout controls is dangerous. If two people open the same document at the same time and make changes, the one who saves the file last can overwrite any changes the other individual has made. You need a document management system that prevents this; if a file is checked out by one person, others may read it but not write to it until the first person is done. Old versions of files should be archived but not deleted so that a detailed revision history is maintained.\nIf an organization grows too large for a consensus-based cooperation of people using office suite products, it will be time to transition to a more purpose-built solution like a multiuser ELN that is capable of allowing multiple people to contribute to a project simultaneously, providing a common organization for data and information, and allowing users to either import data from an instrument or have a direct connection between the ELN and the instrument data system (or through the use of scientific data management system [SDMS]). But how large is too large? It may be the point when personnel become frustrated with waiting for access to documents, or when processes just don\u2019t seem to move as smoothly as they used to. While there is a significant cost factor in implementing an ELN, it should be done sooner rather than later so your lab can benefit from the organizational structure that an ELN provides and reduce the amount of effort it will take to import data and information into the structure. Ideally you are better off if you can start your work with an ELN once the initial project startup work is taken care of. \nELNs afford a number of additional benefits, including but not limited to access to:\n\nvendor databases for ordering supplies and managing inventory,\nchemical structure databases,\nreaction databases, and\nexternal libraries.\nELNs are appropriate for both basic research and applied research, including work in testing labs where method development and special project work is being done. The prior bulleted list might give you the impression that ELN are oriented toward chemistry; however, that is a reflection of my experience not the industry. The ELN is used in many other industries. Several examples of ELNs past and present, covering many industries, are listed below.\n\nLabTech Notebook was released in 1986 and discontinued in 2004, and it was designed to provide communications between computers and laboratory instruments that used RS-232 serial communications. This ELN was applicable to a variety of industries and disciplines.\nSmartLab from Velquest was released in the early 2000s and was the first commercial product to carry the \"electronic laboratory notebook\" identifier. It was designed as a platform to encode and guide people conducting lab procedures in GLP\/GMP\/GALP environments. Now owned by Dassault Syst\u00e8mes and rebranded as a laboratory execution system (LES) as part of the BIOVIA product line, the solution's same conceptual functionality has since been incorporated into LIMS and ELNs that fit the more current expectation for an ELN.\nWolfram Research has as series of notebook products geared toward mathematics.\nThere is a growing list of ELN systems in a variety of disciplines. Given that the scope of activities an ELN can cover is fairly broad, you have to be careful to define your needs before uttering the words \u201cwe\u2019re going to implement an ELN.\u201d We\u2019ll address that point later.\nThe organization of an ELN application is flexible. The layout is user-defined and can contain queryable text, figures, graphics, and fields for instrument-generated data. Because the ELN is inherently flexible and there usually isn\u2019t any quick-start structure, you have to know what you are looking for in a product and how you want to use it. This requires quality due-dilligence research. \u201cIf only I had known\u201d are among the saddest words after product selection.\nSome organizations have chosen to develop their own ELNs. That is something that should be undertaken with fear and trepidation. Part of the original justification for this route is typically based on the belief that you have special needs that can't be met otherwise. Another concern may be that you don\u2019t want to tie yourself to a vendor that may go out of business. Those points are more a matter of product selection criteria than a justification for a software development project. If you do choose to go with an internal or even a contracted development route, you will potentially have to live with a product that has just one customer (unless the contractor decides to productize it, which is an entirely different discussion). You will also be saddled with the support of that product for the rest of its functional life. And that doesn\u2019t even get into the \"who\" of software product management and development, the \u201cwhen will it be done,\u201d and the inevitable scope creep (i.e., the change and expansions of development requirements). In the initial stages of research projects, the organization of data is subject to change as needs change. This is often at the behest of \u201cunstructured\u201d data and the need to manage it. (Note that it isn\u2019t that the data is truly unstructured, it\u2019s just in a variable structure until the project finds its direction.) This can lead to frustration in setting up a commercial ELN system, let alone designing one from scratch. The next section will look at an organization that is more highly structured.\n\nMeeting the needs of the testing laboratory \nThe earlier print shop description will give you an idea of the workflow of a testing or service lab, for example a quality control (QC) lab. In a manually managed QC or research laboratory, operations can become overwhelming quickly. Imagine a study of 40 samples&#91;b&#93; with multiple tests per sample, each of which has to be individually cataloged. Actually I don\u2019t have to imagine it; it happened frequently in our lab, which supported several research groups. When one of these large sample sets shows up\u2014and sometimes more than one\u2014you don't talk to the person doing the sample logging for fear of disrupting their required concentration. You can get them coffee, but no talking.\nWith a LIMS, this isn't so much an issue. You can log in one sample or a hundred, simply by telling it the starting sample ID, how many samples, and what tests should be scheduled. The LIMS then organizes everything and prints the labels for each sample. With some systems, the requestor of a test can even log them in from a web portal, and the central LIMS automatically updates when the samples actually arrive in the lab. \nA LIMS makes life easier for laboratories in a number of other ways as well. Want to find a list of samples that are pending a particular test? A quality LIMS can readily display that information, including the sample numbers, priorities, and current locations, with no need to manually check work request sheets. Does a third party want to find out the status of one or more of their in-process samples? Role-based access management means a third party can receive limited access to view that status, without seeing anyone else's sensitive data. What about verifying and approving results? The LIMS can provide some level of results checking, with final verification and approval by lab management. When approved, the reports for each set of requests can be printed, emailed, or stored for portal access. And what about integrating data and systems? The LIMS can be connected to an instrument data system (IDS). Depending on the sophistication of that system, the LIMS can generate a worklist of samples that needs to be processed by that device, with the list downloaded to the IDS. When the work is completed, the results can be uploaded directly to the LIMS. This type of system interaction is one of the places where significant productivity gains can be had.\nThe key attributes of a LIMS are shown in Figure 6.\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 6. Slide detailing the core components of a LIMS, from A Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization's Work, Part 1: Laboratory Informatics Technologies, a webinar series by Joe Liscouski\n\n\n\nThese are just the highlights of what a LIMS can do. Why is a LIMS more effective out-of-the-box than an ELN? The operational behavior of testing labs is essentially the same across industries and disciplines, and as a result vendors have a more predictable and stable base of customers and user requirements to work against than an ELN. It\u2019s a bit like comparing home building contractors. Some have a basic structural architecture that they can modify to meet the needs of a broad market. Others do completely custom homes from the basement up, each of which is unique. The economies of scale and a broader, more predictable customer base show up in products that are easier to work with and adapt both for the primary vendor and those providing add-ons. Those LIMS add-ons include specialized facilities for different industries, including enology and viticulture analysis, water treatment, mineral analysis, cannabis testing, and clinical diagnostics (though the system used in the clinical setting is typically referred to as a laboratory information system or LIS). Regardless, and as is the case with ELNs, you want to install a LIMS as soon as you are able to avoid issues surrounding differing workflows based on pre- and post-implementation.\n\nOther laboratory informatics systems \nWe've mentioned a few other systems in passing, but here we'll provide a brief overview of a few of them.\n\n Scientific data management system (SDMS) \nThe SDMS helps laboratories better solve the problem of dealing with a large number of data files that are being generated, basically by acting as a giant file cabinet that LIMS, ELN, and IDS can connect to. For example, you may not want to put large datasets, spectra, etc. in a LIMS or ELN, you but still have to reference those large files within other internal LIMS and ELN files. This is where the SDMS steps in, storing those large files in the \"file cabinet\" while maintaining references and metadata that are usable by other informatics systems.\n\n Laboratory execution system (LES) \nYou may not know about them, but there are lesser-known systems called LES that are designed to ensure testing protocols are executed properly and that all the data that is necessary is properly recorded. The initial incarnation arose from the previously discussed SmartLab&#91;c&#93;, a stand-alone product that would guide an analyst through the steps of an analysis, recording each detail of the work in a file that regulatory agencies could inspect to ensure that work was done properly. It found a ready market in any lab that needed to meet GLP\/GMP requirements. The functionality needed to create the same capability can be found in some LIMS and ELNs, but programming is required.\n\n Instrument data system (IDS) \nAny laboratory instrument popular in the marketplace has had a computer either attached to it or built into it as a package. That\u2019s what an IDS is. It provides automated control over an instrument, collecting and analyzing the data produced by the measuring components. Depending on the sophistication of the vendor, and the demands of the marketplace, the connections between the IDS and another laboratory informatics solution may range from user-programmable interfaces (via a network, USB, serial, or digital I\/O connection) to built-in communications systems that are almost plug-and-play. The latter are most commonly found in the clinical chemistry market, where a great deal of attention has been paid to integration and systems communication via Health Level 7 (HL7) and related protocols. (The details, however, are beyond the scope of this document.)\n\nPlanning for laboratory informatics \nThere are two key requirements to the successful implementation of informatics products: education and planning. \n\nEducation \nAs far as education goes, the webinar series noted in Figure 6 is a good tool, as are documents provided by technical standards body ASTM International. ASTM documents that may be of value to you include:\n\nASTM E1578-18 Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics&#91;9&#93;\nASTM E1578-13 Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics&#91;10&#93; (contains some information not found in 2018 version)\nASTM E1947-98(2014) Standard Specification for Analytical Data Interchange Protocol for Chromatographic Data&#91;11&#93;\nASTM D8244-21 Standard Guide for Analytical Laboratory Operations Supporting the Cannabis\/Hemp Industry&#91;12&#93;\nIf you search the ASTM website for \"LIMS\" or \"informatics,\" you'll be surprised by the amount of other material that shows up.\nOther sources of educational material include:\n\nThe Tutorial section of LIMSforum.com&#91;13&#93;\nLaboratory Information Systems Project Management: A Guidebook for International Implementations, by the APHL\nLaboratory Informatics Guide 2021, by Scientific Computing World&#91;14&#93;\nLab Manager magazine, published by LabX Media Group&#91;15&#93;\nComputerized Systems in the Modern Laboratory: A Practical Guide, by Joe Liscouski&#91;16&#93;\nAny vendor with an informatics product will send you a nearly endless stream of material.\nUltimately, however, the responsibility for informatics implementation projects doesn't exist solely on the shoulders of laboratory personnel. Everyone connected with a laboratory implementing informatics solutions should have some level of awareness regarding laboratory informatics, including upper management. However, the level of knowledge required may vary slightly depending on the role. For example, laboratory personnel should be fully educated on common laboratory technologies at a minimum. They should also understand why an informatics project is being considered, what the scope of the implementation will be, and what their role will be in the implementation. Upper management should remember to ask laboratory personnel for input on the project, including the topic of product requirements, in order for personnel to feel like they are part of the process, not simply an observer or \"something that's happening to them.\" Finally, laboratory personnel should understand how their jobs are going to change once the implementation is complete. This needs to be addressed very early in project discussions; it is a matter of change, and change scares people, particularly if it affects their job and income. This is not a \u201cwe\u2019ll deal with that later\u201d point. Don\u2019t start the discussion until you figure this out. Things may change, but people want security.\nOf course, any information technology (IT) personnel will also be involved, requiring significant knowledge about not only networking and software installations but also systems integrations. IT personnel need to understand their role in the implementation project, which can include support, project management, evaluating the vendor support capabilities, and more. They should also be fully aware of and understand the technologies the organization is considering for implementation, and they will be a vital part of the project planning and vendor selection process. IT personnel also will be interested in questions about any enterprise resource planning (ERP) aspects, which may raise issues of \"build or buy.\" The organization needs to be prepared to both address these concerns and gain IT personnel as strong supporters of the project.\nFinally, upper management\u2014those who are going to approve the project and provide funding\u2014need to be educated enough to understand the benefits and risks of the proposed implementation, including the likely time scale for the work. Upper management will need to be active in the project in at least two critical junctures, plus at specific milestones as needed. The first time upper management will need informed participation will be during initial project planning. They will help the organization lay out the issues that need to be addressed, the scope of options that will be investigated, and how the organization is going to proceed. They may pose questions such as \u201ccan we use existing system to solve the problem,\u201d particularly if there already has been an investment in an ERP solution such as SAP. Such technology questions will also be of interest to IT personnel since they have an investment in those systems. The second time upper management needs to undoubtedly be involved is when the actual project proposal is finished and is ready to be pitched. They will ask need to ask questions about the reasoning behind the choices made, why current systems are insufficient, what kind of investment the project will require, how the implementation will be scheduled, and how the roll-out would be planned. Understanding the answers to these and other questions will be difficult if upper management doesn\u2019t understand the technology, the issues, the options, and the benefits of the proposed laboratory informatics project.\nIf the world of informatics is new to any or all these stakeholders, the organization must consider getting outside support (not from a vendor) to guide the organization through the process of evaluating the lab's operations, scoping out an overall implementation program, dividing it into milestones, setting priorities, and developing user requirements.\n\nPlanning \nThe whole point of project planning is to get your organization from the starting point to the end goal, preferably using the most effective path. So, where is the organization going, and why? Everything pretty much boils down to those two questions. Once those questions are answered, more will arise concerning how the organization is actually going to get to the project's end goal.\nInitial planning will look at the lab from a standpoint of the minimum number of computers required to do the work. In some cases, perhaps just those computational systems built into instruments will be sufficient. Whatever the decision, that\u2019s the planning baseline. Then consider what kind of lab it is: a research lab, a service lab, or a blend? That helps direct concentration on potential solutions; however, be sure not to completely eliminate other options just yet. For example, if your lab is a QC lab, it's probably a service lab in need of a LIMS, but even then there are still options to evaluate.\nFrom there, the organization must also think in terms of where that baseline lab is going to be in five years; it\u2019s an arbitrary number but a starting point. Why that far out? It will take a year or two to plan, implement, validate, and educate people to work with the new systems and for the lab to change its behavior and settle down to a new mode of working. The organization should also consider what other changes are likely to take place. What new equipment, procedures, and management changes can be anticipated? Ideally any implemented informatics system will be in place and stable for a few years before people start asking for significant changes; minor ones will likely happen early on. Any hint of \u201cwe didn\u2019t plan for that\u201d will be viewed as poor leadership. Figure 7 shows some of the key points you need to look at during planning.\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 7. Slide detailing considerations of laboratory informatics implementation in the lab, from A Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization's Work, Part 4: LIMS\/LIS, ELN, SDMS, IT &amp; Education, a webinar series by Joe Liscouski\n\n\n\nAnother factor that needs to be considered is that the considerations shown in Figure 7 can be repeated for each lab in the organization. The project planning team also needs to consider how current laboratory workflow impacts other labs. Are there synergistic effects that can be gained by broadening the scope of what the lab is doing?\n\nWhy projects fail \nWe shouldn't finish the planning section of this guide without discussing why laboratory informatics implementation projects can and do fail. These types of projects are large software projects, and delays, cost over-runs, and failures are common (but hopefully not for your organization's project). Just Google \"why IT projects fail\" and read through some anecdotes. The following are some common reasons informatics implementation projects fail.\n\nInsufficient budgeting: Projects can run short of funding, requiring an awkward meeting with management asking for additional funding (without a project change to account for it), inevitably showing a lack of foresight and planning. Build in a large contingency fund because the unexpected happens. If you\u2019d like some education on the topic, watch a few episodes of any home upgrade project on HGTV, in particular Love It or List It.&#91;d&#93;\nInsufficient management support: If sufficient communication isn\u2019t made with management, problems may arise. For example, project delays are a fact of life. Keep clear communications with upper management so that they, and everyone else on the project, know what is going on. Miscommunication or lack of communication of other aspects of the project may inevitably doom the project.\nPoor understanding of the scope and nature of the project: This is an educational issue, and a lack of education for all involved parties is almost a guarantee of failure. If you need help, bring in an independent consultant who can lend confidence to the project and its management.\nLack of quality or attention to detail: \u201cThere is always time to do it over, but not enough to do it right\u201d is a common complaint in engineering projects. If you hear it on your organization's project, you are in trouble. Basically the complaint is that project members are cutting corners and not doing things properly, and in a way that is not supportable. This never ends well; sometimes not quickly, but in the long run it leads to problems.\nPoor or unrealistic timelines: You may as well face reality from the start: an aggressive timeline just leads to problems (see bullet above). Timelines expand, but they almost never get shorter. If the project team is always rushing, something will most certainly get missed, causing problems later down the road.\nPoor project management: Well-managed projects are obvious, and so are poorly managed ones. Just watch the people working, their demeanor, and their attitude about the work; it will tell you all you need to know. Well-managed projects may not always run smoothly, but they make consistent progress. Poorly managed projects cause you to make excuses.\nClosing \nThis guide is like the directory signs in shopping malls: they tell you where you are and what shops and restaurants in the facility to consider. Once you figure out what you are looking for, you can find your way there. Hopefully in reading this you\u2019ve formed an idea of what you want to look at and what your path to finding it is.\n\nFootnotes \n\n\n\u2191 According to Greek mythology (from the E2BN Myths page): \"Long long ago, when Queen Athena (Zeus's daughter) was born, Zeus blessed her with two boons for when she came of age. After almost 15 years, Athena was told to think up two things to ask for ... 1) To have a city in Greece named after her (Athens) [and] 2) To have all the people of the world see her face every day of the year (what you are seeing are only her eyes). Thus, the sky is blue, just like the color of Athena's eyes...\" \n\n\u2191 In some life science drug screening studies, the number can be far higher, which is where robotics and automation becomes important. \n\n\u2191 A name that has been used by conference organizers after the product was sold and renamed. If you do a Google search on \u201cSmartLab,\u201d you may be surprised at what turns up. \n\n\u2191 Some season highlights can be found on the HGTV website. \n\n\nAbout the author \nInitially educated as a chemist, author Joe Liscouski (joe dot liscouski at gmail dot com) is an experienced laboratory automation\/computing professional with over forty years of experience in the field, including the design and development of automation systems (both custom and commercial systems), LIMS, robotics and data interchange standards. He also consults on the use of computing in laboratory work. He has held symposia on validation and presented technical material and short courses on laboratory automation and computing in the U.S., Europe, and Japan. He has worked\/consulted in pharmaceutical, biotech, polymer, medical, and government laboratories. His current work centers on working with companies to establish planning programs for lab systems, developing effective support groups, and helping people with the application of automation and information technologies in research and quality control environments.\n\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 \"Duplicate Lined Notebook\".&#32;Scientific Bindery Productions, Inc.&#32;https:\/\/scientificbindery.com\/products\/duplicate-lined-notebook\/ .&#32;Retrieved 12 May 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 West, D.&#32;(10 January 2024).&#32;\"GMP\/GLP Recordkeeping\".&#32;St. Louis Community College, Center for Plant and Life Sciences.&#32;https:\/\/users.stlcc.edu\/departments\/fvbio\/Lab_Practices_GLP_STLCC.htm .&#32;Retrieved 12 May 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 National Institutes of Health&#32;(December 2008).&#32;\"Guidelines for Scientific Record Keeping in the Intramural Research Program at the NIH\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Office of the Director.&#32;https:\/\/oir.nih.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/uploads\/sourcebook\/documents\/ethical_conduct\/guidelines-scientific_recordkeeping.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 12 May 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Pain, E.&#32;(3 September 2019).&#32;\"How to keep a lab notebook\".&#32;Science.&#32;doi:10.1126\/science.caredit.aaz3678.&#32;https:\/\/www.sciencemag.org\/careers\/2019\/09\/how-keep-lab-notebook .&#32;Retrieved 12 May 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Engel, M.&#32;(December 2015).&#32;\"Blog: How to use onenote as your electronic lab book\".&#32;MartinEngel.net.&#32;http:\/\/martinengel.net\/2015\/12\/how-to-use-onenote-as-your-electronic-notebook\/ .&#32;Retrieved 12 May 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Bungers, S.&#32;(2020).&#32;\"The Electronic Lab Notebook in 2020: A comprehensive guide\".&#32;Labforward GmbH.&#32;https:\/\/www.labfolder.com\/electronic-lab-notebook-eln-research-guide .&#32;Retrieved 12 May 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Richter, T.; Escher, S.; Sch\u00f6nfeld, D. et al.&#32;(2018).&#32;\"Forensic Analysis and Anonymisation of Printed Documents\".&#32;Proceedings of the 6th ACM Workshop on Information Hiding and Multimedia Security: 127\u201338.&#32;doi:10.1145\/3206004.3206019. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Baraniuk, C.&#32;(7 June 2017).&#32;\"Why printers add secret tracking dots\".&#32;BBC Future.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 02 November 2019.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20191102031255\/https:\/\/www.bbc.com\/future\/article\/20170607-why-printers-add-secret-tracking-dots .&#32;Retrieved 13 May 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ASTM E1578-18 Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics\".&#32;ASTM International.&#32;2018.&#32;doi:10.1520\/E1578-18.&#32;https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1578.htm .&#32;Retrieved 13 May 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ASTM E1578-13 Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics\".&#32;ASTM International.&#32;2013.&#32;doi:10.1520\/E1578-13.&#32;https:\/\/www.astm.org\/DATABASE.CART\/HISTORICAL\/E1578-13.htm .&#32;Retrieved 13 May 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ASTM E1947-98(2014) Standard Specification for Analytical Data Interchange Protocol for Chromatographic Data\".&#32;ASTM International.&#32;2014.&#32;doi:10.1520\/E1947-98R14.&#32;https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1947.htm .&#32;Retrieved 13 May 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ASTM D8244-21 Standard Guide for Analytical Laboratory Operations Supporting the Cannabis\/Hemp Industry\".&#32;ASTM International.&#32;2021.&#32;doi:10.1520\/D8244-21.&#32;https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/D8244.htm .&#32;Retrieved 13 May 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Tutorials\".&#32;LIMSforum.&#32;LabLynx, Inc.&#32;https:\/\/www.limsforum.com\/category\/education\/tutorials-education\/ .&#32;Retrieved 13 May 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Laboratory Informatics Guide 2021\".&#32;Scientific Computing World.&#32;2021.&#32;https:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/issue\/laboratory-informatics-guide-2021 .&#32;Retrieved 13 May 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Lab Manager\".&#32;LabX Media Group.&#32;2021.&#32;https:\/\/www.labmanager.com\/magazine .&#32;Retrieved 13 May 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Liscouski, J.G.&#32;(2015).&#32;Computerized Systems in the Modern Laboratory: A Practical Guide.&#32;DHI Publishing.&#32;pp.&#160;432.&#32;ISBN&#160;9781933722863.&#32;https:\/\/www.dhibooks.com\/computerized-systems-in-the-modern-laboratory-a-practical-guide . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:The_Application_of_Informatics_to_Scientific_Work:_Laboratory_Informatics_for_Newbies\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:The_Application_of_Informatics_to_Scientific_Work:_Laboratory_Informatics_for_Newbies<\/a>\nCategory: LII:Guides, white papers, and other publicationsNavigation menuPage actionsLIIDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsLIIDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 1 June 2022, at 22:14.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 4,180 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","d8b467af534a70312a21f63b61be26cd_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-202 ns-subject page-LII_The_Application_of_Informatics_to_Scientific_Work_Laboratory_Informatics_for_Newbies rootpage-LII_The_Application_of_Informatics_to_Scientific_Work_Laboratory_Informatics_for_Newbies skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">LII:The Application of Informatics to Scientific Work: Laboratory Informatics for Newbies<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p><b>Title<\/b>: <i>The Application of Informatics to Scientific Work: Laboratory Informatics for Newbies<\/i>\n<\/p><p><b>Author for citation<\/b>: Joe Liscouski, with editorial modifications by Shawn Douglas\n<\/p><p><b>License for content<\/b>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International<\/a>\n<\/p><p><b>Publication date<\/b>: April 2021\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Introduction\">Introduction<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The purpose of this piece is to introduce people who are not intimately familiar with <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33\">laboratory<\/a> work to the basics of laboratory operations and the role that <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Informatics_(academic_field)\" title=\"Informatics (academic field)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0391318826a5d9f9a1a1bcc88394739f\">informatics<\/a> can play in assisting scientists, engineers, and technicians in their efforts. The concepts are important because they provide a functional foundation for understanding lab work and how that work is done in the early part of the twenty-first century (things will change, just wait for it).\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Intended_audience\">Intended audience<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This material is intended for anyone who is interested in seeing how modern informatics tools can help those doing scientific work. It will provide an orientation to scientific and laboratory work, as well as the systems that have been developed to make that work more productive. It\u2019s for people coming out of school who have carried out lab experiments but not corporate research projects, for those who need to understand how testing labs work, and for IT professionals who may be faced with supporting computing systems in lab environments. It\u2019s also for those who may be tasked with managing projects to choose, install, and make informatics tools useful.\n<\/p><p>Figure 1 shows the elements we\u2019ll be discussing in this piece. The treatment of the technical material will be on the lighter side, leaving in-depth subject matter to other works. Instrument data systems will be covered lightly, as any serious discussion becomes lengthy and discipline-specific very quickly; additionally, that material has been covered <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Notes_on_Instrument_Data_Systems\" title=\"LII:Notes on Instrument Data Systems\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b7330228fd59158aab6fab82ad0e7cc\">in other works<\/a>.\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig1_Liscouski_AppInfoSciWork21.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd326d7208c88d3103f5af9e4a306269\"><img alt=\"Fig1 Liscouski AppInfoSciWork21.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/5\/5c\/Fig1_Liscouski_AppInfoSciWork21.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 1.<\/b> Elements we\u2019ll be covering<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Types_of_scientific_and_laboratory_work\">Types of scientific and laboratory work<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Science is about seeking truthful answers to questions. Sometimes those questions are open-ended without any idea where they will lead you in answering them (e.g. \u201cWhy does water ice float?\u201d). Others are very specific, concerning material composition or properties (e.g., \u201cHow much lead is in this drinking water?\u201d, \u201cHow much does a butterfly weigh?\u201d). Still others may take some effort before you determine the best approach to working on them. The approach someone uses to address these questions depends on the nature of the question; some are destined for research, while others are addressed using specific test methods.\n<\/p><p>There are two types of research: basic and applied. Both can include field work, observations, experiments, models (mathematical, computer, and simulation), etc. Applied research is also done in testing or service laboratories, as with, for example, the development of new methods of analysis.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Basic_and_applied_research\">Basic and applied research<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Basic research is open-ended, as you are looking into something without any idea of where the work will lead. It is often funded by grants through universities or government institutions; continued support depends on the perceived value of the research. Projects can range in size from the work of a single individual to a small team to large-scale groups studying astronomy, high-energy physics, engineering, the life sciences, or a number of fields.\n<\/p><p>Applied research, on the other hand, is directed toward a goal. That goal could be a cure for a disease, the development of a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/COVID-19\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"COVID-19\" data-key=\"da9bd20c492b2a17074ad66c2fe25652\">COVID-19<\/a> vaccine, or work towards <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c45a597361ca47e1cd8112af676276e\">artificial intelligence<\/a> (AI). As with basic research, until some early goals have been reached the work may begin with a single individual or a small team, and then the project scales up. The effort may be broken down into a set of more narrowly focused efforts, whose results will be combined as the development proceeds. Since applied research is goal-directed, funding will depend upon who benefits from those goals being met. Projects of national interest, including security, may be wholly or partially funded by the government. Projects with a commercial interest tend to be funded by corporate interests, including individual companies in their own laboratories or through contract research organizations with expertise useful to the program. Where there is interest from a number of corporate and\/or government groups, consortiums may form to distribute the cost and share in the results.\n<\/p><p>Both basic and applied research can be found in government institutions (including military groups, research and development agencies like the Defense Advanced Research Project Agency [DARPA], and task-specific institutions such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/National_Institutes_of_Health\" title=\"National Institutes of Health\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e5c215c48e73ae58b0695dc2af951cd0\">National Institutes of Health<\/a> [NIH]), public and private non-profit groups, corporations, consortia, and contract research organizations.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"The_research_process\">The research process<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The research process begins with a question. Any question will do, including \u201cwhy is the sky blue?\u201d We\u2019ll bypass Greek mythology<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">&#91;a&#93;<\/a><\/sup> by asking more questions and planning how to proceed to answer them. For example, \u201cIs the sky always blue?\u201d, \u201cWhen is\/isn\u2019t it?\u201d, and \u201cWhat other colors can it be?\u201d Once the process begins, it can include a number of steps, the choice and direction depending upon the nature of the research and the mindset of the researcher:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Observations: This includes basic note-taking with support material (text, photos, drawings, charts, and scanned material). Research (e.g., as with basic astronomy, field biology) can be as simple as looking something up on Google or as complex as understanding how a virus works. Research is about asking questions and looking for answers, which often leads to more questions. It\u2019s a little like my granddaughter who always asks \u201cwhy?\u201d no matter how well I answer the previous question (or at least how well I think I did).<\/li>\n<li>Enhanced observations: This includes interacting with items under observation, as well as non-directed interactions, preliminary data gathering, and behavioral analysis.<\/li>\n<li>Experiments and information gathering: This includes organized experiments that are planned, directed, and purpose-driven, as well as data and information gathering.<\/li>\n<li>Team building: This includes the creation of teams or networks of people working on the same or similar projects.<\/li>\n<li>Analytics and reporting: This includes data and information analysis, data modeling (e.g., mathematical, computer algorithm, and simulation), information synthesis, and knowledge creation.<\/li>\n<li>Technology acquisition: This includes gaining access to public, commercial, remote, and other types of databases to assist the research.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Pinning down a \u201ctypical\u201d approach to research isn\u2019t possible because the routes people follow are as individual as the researchers and their area of work are. However, this is generally not the case with testing labs.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Testing_laboratories\">Testing laboratories<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In addition to research labs, there are also testing or \"service\" laboratories. Service labs carry out specific test routines on samples and specimens; you may be familiar with them as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Quality_control\" title=\"Quality control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1e0e0c2eb3e45aff02f5d61799821f0f\">quality control<\/a> labs, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Clinical_laboratory\" title=\"Clinical laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"307bcdf1bdbcd1bb167cee435b7a5463\">clinical labs<\/a>, toxicology labs, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Forensic_laboratory\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Forensic laboratory\" data-key=\"dabef2566b55c1f13b395543b47ae81e\">forensic science labs<\/a>, etc. They are called service labs because they support other organizations, including research organizations, and they have similar modes of operation and work organization, running different tests depending on their area of specialization.\n<\/p><p>Contract testing labs are another flavor of service laboratories, acting as independent labs that do testing for a fee. These labs can offer capabilities and expertise that their customer doesn\u2019t have, either because the equipment is specialized and not frequently needed or because the customer is looking for a second opinion on an analysis.\n<\/p><p>Regardless of the type of service lab, they all have one thing in common: the way they function. For a moment let\u2019s forget about science and think about something else. Take for example a company that does graphics printing as a service to graphic designers and marketing groups. The company could offer a variety of printing services:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>business cards<\/li>\n<li>stationery (e.g., envelopes, letterhead, etc.)<\/li>\n<li>postcards<\/li>\n<li>brochures<\/li>\n<li>signs<\/li>\n<li>graphics for trade shows (including mounting of an image on backing, lightboxes, etc.)<\/li>\n<li>postal marketing services<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>In this scenario, customers can come into the shop and drop off work to be done or place orders online (the company website provides a good description of their services and products). One of their biggest concerns is <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow\" title=\"Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8\">workflow<\/a> management: what work is coming in, what is in progress, what is in quality control, and what is ready for delivery. Many activities may be associated with this workflow.\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Order acceptance: Log the job into a log book, the go-to reference for work orders. Add the corresponding work order to a binder of work orders; work orders can be removed from the binders as needed (for example, when people are working on the job) and returned when completed. Comments are made on the work order and referenced to an individual\u2019s notebook for details. Work orders shouldn\u2019t be duplicated since people may not be aware of the duplicates and information may be lost. This does add some inefficiency to the process if a work order contains multiple components (e.g., brochures and trade show graphics); if someone needs to work on a task and someone else has the work order, they have to find it. Work orders contain the names of graphics files and their location. Then a check is made to ensure all the needed information is there, notifying people if something is missing. This includes checking to see if the graphics files are available, in the correct format, etc. The priority of the work is determined with respect to other work. Then the customer is notified of the work order status and the expected completion date.<\/li>\n<li>Scheduling: The work order is assigned to one or more individuals for completion.<\/li>\n<li>Performing the work: This is where the actual work is performed, including task coordination if an order has multiple components.<\/li>\n<li>Customer service: This includes answering customer questions about the work order and addressing inquiries on completion date.<\/li>\n<li>Draft review: This involves obtaining customer sign-off on a prototype stage if required, making adjustments if needed, and then proceeding to completion.<\/li>\n<li>Quality control: This is where projects are reviewed and approved for completion.<\/li>\n<li>Delivery: This involves shipping the material back to the customer or notifying the customer the order is ready for pick-up.<\/li>\n<li>Billing: After satisfaction with the completed work is acknowledged, the work order is billed to the customer.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>When the shop has a large number of projects going on, such a manual, paper-based workflow is difficult and time-consuming to manage. Projects have to be scheduled so that they get done and don\u2019t interfere with other projects that might be on a tight deadline. And then there is inventory management, making sure you have the materials you need on hand when you need them. There is also the occasional rescheduling that occurs if equipment breaks down or someone is out sick. A simplified workflow based on the above is shown in Figure 2.\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig2_Liscouski_AppInfoSciWork21.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"e6a7aef6488ffa2faf96dfaaa770b627\"><img alt=\"Fig2 Liscouski AppInfoSciWork21.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/1\/14\/Fig2_Liscouski_AppInfoSciWork21.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 2.<\/b> Simplified print shop workflow, with some details omitted for clarity<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>Let's say our print shop has seven people working there. The owner manages the overall operation, and an administrator logs in work orders, notes the location of files that will be used on those orders, and does the final checkout of work, shipping, and billing. The remaining five people\u2014staff, although everyone is at the same organizational level\u2014take care of the actual production work; everyone is cross-trained, but some are more adept on some tasks than others.\n<\/p><p>Imagine you worked in this shop; how might your day go if you were one of the staff? The administrator will have prioritized the work depending on urgency and grouping similar work orders (or partial orders if there is request for multiple services) together. This is just a matter of efficiency: if you are using a particular piece of equipment and it has to be set up, calibrated, and cleaned when finished, you may as well make the most of that effort and run as many similar jobs as you can. Tracking down copies of work orders is an issue if someone is already working part of the order as there is only one copy so that notes and comments don\u2019t get lost. Each staff member has a notebook to keep track of work, any settings used on equipment, and comments about how the work progressed. These notebook entries are important and useful in case questions come up about a job, how it was run, and if any issues were encountered. As one set of jobs is completed, you move on to the next set. Inventory has to be checked to make sure that the needed materials are on-hand or ordered; if something is missing work has to be rescheduled. The workflow is a continual, organized mix of tasks, with people scheduling time on equipment as needed.\n<\/p><p>You can begin to appreciate how difficult the manual, paper-based workflow in a shop like that is to manage, particularly when it depends upon people communicating clearly. It is the same workflow as any service-oriented business, from a florist to a repair shop. What differs is the size of the organization, the complexity of the work, and the education needed to perform the required tasks.\n<\/p><p>Now let's get back to the service laboratory. The print shop workflow is much like the structural workflow of such a laboratory. In the end, it\u2019s the nature of the tasks; the complexity of equipment, instrumentation, and electronic systems used; and the education needed to carry out the work that sets the service laboratory apart from other service operations. However, there is one other, critical aspect that sets it apart: most service labs have to meet federal or industry regulations (e.g., the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_9000\" title=\"ISO 9000\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53ace2d12e80a7d890ce881bc6fe244a\">ISO 9000<\/a> family of standards) for their operations. \n<\/p><p>As noted earlier, there are many different types of service laboratories. The basic workflow is the same (see Figure 3 for one perspective on the commonalities of research and service laboratories), but the nature of the testing separates one from another. A water testing lab uses different test procedures than a toxicology lab does, or a clinical lab. Those working in different types of labs have to learn how to run different tests, and they also have to learn about the materials they work with. After all, people's observations about the material tested will differ depending upon how much experience they have with different kinds of materials. \n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig3_Liscouski_AppInfoSciWork21.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"ee73859dfa7a4ff773b8022433c7c3d9\"><img alt=\"Fig3 Liscouski AppInfoSciWork21.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/6\/62\/Fig3_Liscouski_AppInfoSciWork21.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 3.<\/b> This diagram represents one perspective on the relationship between laboratory types. This is a bit simplified, particularly on the roles of research labs. Large research facilities, or those in which waiting for test results impacts the progress of research work, may incorporate a \u201cservice lab\u201d function within their operations; the same workflow, just a merger of boxes. The downside of doing that is the loss of independent verification of test results, as people sometimes see what they want to see. This can be addressed by having critical and random samples analyzed independently.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>While workflows vary between research and service labs, there is one consistent factor that cuts across both: record keeping.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"The_laboratory_notebook\">The laboratory notebook<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"be60c7be96aba8e9a84537fd8835fa54\">laboratory notebook<\/a> has been a fixture in scientific work for centuries. The laboratory notebook is essentially a diary and can contain text, drawings, pasted photos, illustrations, charts, and so on. Historically, at least until the mid-1970s, it was a paper document that has evolved as legal and regulatory considerations have developed. Figure 4 shows part of Dr. Alexander Graham Bell\u2019s notebook.\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:AGBell_Notebook.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba0c4bed9e7d80a0155a84a8d79159bf\"><img alt=\"AGBell Notebook.jpg\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/0\/0c\/AGBell_Notebook.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 4.<\/b> Pages 40-41 of Alexander Graham Bell Family Papers in the Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, Public Domain<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>The format of today\u2019s paper notebooks has changed somewhat, and the process of using it has become more rigorous. Take for example Scientific Bindery Productions, a modern manufacturer of professional laboratory notebooks. The description for their duplicate lined notebook includes the following elements<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SBPDuplicate_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SBPDuplicate-2\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>table of contents<\/li>\n<li>instructions page, for how to use the notebook and address patent protection<\/li>\n<li>headers and footers, with legally defensible language<\/li>\n<li>headers that include title, project number, and book number fields, as well as a \"work continued from page\" section<\/li>\n<li>footers that include signature, date, disclosed to, and understood by fields, as well as a \"work continued to page\" section<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>The details of some of these points are called out in Figure 5, courtesy of Dr. Raquel Cumeras.\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig5_Liscouski_AppInfoSciWork21.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"2cb81832fb7493dc7d899dce7df6a005\"><img alt=\"Fig5 Liscouski AppInfoSciWork21.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/6\/65\/Fig5_Liscouski_AppInfoSciWork21.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 5.<\/b> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/science2knowledge.wordpress.com\/writing-the-laboratory-notebook\/\" target=\"_blank\">A lab notebook example<\/a>, courtesey of Dr. Raquel Cumeras, <i>Science 2 Knowledge<\/i> blog, 2019<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>Over the years, several guidelines have been published about the use of laboratory notebooks. Examples include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Good manufacturing practice (GMP) and good laboratory practice (GLP) recordkeeping, from David West, St. Louis Community College, Center for Plant and Life Sciences<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WestGMP_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WestGMP-3\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>NIH scientific recordkeeping guidelines, from the National Institutes of Health<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NIHGuidelines08_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NIHGuidelines08-4\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>General laboratory notebook guidelines, from <i>Science<\/i> editor Elisabeth Pain<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PainBow19_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PainBow19-5\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>A Google search of \"guidelines for maintaining laboratory notebooks\" or something similar will provide more examples, including those developed by leading universities.\n<\/p><p>At this point, you\u2019re probably wondering why we\u2019re spending so much time on this. The point: good record keeping is the foundation for documenting scientific work regardless of the media, be it paper or electronic. Yes, the laboratory notebook has an electronic equivalent: the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Electronic laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f\">electronic laboratory notebook<\/a> (ELN). These ELNs and other <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">laboratory informatics<\/a> systems have to support everything paper systems do or they will fail in ensuring the integrity of documented work.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Using_laboratory_records\">Using laboratory records<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Laboratory records, whether in laboratory notebooks or some other format, can be acted upon in many ways. Laboratory personnel interact with them by:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>recording observations, results, instrument data output, photos, and charts<\/li>\n<li>describing research processes, goals, and results<\/li>\n<li>ensuring the authenticity of laboratory work<\/li>\n<li>planning and collaborating on experiments<\/li>\n<li>extracting information for reporting<\/li>\n<li>backing up data<\/li>\n<li>querying data<\/li>\n<li>sharing data<\/li>\n<li>publishing data<\/li>\n<li>archiving and retrieving data<\/li>\n<li>securing data<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Everything on that list can be done with paper records; however, those activities are easier, faster, and less error prone with electronic systems. Paper records aren\u2019t going away anytime soon, for example when needing to record comments and information that may not have been provided for in electronic systems. This is particularly true as a project team expands from one person to more people. However, the need to have shared access to information becomes a limiting factor in productivity when we rely on paper-based systems. Paper-based systems also depend upon the proximity of people working together, something that became problematic during the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/COVID-19\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"COVID-19\" data-key=\"da9bd20c492b2a17074ad66c2fe25652\">COVID-19<\/a> pandemic. Social distancing requirements made sharing paper-based notebook pages more challenging, requiring scanning and emailing. This was perhaps feasible for small amounts of physical materials, but less so for large projects with significant paper-based records.\n<\/p><p>That brings up another important point concerning ownership: whose data is it? When people are handed a notebook, they are told \u201cthis is your notebook, a place to write down your work and observations, and you are responsible for it.\u201d Depending upon how employment or consulting contracts are written, the content that goes into the notebook belongs to whoever is paying for the work. When I worked in a lab, the notebook I used as mine was referenced by others as \u201cyour notebook\u201d (it even had my name on it) even though it wasn\u2019t mine but rather the company\u2019s property. Yet when it was filled, they took possession of it and archived it. This concept of ownership has become a stumbling block in some organizations when they decide to install an ELN or <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00\">laboratory information management system<\/a> (LIMS), particularly if there are people who have been working there for a long time and have ingrained behaviors. Those people become concerned that someone is going to see their work in an incomplete state before they\u2019ve reviewed and completed it. It\u2019s their work and they don\u2019t want anyone to look at it until it\u2019s done. While the true owners of the work have always had that right, they may not have exercised it, respecting people\u2019s privacy until the work is complete. If you\u2019re considering an informatics system, does it address that concern about ownership?\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Bringing_informatics_into_the_lab\">Bringing informatics into the lab<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>So far this guide has hinted at the implications of adding laboratory informatics systems into the laboratory, but now it's time to discuss it further. Deciding how and when to bring such systems into the lab depends on a number of factors.\n<\/p><p>1. What is the lab's budget? If an informatics implementation can't be properly funded, don\u2019t start that implementation until it can be. The cost of a laptop computer is trivial compared to the total cost of implementation.\n<\/p><p>2. Do we have in-house access to educated and experienced IT support? That staff should understand that laboratory operations are not just another PC- or Microsoft-dominated arena, but rather an environment which has needs for informatics solutions beyond the typical office solutions. For example, laboratory instruments need to be connected to computers, and the resulting data stores should ideally be integrated to make the data more actionable.\n<\/p><p>3. Are laboratory staff ready to use the technologies and take responsibility for the things that go with it? Staff must be trained in more than how to operate an instrument. Can they back up data? Do they understand the security and data privacy risks associated with handling the data?\n<\/p><p>4. Are organizational policies flexible enough to allow practical use of the technology while still keeping security and data privacy risks in mind? The organization should have some sort of network access both internally and externally. Remote access should be possible, particularly given the circumstances surrounding pandemics and the like. A balanced policy on taking an organizational laptop out of the laboratory should be in place. Policies on cameras should also be reasonable, allowing researchers to capture images of samples and specimens for their notebooks. If organizational policies are too restrictive, the technology's usefulness is largely overshadowed.\n<\/p><p>5. What are the lab's space constraints? The size of a lab and the experiments it must conduct can affect the choice of informatics tools.\n<\/p><p>6. What is the nature of the lab's operations? Is it a research lab, service lab, or a combination of both? If you are in a service lab situation, bringing in informatics support as early as possible is essential to your workflow and sanity. You want to minimize having to deal with two separate processes and procedures: the old way we did it (paper-based) and the informatics-supported way.\n<\/p><p>7. Is your lab\u2019s operation governed by external regulatory requirements? If it\u2019s going to be in the future, you may as well start as though it currently is. Note that everything should be validated, regardless of whether or not the lab is subject regulations. Validation isn't done to satisfy regulators but rather to prove that a process works properly. If you don\u2019t have that proof, what\u2019s the point of using that process? Do you really want to trust what a process produces without proof that it works?\n<\/p><p>Most of the points above are easily understood, but let's go into further detail. Let's start by looking at a simple case of you and your project, where you are the sole contributor, without any need for regulatory oversight. Your primary need is to record your planning notes, observations, results, etc. There are tools within the world of computer software to help with this, most notably the word processor. If you have access to one of those, you probably also have access to spreadsheets and other applications that can make your efforts far easier than working with paper. If you search Google for \u201cword processors as lab notebooks\u201d you will find a number of references, including Dr. Martin Engel's guide to using Microsoft OneNote as an ELN<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EngelBlog15_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EngelBlog15-6\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Labforward_GmbH\" title=\"Labforward GmbH\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8a9842138692008e4f5896ee023849ab\">Labforward's<\/a> 2020 ELN selection guide.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BungersTheElect20_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BungersTheElect20-7\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>However, simply switching from paper to electronic doesn't mean you're done. There's more to consider, like developing backup policies, addressing witness review, connecting to instruments, and addressing the effects of team expansion, including expanding to more comprehensive purpose-built informatics solutions.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Backup_strategy\">Backup strategy<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>You have the electronic documentation tools and the skills to use them, but what else do you need? A backup strategy is imperative. Imagine a scenario where you are using a desktop computer, laptop, or tablet to do your work and it has one copy of the document you\u2019ve been working on for weeks. You press the power button one morning and nothing happens. However, you are not (completely) worried or panicked but rather largely calm because:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>you have a local backup on removable media (e.g., flash drive, disk), several instances, in fact, that were backed up at least daily, with backups containing everything on the system you were using (you may have a separate backup of your project);<\/li>\n<li>you have a remote backup on your organization's servers (perhaps on a virtual machine);<\/li>\n<li>you have a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cloud_computing\" title=\"Cloud computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fcfe5882eaa018d920cedb88398b604f\">cloud-based<\/a> backup of at least your project files, and as much of the system files that the cloud storage permits (depending on bandwidth and cost), all secured with two-factor authentication; and<\/li>\n<li>depending on the operating system you are using, you may have built-in backup-and-recover abilities, e.g. as with Mac OS X's \"Time Machine\" functionality.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>You've done these things because you've asked yourself \"how much is my work worth to me and my organization?\"\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Witness_review_or_sign-off\">Witness review or sign-off<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The need for a witness review or sign-off can occur for several reasons, including a potential patent filing or proof that the work was done and data recorded properly, on a certain date, in case it is challenged. One of the ramifications is that you have to identify a second person to be that witness (though this would also be the case if you were using a paper notebook).\n<\/p><p>A second issue is that you would have to format the pages of your word processor document (using templates) so as to emulate a signature block and page numbering structure that meets the requirements noted earlier for paper notebooks. You also have to provide a means for either physical (printouts) or <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_signature\" title=\"Electronic signature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dd6997760552a80c6babaf1174c092f4\">electronic signatures<\/a> (e.g., Adobe Acrobat and other applications provide a useful template that could be used as a lab notebook in this case, doing a cut-and-paste from a Word file). You would also have to ensure that once dated and signed, no edits could be made to that material. If you choose the printed route, then you\u2019re back to paper management. One possibility for dealing with that is to scan the signed pages and upload them to a secure server using the file server's date and time stamp system, or to a document management system to demonstrate that documents haven\u2019t been changed.\n<\/p><p>There is another possibility for time-stamping printed material that is scanned with a high-quality scanner. The concept of machine identification code or \"tracking dots\" allows a set of barely perceptible, forensically traceable colored dots to be printed onto pages, with the arrangement of the dots providing information that identifies the printer (by serial number), as well as the date and time a page was printed. Recent research has demonstrated ways to decode these dots for analysis, particularly as part of printer forensics.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RichterForensic18_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RichterForensic18-8\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BaraniukWhy17_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BaraniukWhy17-9\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Instrument-computer_integration\">Instrument-computer integration<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Using a computer to host a laboratory notebook raises another concern: how can lab instruments or separate instrument data systems connect to automatically transmit data and information to the computer? Controlled data collection will require software beyond a simple word processor, though many of today's ELN vendors provide integration components with their solutions. This connection, possibly using a spreadsheet import, will greatly improve laboratory productivity and the reliability of data transfers.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Expanding_the_research_team\">Expanding the research team<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Increasing the size of your project by adding more people will have a significant impact on the complexity of using a more electronic laboratory workflow. However, while the basic issues of sharing, collaboration, etc. are not any different than they would be if paper-based notebooks were in use, the electronic solutions to handling those issues are much more useful. At the core of an expanded laboratory operation is getting personnel to agree on how they are going to communicate data and information, how they are going to collaborate using that data and information, and how they will make that agreement sustainable. There is going to be some small allowance for individual approaches to laboratory activities, but critical matters such as data organization and management need to be strictly adhered to. As such, there are several issues to be mindful of.\n<\/p><p>1. How will data and information be organized and compiled? If multiple people are contributing to a project, the results of their work need to be organized in one place so that the status of the work can be ascertained, missing data can be identified, and material is easier to work with. As a project's direction evolves, the formatting and content may change, potentially requiring a complete overhaul of the data structure. That is just a consequence of the way research programs progress.\n<\/p><p>2. How will data and information be updated, versioned, and retained? If your lab works with paper files, this isn't so difficult. The lab may have one printed file detailing experimental methods, and when that method file gets updated, the old printed document is removed and the new one added. In labs where each person has their own individual method file, the process would be repeated for each person. As such, there's no confusion as to the current version; methods would have revision histories so that you would know why they were changed. In cases where those methods are kept in electronic files, more attention has to be paid to ensuring that old method files are archived, and that everyone is working with the same version. This means clear communications procedures are essential. Additionally, the name of the file should have the current revision information; don\u2019t rely on the computer's creation or modification dates for files.\n<\/p><p>3. How is access to common files controlled? Having people edit or add to common files without careful lockout controls is dangerous. If two people open the same document at the same time and make changes, the one who saves the file last can overwrite any changes the other individual has made. You need a document management system that prevents this; if a file is checked out by one person, others may read it but not write to it until the first person is done. Old versions of files should be archived but not deleted so that a detailed revision history is maintained.\n<\/p><p>If an organization grows too large for a consensus-based cooperation of people using office suite products, it will be time to transition to a more purpose-built solution like a multiuser ELN that is capable of allowing multiple people to contribute to a project simultaneously, providing a common organization for data and information, and allowing users to either import data from an instrument or have a direct connection between the ELN and the instrument data system (or through the use of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Scientific_data_management_system\" title=\"Scientific data management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f38d322b743f578fef487b6f3d7c253\">scientific data management system<\/a> [SDMS]). But how large is too large? It may be the point when personnel become frustrated with waiting for access to documents, or when processes just don\u2019t seem to move as smoothly as they used to. While there is a significant cost factor in implementing an ELN, it should be done sooner rather than later so your lab can benefit from the organizational structure that an ELN provides and reduce the amount of effort it will take to import data and information into the structure. Ideally you are better off if you can start your work with an ELN once the initial project startup work is taken care of. \n<\/p><p>ELNs afford a number of additional benefits, including but not limited to access to:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>vendor databases for ordering supplies and managing inventory,<\/li>\n<li>chemical structure databases,<\/li>\n<li>reaction databases, and<\/li>\n<li>external libraries.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>ELNs are appropriate for both basic research and applied research, including work in testing labs where method development and special project work is being done. The prior bulleted list might give you the impression that ELN are oriented toward chemistry; however, that is a reflection of my experience not the industry. The ELN is used in many other industries. Several examples of ELNs past and present, covering many industries, are listed below.\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>LabTech Notebook was released in 1986 and discontinued in 2004, and it was designed to provide communications between computers and laboratory instruments that used RS-232 serial communications. This ELN was applicable to a variety of industries and disciplines.<\/li>\n<li>SmartLab from Velquest was released in the early 2000s and was the first commercial product to carry the \"electronic laboratory notebook\" identifier. It was designed as a platform to encode and guide people conducting lab procedures in GLP\/GMP\/GALP environments. Now owned by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Dassault_Syst%C3%A8mes_SA\" title=\"Dassault Syst\u00e8mes SA\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1be69bd73e35bc3db0c3229284bf9416\">Dassault Syst\u00e8mes<\/a> and rebranded as a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_execution_system\" title=\"Laboratory execution system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"774bdcab852f4d09565f0486bfafc26a\">laboratory execution system<\/a> (LES) as part of the BIOVIA product line, the solution's same conceptual functionality has since been incorporated into LIMS and ELNs that fit the more current expectation for an ELN.<\/li>\n<li>Wolfram Research has as series of notebook products geared toward mathematics.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>There is a growing list of ELN systems in a variety of disciplines. Given that the scope of activities an ELN can cover is fairly broad, you have to be careful to define your needs before uttering the words \u201cwe\u2019re going to implement an ELN.\u201d We\u2019ll address that point later.\n<\/p><p>The organization of an ELN application is flexible. The layout is user-defined and can contain queryable text, figures, graphics, and fields for instrument-generated data. Because the ELN is inherently flexible and there usually isn\u2019t any quick-start structure, you have to know what you are looking for in a product and how you want to use it. This requires quality due-dilligence research. \u201cIf only I had known\u201d are among the saddest words after product selection.\n<\/p><p>Some organizations have chosen to develop their own ELNs. That is something that should be undertaken with fear and trepidation. Part of the original justification for this route is typically based on the belief that you have special needs that can't be met otherwise. Another concern may be that you don\u2019t want to tie yourself to a vendor that may go out of business. Those points are more a matter of product selection criteria than a justification for a software development project. If you do choose to go with an internal or even a contracted development route, you will potentially have to live with a product that has just one customer (unless the contractor decides to productize it, which is an entirely different discussion). You will also be saddled with the support of that product for the rest of its functional life. And that doesn\u2019t even get into the \"who\" of software product management and development, the \u201cwhen will it be done,\u201d and the inevitable scope creep (i.e., the change and expansions of development requirements). In the initial stages of research projects, the organization of data is subject to change as needs change. This is often at the behest of \u201cunstructured\u201d data and the need to manage it. (Note that it isn\u2019t that the data is truly unstructured, it\u2019s just in a variable structure until the project finds its direction.) This can lead to frustration in setting up a commercial ELN system, let alone designing one from scratch. The next section will look at an organization that is more highly structured.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Meeting_the_needs_of_the_testing_laboratory\">Meeting the needs of the testing laboratory<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The earlier print shop description will give you an idea of the workflow of a testing or service lab, for example a quality control (QC) lab. In a manually managed QC or research laboratory, operations can become overwhelming quickly. Imagine a study of 40 samples<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">&#91;b&#93;<\/a><\/sup> with multiple tests per sample, each of which has to be individually cataloged. Actually I don\u2019t have to imagine it; it happened frequently in our lab, which supported several research groups. When one of these large sample sets shows up\u2014and sometimes more than one\u2014you don't talk to the person doing the sample logging for fear of disrupting their required concentration. You can get them coffee, but no talking.\n<\/p><p>With a LIMS, this isn't so much an issue. You can log in one sample or a hundred, simply by telling it the starting sample ID, how many samples, and what tests should be scheduled. The LIMS then organizes everything and prints the labels for each sample. With some systems, the requestor of a test can even log them in from a web portal, and the central LIMS automatically updates when the samples actually arrive in the lab. \n<\/p><p>A LIMS makes life easier for laboratories in a number of other ways as well. Want to find a list of samples that are pending a particular test? A quality LIMS can readily display that information, including the sample numbers, priorities, and current locations, with no need to manually check work request sheets. Does a third party want to find out the status of one or more of their in-process samples? Role-based access management means a third party can receive limited access to view that status, without seeing anyone else's sensitive data. What about verifying and approving results? The LIMS can provide some level of results checking, with final verification and approval by lab management. When approved, the reports for each set of requests can be printed, emailed, or stored for portal access. And what about integrating data and systems? The LIMS can be connected to an instrument data system (IDS). Depending on the sophistication of that system, the LIMS can generate a worklist of samples that needs to be processed by that device, with the list downloaded to the IDS. When the work is completed, the results can be uploaded directly to the LIMS. This type of system interaction is one of the places where significant productivity gains can be had.\n<\/p><p>The key attributes of a LIMS are shown in Figure 6.\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig6_Liscouski_AppInfoSciWork21.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"d409444eac6274c0b9a34c2bd8e1a551\"><img alt=\"Fig6 Liscouski AppInfoSciWork21.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/d\/d3\/Fig6_Liscouski_AppInfoSciWork21.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 6.<\/b> Slide detailing the core components of a LIMS, from <i><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:A_Guide_for_Management:_Successfully_Applying_Laboratory_Systems_to_Your_Organization%27s_Work\" title=\"LII:A Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization&#39;s Work\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00b300565027cb0518bcb0410d6df360\">A Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization's Work<\/a><\/i>, Part 1: Laboratory Informatics Technologies, a webinar series by Joe Liscouski<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>These are just the highlights of what a LIMS can do. Why is a LIMS more effective out-of-the-box than an ELN? The operational behavior of testing labs is essentially the same across industries and disciplines, and as a result vendors have a more predictable and stable base of customers and user requirements to work against than an ELN. It\u2019s a bit like comparing home building contractors. Some have a basic structural architecture that they can modify to meet the needs of a broad market. Others do completely custom homes from the basement up, each of which is unique. The economies of scale and a broader, more predictable customer base show up in products that are easier to work with and adapt both for the primary vendor and those providing add-ons. Those LIMS add-ons include specialized facilities for different industries, including enology and viticulture analysis, water treatment, mineral analysis, cannabis testing, and clinical diagnostics (though the system used in the clinical setting is typically referred to as a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system\" title=\"Laboratory information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64\">laboratory information system<\/a> or LIS). Regardless, and as is the case with ELNs, you want to install a LIMS as soon as you are able to avoid issues surrounding differing workflows based on pre- and post-implementation.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Other_laboratory_informatics_systems\">Other laboratory informatics systems<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>We've mentioned a few other systems in passing, but here we'll provide a brief overview of a few of them.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Scientific_data_management_system_(SDMS)\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Scientific_data_management_system_.28SDMS.29\">Scientific data management system (SDMS)<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The SDMS helps laboratories better solve the problem of dealing with a large number of data files that are being generated, basically by acting as a giant file cabinet that LIMS, ELN, and IDS can connect to. For example, you may not want to put large datasets, spectra, etc. in a LIMS or ELN, you but still have to reference those large files within other internal LIMS and ELN files. This is where the SDMS steps in, storing those large files in the \"file cabinet\" while maintaining references and metadata that are usable by other informatics systems.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Laboratory_execution_system_(LES)\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Laboratory_execution_system_.28LES.29\">Laboratory execution system (LES)<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>You may not know about them, but there are lesser-known systems called LES that are designed to ensure testing protocols are executed properly and that all the data that is necessary is properly recorded. The initial incarnation arose from the previously discussed SmartLab<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">&#91;c&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, a stand-alone product that would guide an analyst through the steps of an analysis, recording each detail of the work in a file that regulatory agencies could inspect to ensure that work was done properly. It found a ready market in any lab that needed to meet GLP\/GMP requirements. The functionality needed to create the same capability can be found in some LIMS and ELNs, but programming is required.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Instrument_data_system_(IDS)\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Instrument_data_system_.28IDS.29\">Instrument data system (IDS)<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Any laboratory instrument popular in the marketplace has had a computer either attached to it or built into it as a package. That\u2019s what an IDS is. It provides automated control over an instrument, collecting and analyzing the data produced by the measuring components. Depending on the sophistication of the vendor, and the demands of the marketplace, the connections between the IDS and another laboratory informatics solution may range from user-programmable interfaces (via a network, USB, serial, or digital I\/O connection) to built-in communications systems that are almost plug-and-play. The latter are most commonly found in the clinical chemistry market, where a great deal of attention has been paid to integration and systems communication via <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Level_7\" title=\"Health Level 7\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0bf845fb58d2bae05a846b47629e86f\">Health Level 7<\/a> (HL7) and related protocols. (The details, however, are beyond the scope of this document.)\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Planning_for_laboratory_informatics\">Planning for laboratory informatics<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>There are two key requirements to the successful implementation of informatics products: education and planning. \n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>As far as education goes, the webinar series noted in Figure 6 is a good tool, as are documents provided by technical standards body <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ASTM_International\" title=\"ASTM International\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dfeafbac63fa786e77b472c3f86d07ed\">ASTM International<\/a>. ASTM documents that may be of value to you include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><i>ASTM E1578-18 Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics<\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASTME1578_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASTME1578-12\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><i>ASTM E1578-13 Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics<\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASTME1578-13_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASTME1578-13-13\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup> (contains some information not found in 2018 version)<\/li>\n<li><i>ASTM E1947-98(2014) Standard Specification for Analytical Data Interchange Protocol for Chromatographic Data<\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASTME1947_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASTME1947-14\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><i>ASTM D8244-21 Standard Guide for Analytical Laboratory Operations Supporting the Cannabis\/Hemp Industry<\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASTMD8244_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASTMD8244-15\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>If you search the ASTM website for \"LIMS\" or \"informatics,\" you'll be surprised by the amount of other material that shows up.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Other sources of educational material include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>The Tutorial section of LIMSforum.com<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LIMSforumTutorial_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LIMSforumTutorial-16\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><i><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Laboratory_Information_Systems_Project_Management:_A_Guidebook_for_International_Implementations\" title=\"LII:Laboratory Information Systems Project Management: A Guidebook for International Implementations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"de9b2109f3975a703634052af790b2d1\">Laboratory Information Systems Project Management: A Guidebook for International Implementations<\/a><\/i>, by the APHL<\/li>\n<li><i>Laboratory Informatics Guide 2021<\/i>, by <i>Scientific Computing World<\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SCWLabInfo21_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SCWLabInfo21-17\">&#91;14&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><i>Lab Manager<\/i> magazine, published by LabX Media Group<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LabXLabManager_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LabXLabManager-18\">&#91;15&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><i>Computerized Systems in the Modern Laboratory: A Practical Guide<\/i>, by Joe Liscouski<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LiscouskiComput15_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LiscouskiComput15-19\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Any vendor with an informatics product will send you a nearly endless stream of material.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Ultimately, however, the responsibility for informatics implementation projects doesn't exist solely on the shoulders of laboratory personnel. Everyone connected with a laboratory implementing informatics solutions should have some level of awareness regarding laboratory informatics, including upper management. However, the level of knowledge required may vary slightly depending on the role. For example, laboratory personnel should be fully educated on common laboratory technologies at a minimum. They should also understand why an informatics project is being considered, what the scope of the implementation will be, and what their role will be in the implementation. Upper management should remember to ask laboratory personnel for input on the project, including the topic of product requirements, in order for personnel to feel like they are part of the process, not simply an observer or \"something that's happening to them.\" Finally, laboratory personnel should understand how their jobs are going to change once the implementation is complete. This needs to be addressed very early in project discussions; it is a matter of change, and change scares people, particularly if it affects their job and income. This is not a \u201cwe\u2019ll deal with that later\u201d point. Don\u2019t start the discussion until you figure this out. Things may change, but people want security.\n<\/p><p>Of course, any information technology (IT) personnel will also be involved, requiring significant knowledge about not only networking and software installations but also systems integrations. IT personnel need to understand their role in the implementation project, which can include support, project management, evaluating the vendor support capabilities, and more. They should also be fully aware of and understand the technologies the organization is considering for implementation, and they will be a vital part of the project planning and vendor selection process. IT personnel also will be interested in questions about any <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Enterprise_resource_planning\" title=\"Enterprise resource planning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07be791b94a208f794e38224f0c0950b\">enterprise resource planning<\/a> (ERP) aspects, which may raise issues of \"build or buy.\" The organization needs to be prepared to both address these concerns and gain IT personnel as strong supporters of the project.\n<\/p><p>Finally, upper management\u2014those who are going to approve the project and provide funding\u2014need to be educated enough to understand the benefits and risks of the proposed implementation, including the likely time scale for the work. Upper management will need to be active in the project in at least two critical junctures, plus at specific milestones as needed. The first time upper management will need informed participation will be during initial project planning. They will help the organization lay out the issues that need to be addressed, the scope of options that will be investigated, and how the organization is going to proceed. They may pose questions such as \u201ccan we use existing system to solve the problem,\u201d particularly if there already has been an investment in an ERP solution such as SAP. Such technology questions will also be of interest to IT personnel since they have an investment in those systems. The second time upper management needs to undoubtedly be involved is when the actual project proposal is finished and is ready to be pitched. They will ask need to ask questions about the reasoning behind the choices made, why current systems are insufficient, what kind of investment the project will require, how the implementation will be scheduled, and how the roll-out would be planned. Understanding the answers to these and other questions will be difficult if upper management doesn\u2019t understand the technology, the issues, the options, and the benefits of the proposed laboratory informatics project.\n<\/p><p>If the world of informatics is new to any or all these stakeholders, the organization must consider getting outside support (not from a vendor) to guide the organization through the process of evaluating the lab's operations, scoping out an overall implementation program, dividing it into milestones, setting priorities, and developing user requirements.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Planning\">Planning<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The whole point of project planning is to get your organization from the starting point to the end goal, preferably using the most effective path. So, where is the organization going, and why? Everything pretty much boils down to those two questions. Once those questions are answered, more will arise concerning how the organization is actually going to get to the project's end goal.\n<\/p><p>Initial planning will look at the lab from a standpoint of the minimum number of computers required to do the work. In some cases, perhaps just those computational systems built into instruments will be sufficient. Whatever the decision, that\u2019s the planning baseline. Then consider what kind of lab it is: a research lab, a service lab, or a blend? That helps direct concentration on potential solutions; however, be sure not to completely eliminate other options just yet. For example, if your lab is a QC lab, it's probably a service lab in need of a LIMS, but even then there are still options to evaluate.\n<\/p><p>From there, the organization must also think in terms of where that baseline lab is going to be in five years; it\u2019s an arbitrary number but a starting point. Why that far out? It will take a year or two to plan, implement, validate, and educate people to work with the new systems and for the lab to change its behavior and settle down to a new mode of working. The organization should also consider what other changes are likely to take place. What new equipment, procedures, and management changes can be anticipated? Ideally any implemented informatics system will be in place and stable for a few years before people start asking for significant changes; minor ones will likely happen early on. Any hint of \u201cwe didn\u2019t plan for that\u201d will be viewed as poor leadership. Figure 7 shows some of the key points you need to look at during planning.\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig7_Liscouski_AppInfoSciWork21.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"3af5b365b0632c3c57c0acfe6b912fd8\"><img alt=\"Fig7 Liscouski AppInfoSciWork21.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/1\/18\/Fig7_Liscouski_AppInfoSciWork21.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 7.<\/b> Slide detailing considerations of laboratory informatics implementation in the lab, from <i><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:A_Guide_for_Management:_Successfully_Applying_Laboratory_Systems_to_Your_Organization%27s_Work\" title=\"LII:A Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization&#39;s Work\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00b300565027cb0518bcb0410d6df360\">A Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization's Work<\/a><\/i>, Part 4: LIMS\/LIS, ELN, SDMS, IT &amp; Education, a webinar series by Joe Liscouski<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>Another factor that needs to be considered is that the considerations shown in Figure 7 can be repeated for each lab in the organization. The project planning team also needs to consider how current laboratory workflow impacts other labs. Are there synergistic effects that can be gained by broadening the scope of what the lab is doing?\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Why_projects_fail\">Why projects fail<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>We shouldn't finish the planning section of this guide without discussing why laboratory informatics implementation projects can and do fail. These types of projects are large software projects, and delays, cost over-runs, and failures are common (but hopefully not for your organization's project). Just Google \"why IT projects fail\" and read through some anecdotes. The following are some common reasons informatics implementation projects fail.\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Insufficient budgeting: Projects can run short of funding, requiring an awkward meeting with management asking for additional funding (without a project change to account for it), inevitably showing a lack of foresight and planning. Build in a large contingency fund because the unexpected happens. If you\u2019d like some education on the topic, watch a few episodes of any home upgrade project on HGTV, in particular <i>Love It or List It<\/i>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">&#91;d&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Insufficient management support: If sufficient communication isn\u2019t made with management, problems may arise. For example, project delays are a fact of life. Keep clear communications with upper management so that they, and everyone else on the project, know what is going on. Miscommunication or lack of communication of other aspects of the project may inevitably doom the project.<\/li>\n<li>Poor understanding of the scope and nature of the project: This is an educational issue, and a lack of education for all involved parties is almost a guarantee of failure. If you need help, bring in an independent consultant who can lend confidence to the project and its management.<\/li>\n<li>Lack of quality or attention to detail: \u201cThere is always time to do it over, but not enough to do it right\u201d is a common complaint in engineering projects. If you hear it on your organization's project, you are in trouble. Basically the complaint is that project members are cutting corners and not doing things properly, and in a way that is not supportable. This never ends well; sometimes not quickly, but in the long run it leads to problems.<\/li>\n<li>Poor or unrealistic timelines: You may as well face reality from the start: an aggressive timeline just leads to problems (see bullet above). Timelines expand, but they almost never get shorter. If the project team is always rushing, something will most certainly get missed, causing problems later down the road.<\/li>\n<li>Poor project management: Well-managed projects are obvious, and so are poorly managed ones. Just watch the people working, their demeanor, and their attitude about the work; it will tell you all you need to know. Well-managed projects may not always run smoothly, but they make consistent progress. Poorly managed projects cause you to make excuses.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Closing\">Closing<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This guide is like the directory signs in shopping malls: they tell you where you are and what shops and restaurants in the facility to consider. Once you figure out what you are looking for, you can find your way there. Hopefully in reading this you\u2019ve formed an idea of what you want to look at and what your path to finding it is.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Footnotes\">Footnotes<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\" style=\"list-style-type: lower-alpha;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">According to Greek mythology (from the <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/myths.e2bn.org\/mythsandlegends\/userstory14957-why-is-the-sky-blue.html\" target=\"_blank\">E2BN Myths page<\/a>): \"Long long ago, when Queen Athena (Zeus's daughter) was born, Zeus blessed her with two boons for when she came of age. After almost 15 years, Athena was told to think up two things to ask for ... 1) To have a city in Greece named after her (Athens) [and] 2) To have all the people of the world see her face every day of the year (what you are seeing are only her eyes). Thus, the sky is blue, just like the color of Athena's eyes...\"<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-10\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">In some life science drug screening studies, the number can be far higher, which is where robotics and automation becomes important.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-11\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">A name that has been used by conference organizers after the product was sold and renamed. If you do a Google search on \u201cSmartLab,\u201d you may be surprised at what turns up.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-20\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Some season highlights <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.hgtv.com\/shows\/love-it-or-list-it\" target=\"_blank\">can be found<\/a> on the HGTV website.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"About_the_author\">About the author<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Initially educated as a chemist, author Joe Liscouski (joe dot liscouski at gmail dot com) is an experienced laboratory automation\/computing professional with over forty years of experience in the field, including the design and development of automation systems (both custom and commercial systems), LIMS, robotics and data interchange standards. He also consults on the use of computing in laboratory work. He has held symposia on validation and presented technical material and short courses on laboratory automation and computing in the U.S., Europe, and Japan. He has worked\/consulted in pharmaceutical, biotech, polymer, medical, and government laboratories. His current work centers on working with companies to establish planning programs for lab systems, developing effective support groups, and helping people with the application of automation and information technologies in research and quality control environments.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-SBPDuplicate-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SBPDuplicate_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/scientificbindery.com\/products\/duplicate-lined-notebook\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Duplicate Lined Notebook\"<\/a>.&#32;Scientific Bindery Productions, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/scientificbindery.com\/products\/duplicate-lined-notebook\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/scientificbindery.com\/products\/duplicate-lined-notebook\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 12 May 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Duplicate+Lined+Notebook&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Scientific+Bindery+Productions%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscientificbindery.com%2Fproducts%2Fduplicate-lined-notebook%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:The_Application_of_Informatics_to_Scientific_Work:_Laboratory_Informatics_for_Newbies\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WestGMP-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-WestGMP_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">West, D.&#32;(10 January 2024).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/users.stlcc.edu\/departments\/fvbio\/Lab_Practices_GLP_STLCC.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"GMP\/GLP Recordkeeping\"<\/a>.&#32;St. Louis Community College, Center for Plant and Life Sciences<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/users.stlcc.edu\/departments\/fvbio\/Lab_Practices_GLP_STLCC.htm\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/users.stlcc.edu\/departments\/fvbio\/Lab_Practices_GLP_STLCC.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 12 May 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" 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href=\"https:\/\/oir.nih.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/uploads\/sourcebook\/documents\/ethical_conduct\/guidelines-scientific_recordkeeping.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Guidelines for Scientific Record Keeping in the Intramural Research Program at the NIH\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Office of the Director<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/oir.nih.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/uploads\/sourcebook\/documents\/ethical_conduct\/guidelines-scientific_recordkeeping.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/oir.nih.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/uploads\/sourcebook\/documents\/ethical_conduct\/guidelines-scientific_recordkeeping.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 12 May 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" 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href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencemag.org\/careers\/2019\/09\/how-keep-lab-notebook\" target=\"_blank\">\"How to keep a lab notebook\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Science<\/i>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1126%2Fscience.caredit.aaz3678\" target=\"_blank\">10.1126\/science.caredit.aaz3678<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencemag.org\/careers\/2019\/09\/how-keep-lab-notebook\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.sciencemag.org\/careers\/2019\/09\/how-keep-lab-notebook<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 12 May 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=How+to+keep+a+lab+notebook&amp;rft.atitle=Science&amp;rft.aulast=Pain%2C+E.&amp;rft.au=Pain%2C+E.&amp;rft.date=3+September+2019&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1126%2Fscience.caredit.aaz3678&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencemag.org%2Fcareers%2F2019%2F09%2Fhow-keep-lab-notebook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:The_Application_of_Informatics_to_Scientific_Work:_Laboratory_Informatics_for_Newbies\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EngelBlog15-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-EngelBlog15_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Engel, M.&#32;(December 2015).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/martinengel.net\/2015\/12\/how-to-use-onenote-as-your-electronic-notebook\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Blog: How to use onenote as your electronic lab book\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>MartinEngel.net<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/martinengel.net\/2015\/12\/how-to-use-onenote-as-your-electronic-notebook\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/martinengel.net\/2015\/12\/how-to-use-onenote-as-your-electronic-notebook\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 12 May 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Blog%3A+How+to+use+onenote+as+your+electronic+lab+book&amp;rft.atitle=MartinEngel.net&amp;rft.aulast=Engel%2C+M.&amp;rft.au=Engel%2C+M.&amp;rft.date=December+2015&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmartinengel.net%2F2015%2F12%2Fhow-to-use-onenote-as-your-electronic-notebook%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:The_Application_of_Informatics_to_Scientific_Work:_Laboratory_Informatics_for_Newbies\"><span 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title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+Electronic+Lab+Notebook+in+2020%3A+A+comprehensive+guide&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Bungers%2C+S.&amp;rft.au=Bungers%2C+S.&amp;rft.date=2020&amp;rft.pub=Labforward+GmbH&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.labfolder.com%2Felectronic-lab-notebook-eln-research-guide&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:The_Application_of_Informatics_to_Scientific_Work:_Laboratory_Informatics_for_Newbies\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RichterForensic18-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-RichterForensic18_8-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Richter, T.; Escher, S.; Sch\u00f6nfeld, D. et al.&#32;(2018).&#32;\"Forensic Analysis and Anonymisation of Printed Documents\".&#32;<i>Proceedings of the 6th ACM Workshop on Information Hiding and Multimedia 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title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Forensic+Analysis+and+Anonymisation+of+Printed+Documents&amp;rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+6th+ACM+Workshop+on+Information+Hiding+and+Multimedia+Security&amp;rft.aulast=Richter%2C+T.%3B+Escher%2C+S.%3B+Sch%C3%B6nfeld%2C+D.+et+al.&amp;rft.au=Richter%2C+T.%3B+Escher%2C+S.%3B+Sch%C3%B6nfeld%2C+D.+et+al.&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft.pages=127%E2%80%9338&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1145%2F3206004.3206019&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:The_Application_of_Informatics_to_Scientific_Work:_Laboratory_Informatics_for_Newbies\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BaraniukWhy17-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BaraniukWhy17_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Baraniuk, C.&#32;(7 June 2017).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20191102031255\/https:\/\/www.bbc.com\/future\/article\/20170607-why-printers-add-secret-tracking-dots\" target=\"_blank\">\"Why printers add secret tracking dots\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>BBC Future<\/i>.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bbc.com\/future\/article\/20170607-why-printers-add-secret-tracking-dots\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 02 November 2019<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20191102031255\/https:\/\/www.bbc.com\/future\/article\/20170607-why-printers-add-secret-tracking-dots\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20191102031255\/https:\/\/www.bbc.com\/future\/article\/20170607-why-printers-add-secret-tracking-dots<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 13 May 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" 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International.&#32;2014.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1520%2FE1947-98R14\" target=\"_blank\">10.1520\/E1947-98R14<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1947.htm\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1947.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 13 May 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" 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title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ASTM+D8244-21+Standard+Guide+for+Analytical+Laboratory+Operations+Supporting+the+Cannabis%2FHemp+Industry&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=2021&amp;rft.pub=ASTM+International&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1520%2FD8244-21&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.astm.org%2FStandards%2FD8244.htm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:The_Application_of_Informatics_to_Scientific_Work:_Laboratory_Informatics_for_Newbies\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LIMSforumTutorial-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LIMSforumTutorial_16-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limsforum.com\/category\/education\/tutorials-education\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Tutorials\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>LIMSforum<\/i>.&#32;LabLynx, 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class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/issue\/laboratory-informatics-guide-2021\" target=\"_blank\">\"Laboratory Informatics Guide 2021\"<\/a>.&#32;Scientific Computing World.&#32;2021<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/issue\/laboratory-informatics-guide-2021\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/issue\/laboratory-informatics-guide-2021<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 13 May 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Laboratory+Informatics+Guide+2021&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=2021&amp;rft.pub=Scientific+Computing+World&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientific-computing.com%2Fissue%2Flaboratory-informatics-guide-2021&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:The_Application_of_Informatics_to_Scientific_Work:_Laboratory_Informatics_for_Newbies\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LabXLabManager-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LabXLabManager_18-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.labmanager.com\/magazine\" target=\"_blank\">\"Lab Manager\"<\/a>.&#32;LabX Media Group.&#32;2021<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.labmanager.com\/magazine\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.labmanager.com\/magazine<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 13 May 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Lab+Manager&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=2021&amp;rft.pub=LabX+Media+Group&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.labmanager.com%2Fmagazine&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:The_Application_of_Informatics_to_Scientific_Work:_Laboratory_Informatics_for_Newbies\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LiscouskiComput15-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LiscouskiComput15_19-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Liscouski, J.G.&#32;(2015).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.dhibooks.com\/computerized-systems-in-the-modern-laboratory-a-practical-guide\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Computerized Systems in the Modern Laboratory: A Practical Guide<\/i><\/a>.&#32;DHI Publishing.&#32;pp.&#160;432.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781933722863<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.dhibooks.com\/computerized-systems-in-the-modern-laboratory-a-practical-guide\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.dhibooks.com\/computerized-systems-in-the-modern-laboratory-a-practical-guide<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Computerized+Systems+in+the+Modern+Laboratory%3A+A+Practical+Guide&amp;rft.aulast=Liscouski%2C+J.G.&amp;rft.au=Liscouski%2C+J.G.&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B432&amp;rft.pub=DHI+Publishing&amp;rft.isbn=9781933722863&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dhibooks.com%2Fcomputerized-systems-in-the-modern-laboratory-a-practical-guide&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:The_Application_of_Informatics_to_Scientific_Work:_Laboratory_Informatics_for_Newbies\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110081946\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.875 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.368 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 11265\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 72784\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 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Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:The_Application_of_Informatics_to_Scientific_Work:_Laboratory_Informatics_for_Newbies\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:The_Application_of_Informatics_to_Scientific_Work:_Laboratory_Informatics_for_Newbies<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","d8b467af534a70312a21f63b61be26cd_images":["https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/5\/5c\/Fig1_Liscouski_AppInfoSciWork21.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/1\/14\/Fig2_Liscouski_AppInfoSciWork21.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/6\/62\/Fig3_Liscouski_AppInfoSciWork21.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/0\/0c\/AGBell_Notebook.jpg","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/6\/65\/Fig5_Liscouski_AppInfoSciWork21.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/d\/d3\/Fig6_Liscouski_AppInfoSciWork21.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/1\/18\/Fig7_Liscouski_AppInfoSciWork21.png"],"d8b467af534a70312a21f63b61be26cd_timestamp":1704907033,"5a96b4c0c6ab1c4015afdb606bda1125_type":"article","5a96b4c0c6ab1c4015afdb606bda1125_title":"A Science Student's Guide to Laboratory Informatics","5a96b4c0c6ab1c4015afdb606bda1125_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics","5a96b4c0c6ab1c4015afdb606bda1125_plaintext":"\n\nLII:A Science Student's Guide to Laboratory InformaticsFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchTitle: A Science Student's Guide to Laboratory Informatics\nAuthor for citation: Joe Liscouski, with editorial modifications by Shawn Douglas\nLicense for content: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International\nPublication date: November 2023\n\nContents \n\n1 Introduction \n2 What's lacking in modern laboratory education? \n3 Operational models for research and service laboratories \n\n3.1 Intra-lab workflows \n\n3.1.1 Analytical research \n3.1.2 Physical properties research \n3.1.3 Materials characterization \n3.1.4 Fabrication \n\n\n3.2 On the service lab model and research in general \n\n3.2.1 The role of laboratory informatics \n\n\n\n\n4 Laboratory operations and their associated informatics tools \n\n4.1 Data governance \n4.2 Data integrity \n4.3 Regulatory compliance \n4.4 Meeting the needs of data governance, data integrity, and regulatory compliance \n\n4.4.1 Paper-based systems \n4.4.2 Spreadsheet software \n4.4.3 LIMS and ELN \n4.4.4 Supporting tiers of software \n\n\n\n\n5 Getting work done quickly and at a low cost \n6 Artificial intelligence applications in the lab \n7 Systems development: Tinkering vs. engineering \n8 In closing... \n9 About the author \n10 References \n\n\n\nIntroduction \nAn undergraduate science education aims to teach people what they need to know to pursue a particular scientific discipline; it emphasizes foundational elements of the discipline. In most cases in current science education, the time allotted to teaching a scientific discipline is often insufficient to address the existing and growing knowledge base and deal with the multidisciplinary aspects of executing laboratory work in both industrial and academic settings; the focus is primarily on educational topics. Yet employers in science-based industries want to hire people \"ready to work,\" leaving a significant gap between the goals of science education and the background needed to be productive in the workplace. One example of this gap is found in the lack of emphasis on laboratory informatics in laboratory-adjacent scientific endeavors.\nThe purpose of this guide is to provide a student with a look at the informatics landscape in industrial labs. The guide has two goals: \n\nProvide a framework to help the reader understand what they need to know to be both comfortable and effective in an industrial setting, giving them a starting point for learning about the product classes and technologies; and,\nGive an instructor an outline of a survey course should they want to pursue teaching this type of material.\nThis guide is not intended to provide a textbook-scale level of discussion. It's an annotated map of the laboratory portion of a technological world, identifying critical points of interest and how they relate to one another, while making recommendations for the reader to learn more. Its intent is that in one document you can appreciate what the technologies are, and if you hear their names, you'll be able to understand the technologies' higher-level positioning and function. The details, which are continually developing, will be referenced elsewhere.\nNote that this guide references LIMSforum.com on multiple occasions. LIMSforum is an educational forum for laboratory informatics that will ask you to sign in for access to its contents. There is no charge for accessing or using any of the materials; the log-in is for security purposes. Sign-in to LIMSforum can be done with a variety of existing social media accounts, or you can create a new LIMSforum account.\n\n What's lacking in modern laboratory education? \nThe science you\u2019ve learned in school provides a basis for understanding laboratory methods, solving problems, conducting projects\/research, and developing methods. It has little to do with the orchestration of industrial lab operations. That role was first filled by paper-based procedures and now firmly falls in the realm of electronic management systems. So why is your laboratory experience in your formal education different from that in industrial labs? After all, both include research, testing, chemistry, biotechnology, pharmaceutical development, material development, engineering, etc.\nEducational lab work is about understanding principles and techniques, developing skills by executing procedures, and conducting research projects. Industrial work is about producing data, information, materials, and devices, some supporting research, others supporting production\/manufacturing operations. Those products are subject to both regulatory review and are subject to internal guidelines. Suppose a regulatory inspector finds fault with a lab's data. In that case, the consequences can range from more detailed inspection and, if warranted, closing the lab or the entire production facility until remedial actions are enacted.\nBecause of the importance of data integrity and quality, industrial laboratories operate under the requirements, regulations, and standards of a variety of sources, including corporate guidelines, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), and others. These regulatory and standard-based efforts aim to ensure that the data and information used to make decisions about product quality is maintained and defensible. It all comes down to product quality and safety, so for example, that the acetaminophen capsule you might take has the proper dosage and is free of contamination.\nOutside of regulations and standards, even company policy can drive the desire for timely, high-quality analytical results. Corporate guidelines for lab operations ensure that laboratory data and information is well-managed and supportable. Consider a lawsuit brought by a consumer about product quality. Suppose the company can't demonstrate that the data supporting product quality is on solid ground. In that case, they may be fined with significant damages. Seeking to avoid this, the company puts into place enforceable policy and procedures (P&amp;P) and may even put into place a quality management system (QMS).\nAs noted, labs are production operations. There is more leeway in research, but service labs (i.e., analytical, physical properties, quality control, contract testing, etc.) are heavily production-oriented, so some refer to the work as \"scientific manufacturing\" or \"scientific production work\" because of the heavy reliance on automation. That dependence on automation has led to the adoption of systems such as laboratory information management systems (LIMS), electronic laboratory notebooks (ELN), scientific data management systems (SDMS), instrument data systems (IDS), and robotics to organize and manage the work, and produce results. Some aspects of research, where large volumes of sample processing are essential, have the same issues. Yet realistically, how immersed are today's student scientists in the realities of these systems and their use outside of academia? Are they being taught sufficiently about these and other electronic systems that are increasingly finding their way into the modern industrial laboratory?\n\nOperational models for research and service laboratories \nBefore we get too deeply into laboratory informatics concepts, we need to describe the setting where informatics tools are used. Otherwise, the tools won\u2019t make sense. Scientific work, particularly laboratory work, is process-driven at several levels. Organizational processes describe how a business works and how the various departments relate to each other. Laboratories have processes operating at different levels; one may describe how the lab functions and carries out its intended purpose, and others detail how experimental procedures are carried out. Some of these processes\u2014accounting, for example\u2014are largely, with a few exceptions, the same across organizations in differing industries. Others depend on the industry and are the basis for requiring industry experience before hiring people at the mid- and upper levels. Still other activities, such as research, depend on the particular mission of a lab within an organization. A given company may have several different research laboratories directed at different areas of work with only the word \u201cresearch\u201d and some broad generalizations about what is in common. However, their internal methods of operation can vary widely.\nWe\u2019ll begin by looking at the working environment. Figure 1 shows the functions we need to consider. That model is based on the author\u2019s experience; however, it fits many applied research groups in different industries whose work is intended to lead to new and improved products. The names of the labs may change to include microbiology, toxicology, electronics, forensics, etc., depending on the industry, but the functional behavior will be similar.\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 1. An organizational structure of an R&amp;D group.\n\n\n\nThe labs I was working in supported R&amp;D in polymers and pharmaceuticals because that's what the overarching company had broad interest in. The research labs (left column of Figure 1) were focused on those projects. The other facilities consisted of:\n\nAnalytical research: This lab had four functions: routine chemical analysis in support of the research labs, new method development to support both research and production quality control (QC), non-routine analytical work to address special projects, and process monitoring that tested the accuracy of the production QC labs (several production facilities were making different products).\nPhysical properties research: Similar in function to the analytical lab, this lab measured the physical properties of polymers instead of performing chemical analysis.\nMaterials characterization: This group worked with research and special projects looking at the composition of polymers and their properties such as rheology, molecular weight distribution, and other characteristics.\nFabrication: The fabrication facility processed experimental polymers into blends, films, and other components that could be further tested in the physical properties lab.\nOnce an experimental material reached a stage where it was ready for scale-up development, it entered the pilot plant, where production processes were designed and tested to see if the material could be made in larger quantities and still retain its desirable properties (i.e., effectively produced to scale). A dedicated testing lab supported the pilot plant to do raw materials, in-process, and post-production testing. If a product met its goals, it was moved to a production facility for larger-scale testing and eventually commercial production.\n\nIntra-lab workflows \nLet\u2019s look at each of these support lab groups more closely and examine how their workflows relate.\n\nAnalytical research \nThe workflows in this lab fell into two categories: routine testing (i.e., the service lab model) and research. In the routine testing portion, samples could come from the research labs, production facilities, and the pilot plant testing lab. The research work could come from salespeople (e.g., \u201cWe found this in a sample of a competitive product, what is it?\u201d, \u201cOur customer asked us to analyze this,\" etc.), customer support trying to solve customer issues, and researchers developing test methods to support research. The methods used for analysis could come from various sources depending on the industry, e.g., standards organizations such as ASTM International (formerly American Society for Testing Materials, but their scope expanded over time), peer-reviewed academic journals, vendors, and intra-organizational sources.\n\nPhysical properties research \nThe work here was predominately routine testing (i.e., the service lab model). Although samples could come from a variety of sources, as with analytical research, the test methods were standardized and came from groups like ASTM, and in some cases the customers of the company's products. Standardized procedures were used to compare results to testing by other organizations, including potential customers. Labs like this are today found in a variety of industries, including pharmaceuticals, where the lab might be responsible for tablet uniformity testing, among other things.\n\nMaterials characterization \nAs noted, this lab performed work that fell between the analytical and physical properties labs. While their test protocols were standardized within the labs, the nature of the materials they worked on involved individual considerations on how the analysis should be approached and the results interpreted. At one level, they were a service lab and followed that behavior. On another, the execution of testing required more than \"just another sample\" thinking.\n\nFabrication \nThe fabrication facility processed materials from a variety of sources: evaluation samples from both the production facility and pilot plant, as well as competitive material evaluation from the research labs. They also did parts fabrication for testing in the physical properties lab. Some physical tests required plastic materials formed into special shapes; for example, tensile bars for tensile strength testing (test bars are stretched to see how they deformed and eventually failed). The sample sizes they worked with ranged from a few pounds to thousands of pounds (e.g., film production).\nThe pilot plant testing lab did evaluations on scaled-up processing materials. They had to be located within the pilot plant for fast turn-around testing, including on-demand work and routine analysis. They also serviced process chromatographs for in-line testing. Their test procedures came from both the chemical and physical labs as they were responsible for a variety of tests on small samples; anything larger was sent to the analytical research labs. The pilot plant testing lab followed a service lab model.\n\nOn the service lab model and research in general \nThe service lab model has been noted several times and is common in most industries. The details of sample types and testing will vary, but the operational behavior will be the same and will work like this:\n\nSamples are submitted for testing. In many labs, these are done on paper forms listing sample type, testing to be done, whom to bill, and a description of the sample and any unique concerns or issues. In labs with a LIMS, this can be done online by lab personnel or the sample submitter.\nThe work is logged in (electronically using a LIMS or manually for paper-based systems), and rush samples are brought to management's attention. Note that in the pilot plant test lab, everything is in a rush as the next steps in the plant\u2019s work may depend upon the results.\nAnalysts generate worklists (whether electronic or paper, an ordered representation of sample or specimen locations and what analyses must be performed upon them by a specific instrument and\/or analyst using specified procedures) and perform the required analysis, and results are recorded in the LIMS or laboratory notebooks.\nThe work is reviewed and approved for release and, in paper systems, recorded on the submission forms.\nReports are sent to whoever submitted the work electronically, or via the method the submitter requested.\nWork from non-routine samples may be logged in under \u201cspecial projects,\u201d though it may create the need for additional testing.\nThere is no similar model for research work besides project descriptions, initial project outlines, etc. The nature of the work will change as the project progresses and more is learned. Recording results, observations, plans, etc., requires a flexible medium capable of maintaining notes, printouts, charts, and other forms of information. As a result, ELNs are modular systems consisting of a central application with the ability to link to a variety of functional modules such as graphics, statistics, molecular drawing, reaction databases, user-define database structures to hold experimental data, and more. For additional details, see The Application of Informatics to Scientific Work: Laboratory Informatics for Newbies.\n\nThe role of laboratory informatics \nLab informatics has several tiers of systems (Figure 2) that can be applied to lab work to make it more effective and efficient. \n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 2. Tiered structure of laboratory informatics.\n\n\n\nThe top tier consists of ELNs and LIMS, while supporting those systems are SDMS, as well as laboratory execution systems (LES) and IDS (which are are a combination of instruments and computer systems). Typical examples are chromatography data systems (CDS) connected to one or more chromatographs, a mass spectrometer connected to a dedicated computer, and almost any major instrument in an instrument-computer combination. CDSs are, at this point, unique in their ability to support multiple instruments. Sharing the same tier as LES and IDS are devices like pH meters, balances, and other devices with no databases associated with them; these instruments must be programmed to be used with upper-tier systems. Their data output can be manually entered into a LIMS, ELN, or LES, but in regulated labs, the input has to be verified by a second individual. Below that are mechanisms for sample preparation, management, and storage. Our initial concern will be with the top-tier systems. \nNext we look at the interactions involved in such workflows. The primary interaction between a service lab and someone requesting their services is shown in Figure 3.\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 3. Sample request\/results flow.\n\n\n\nSamples are submitted by the research group or other groups, and the request proceeds through the system as described above. The split between the LIMS in Figure 2 illustrates the separation between logging samples in, the analysis process, and using the LIMS as an administrative tool for completing the work request and returning results to the submitter. Also note that Figure 2 shows the classical assignment of informatics products to labs: LIMS in service labs and notebooks (usually ELNs) to research labs. However, that assignment is an oversimplification; the systems have broader usage in both types of laboratory workflows. In the research labs, work may generate a large amount of testing that has to be done quickly so that the next steps in the experiments can be determined. The demand may be great enough to swamp the service labs, and they wouldn't be able to provide the turn-around time needed for research. In these cases, a LIMS would be added to the research lab's range of informatics tools so that high-demand testing would be done within those labs. Other, less demanding testing would be submitted to the service labs. The research lab LIMS could be an entirely independent installation or work with the same core system as the service labs. The choice would depend on the locations of the labs, the need for instrument connections, how cooperative they are, and corporate politics.\nThe analytical research and materials characterization labs in Figure 1 could justify an ELN based on research associated with method development work. In addition to providing a means of detailing the research needed to create a new procedure, the ELN would need access to a variety of databases and tools, including chemical reaction modeling, molecular structure representation, published methods retrieval, etc., as well as any corporate research databases that could exist in a large organization.\nThe fabrication facility could use an ELN to record the progress of any non-routine work that was being done. Equipment operating conditions, problems encountered and solved, and the results of their processing would be noted. This could be coordinated with the pilot plant or product development group\u2019s work.\n\nLaboratory operations and their associated informatics tools \nLaboratory operations and work can be divided into two levels:\n\nData and information generation: This is where lab procedures are executed; the informatics tools consist of LES, IDS, and support for automation and devices such as pH meters, scales, etc.\nData, information, and operations management: This involves the management of the data and information ultimately generated, as well as the operational processes that led up to the creation that data and information. The informatics tools at this level consist of LIMS, ELN, and SDMS.\nThe following largely addresses the latter, recognizing that the execution of analytical procedures\u2014both electronically and manually\u2014results in the creation of data and information that must be properly managed. Data, information, and operations management (i.e., laboratory management) involves keeping track of everything that goes on in the lab, including:\n\nLab personnel records: The qualifications, personnel files (along with human resources), vacation schedules, education\/training, etc. of the lab's personnel.\nEquipment lists and maintenance: Records related to scheduled maintenance, repairs, calibration, qualification for use, and software upgrades, if appropriate.\nGeneral process-related documentation: All lab documents, reports, guidelines, sample records, problems and non-conformities, method descriptions, contacts with vendors, etc.\nSample-specific records: What samples need work, what is the scope of the work, results, associated reports, etc.\nInventory: Records related to what materials and equipment (including personal protective equipment) are on hand, but also where those material and equipment are, their age (some materials such as prepared reagents have a limited useful lifetime, in other cases materials may have a limited shelf-life), and any special handling instructions such as storage and disposal.\nChemical and organism safety: Any special conditions needed for chemicals and organisms, their maintenance, condition, related records (e.g., material safety data sheets), etc.\nData governance efforts\nData integrity efforts\nRegulatory compliance efforts: Documentation regarding laboratory effort to meet regulatory requirements or avoid regulatory issues, including preparation for regulatory audits.&#91;1&#93;\nMany of those laboratory operational aspects will be familiar to you, others less so. The last three bullets may be the least familiar to you. The primary point of lab operations is to produce data and information, which will then be used to support production and research operations. That data and information must be reliable and supportable. People have to trust that the analysis was performed correctly and that it can be relied upon to make decisions about product quality, to determine whether production operations are under control, or to take the next step in a research program. That\u2019s where regulatory compliance data governance, data integrity, and regulatory compliance come in.\n\nData governance \nData governance refers to the overall management of the availability, usability, integrity, and security of the data employed in an enterprise. It encompasses a set of processes, roles, policies, standards, and metrics that ensure the effective and efficient use of information in enabling an organization to achieve its goals. Its primary purpose is to ensure that data serves the organization's needs and that there's a framework in place to handle data-related issues.\nData governance-related efforts have become more important over time, especially in how data and metadata are stored and made available. We see this importance come up with recent frameworks such as the FAIR principles, that ask that data and metadata be findable, accessible, interoperable, and reusable.&#91;2&#93;\n\nData integrity \nData integrity refers to the accuracy and consistency of data over its lifecycle. It ensures that data remains unaltered and uncorrupted unless there's a specific need for a change. It\u2019s focused more on the validity and reliability of data rather than the broader management processes. Its primary purpose is to ensure that data is recorded exactly as intended and, upon retrieval, remains the same as when it was stored.&#91;3&#93;\nWhile data governance is a broader concept that deals with the overall management and strategy of data handling in an organization, data integrity is specifically about ensuring the accuracy and reliability of the data. Both are essential for making informed decisions based on the data and ensuring that the data can be trusted.\nThe topic of data integrity has also increasingly become important.&#91;3&#93; A framework called ALCOA+ (fully, ALCOA-CCEA) has been developed by the FDA to help define and guide work on data integrity. ALCO+ asks that paper and electronic data and information be attributable, legible, contemporaneous, original, accurate, complete, consistent, enduring, and available, which all further drive data integrity initiatives in the lab and beyond.&#91;4&#93; For more on this topic, see Schmitt's Assuring Data Integrity for Life Sciences.&#91;3&#93;\n\nRegulatory compliance \nThe purpose of placing regulations on laboratory operations varies, but the general idea across them all is to ensure that lab operations are safe, well-managed, and that laboratory data and information are reliable. These regulations cover personnel, their certifications\/qualifications, equipment, reagents, safety procedures, and the validity of lab processes, among other things. This includes ensuring that instruments have been calibrated and are in good working order, and that all lab processes have been validated. Laboratory process validation in particular is an interesting aspect and one that causes confusion about what it means and who it applies to.\nIn the late 1970s, when the original FDA guidelines for manufacturing and laboratory practices appeared, there was considerable concern about what \u201cvalidation\u201d meant and to what it was applied. The best description of the term is \"documented proof that something (e.g., a process) works.\" The term \"validation\u201d is only applied to processes; equipment used during the process has to be \"qualified for use.\" In short, if you are going to carry out a procedure, you have to have documented evidence that the procedure does what it is supposed to do and that the tools used in its execution are appropriate for the need they are to fill. If you are going to generate data and information, do it according to a proven process. This was initially applied to manufacturing and production, including testing and QC, but has since been more broadly used. There were questions about its application to research since the FDA didn\u2019t have oversight over research labs, but those concerns have largely, in industrial circles, disappeared. There is one exception to the FDA's formal oversight in research, which has to do with clinical trials that are still part of the research and development (R&amp;D) process. Product development and production involving human, animal, or food safety, for example, are still subject to regulatory review.\nThis all culminates down to this: if you you produce data and information, do it through a proven (or even standardized) methodology; how else can you trust the results?\nSources for regulations and guidelines affecting laboratories include:\n\nFDA: This includes 21 CFR Part 11 of the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, which helps ensure security, integrity, and confidentially of electronic records.&#91;5&#93;\nEPA: This includes 40 CFR Part 792 on good laboratory practice&#91;6&#93;\nCenters for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS): This includes 42 CFR Part 493 on laboratory requirements for complying with the Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments (CLIA)&#91;7&#93;\nInternational Society for Pharmaceutical Engineering (ISPE): This includes their work on Good Automated Manufacturing Practice (GAMP) guidance&#91;8&#93;\nAmerican Association for Laboratory Accreditation (A2LA): This includes guidelines and accreditation requirements that labs must adhere to as part of accrediting to a particular standard. This includes standards like the ISO 9000 family of standards and ISO\/IEC 17025. The ISO 9000 family is a set of five QMS standards that help organizations ensure that they meet customer and other stakeholder needs within statutory and regulatory requirements related to a product or service. ISO\/IEC 17025 General requirements for the competence of testing and calibration laboratories is the primary standard used by testing and calibration laboratories, and there are special technology considerations to be made when complying. (See LIMS Selection Guide for ISO\/IEC 17025 Laboratories for more on this topic.) In most countries, ISO\/IEC 17025 is the standard for which most labs must hold accreditation to be deemed technically competent.\nA comment should be made about the interplay of regulations, standards, and guidelines. The difference between regulations and standards is that regulations have the law to support their enforcement.&#91;9&#93; Standards are consensus agreements that companies, industries, and associations use to define \u201cbest practices.\u201d Guidelines are proposed standards of organizational behavior that may or may not eventually become regulations. The FDA regulations for example, began as guidelines, underwent discussion and modification, and eventually became regulations under 21 CFR Part 11. For a more nuanced discussion in one particular lab-related area, materials science, see What standards and regulations affect a materials testing laboratory?.\n\n Meeting the needs of data governance, data integrity, and regulatory compliance \nData governance, data integrity, and regulatory compliance are, to an extent, laboratory cultural issues. Your organization has to instill practices that contribute to meeting the requirements. Informatics tools can provide the means for executing the tasks to meet those needs. Still, first, it is a personnel consideration.\nThe modern lab essentially has four ways of meeting those needs:\n\nPaper-based record systems using forms and laboratory notebooks;\nSpreadsheet software;\nLIMS; and\nELN.\nThe Application of Informatics to Scientific Work: Laboratory Informatics for Newbies addresses these four ways in detail, but we'll briefly discuss these points further here.\nSystems like LIMS, laboratory information systems (LIS), ELN, and LES can assist a lab in meeting regulatory requirements, standards, and guidelines by providing tools to meet enforcement requirements. For example, one common requirement is the need to provide an audit trail for data and information. (We'll discuss that in more detail later.) While the four product classes noted have audit trails built in, efforts to build a sample tracking system in a spreadsheet often do not have that capability as it would be difficult to implement. Beyond that, the original LES as envisioned by Velquest was intended to provide documented proof that a lab procedure was properly executed by qualified personnel, with qualified equipment and reagents, and documentation for all steps followed along with collected data and information. This again was designed to meet the expectations for a well-run lab.\n\nPaper-based systems \nPaper-based systems were once all we had, and they could adequately deal with all of the issues noted as they existed up to the early 1970s. Then, the demands of lab operations and growing regulatory compliance at the end of that decade developed a need for better tools. Compliance with laboratory practices depended on the organization\u2019s enforcement. Enforcement failures led to the development of a formal, enforced regulatory program.\nThe structure of lab operations changes due to the increasing availability of electronic data capture; having measurements in electronic form made them easier to work with if you had the systems in place to do so. Paper-based systems didn't lend themselves to that. You had to write results down on paper, and in order to later use those results you had to copy them to other documents or re-enter them into a program. In many cases, it was all people could afford, but that was a false economy as the cost of computer-based systems saved considerable time and effort. Electronic systems also afforded lab personnel a wider range of data analysis options, yielding more comprehensive work.\nWord processors represent one useful step up from paper-based systems, but word processors lack some of the flexibility of paper. Another drawback is ensuring compliance with regulations and guidelines. Since everything can be edited, an external mechanism has to be used to sign and witness entries. One possible workaround is to print off each day's work and have that signed. However, that simply inherits the problems with managing paper and makes audit trails difficult.\nAn audit trail is a tool for keeping track of changes to data and information. People make mistakes, something changes, and an entry in a notebook or electronic system has to be corrected or updated. In the laboratory environment, you can't simply erase something or change an entry. Regulatory compliance, organizational guidelines, and data integrity requirements prevent that, which is part of the reason that entries have to be in ink to detect alterations. Changes are made in paper notebooks by lightly crossing out the old data (it still has to be readable), writing the updated information, noting the date and time of the change, why the change was made, and having the new entry signed and witnessed. That process acts as an audit trail, ensuring that results aren\u2019t improperly altered. Paper-based systems require this voluntarily and should be enforced at the organizational level. Electronic laboratory systems do this as part of their design.\nTable 1 examines the pros and cons of using a paper-based system in the laboratory.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nTable 1. The pros and cons of using a paper-based system in the laboratory\n\n\nPros\n\nCons\n\n\n\u2022\tLow cost\r\n\u2022\tEasily transportable\r\n\u2022\tNo power required\r\n\u2022\tBuilt-in backup copies\r\n\u2022\tHigh level of flexibility (writing, drawing, charts, etc.)\r\n\u2022\tSignature block for author\/witness\n\n\u2022\tMay be difficult to read\r\n\u2022\tEasily damaged, destroyed\r\n\u2022\tNo\/limited loss prevention\r\n\u2022\tManual searches\r\n\u2022\tData\/information must be copied to be used\r\n\u2022\tDifficult to integrate with other users data\r\n\u2022\tHigh cost of use, everything is manual\r\n\u2022\tAudit practices are manual and either self or organizationally enforced\n\n\n\nSpreadsheet software \nSpreadsheets have benefited many applications that need easy-to-produce calculation and database systems for home, office, and administrative work. The word \"laboratory\" doesn't appear in that sentence because of the demands for data integrity in laboratory applications. Spreadsheet applications are easy to produce for calculations, graphs, etc. Their ease of use and openness to undocumented modifications make them a poor choice for routine calculations. They're attractive because of their simplicity of use and inherent power, but they prove inappropriate for their lack of controls over editing, lack of audit trails, etc. If you need a routine calculation package, it should be done according to standard software development guidelines. One major drawback is the difficulty of validating a spreadsheet, instituting controls, and ensuring that the scripting hasn\u2019t been tampered with. Spreadsheets don't accommodate any of those requirements; spreadsheets are tools, and the applications need to be built. Purpose-built laboratory database systems such as LIMS, on the other hand, are much better equipped to handle those issues. \nSome have turned to developing \"spreadsheet-based LIMS.\" This type of project development requires a formal software development effort; it's not just building a spreadsheet and populating it with data and formulas. Current industrial lab operations are subject to corporate and regulatory guidelines, and violating them can have serious repercussions, including shutting down the lab or production facility. Software development requires documentation, user requirement documents, design documents, user manuals, and materials to support the software. What looks like a fun project may become a significant part of your work. This impacts the cost factor; the development and support costs of a spreadsheet-based LIMS may occupy your entire time. \nPerformance is another matter. Spreadsheet systems typically allow a single user at a time. They don't have the underlying database management support needed for simultaneous multi-user operations. This is one reason spreadsheet implementations give way to replacements with LIMS in industrial labs.\nFor more on the topic of transitioning from paper to spreadsheets to LIMS, see the article \"Improving Lab Systems: From Paper to Spreadsheets to LIMS.\"&#91;10&#93; This article will be helpful to you in considering a direction for laboratory informatics development and planning, describing the strengths and weaknesses of different approaches. It also contains references to regulatory compliance documents on the use of spreadsheets.\n\nLIMS and ELN \nThe commercial software market has evaluated the needs of research and service laboratory operations and developed software specifically designed to address those points. LIMS was designed to meet the requirements of service laboratories such as QC testing, contract testing, analytical lab, and similar groups. The important item is not the name of the lab but its operational characteristics\u2014the processes used\u2014as described earlier. The same software systems could easily be at home in a research lab that conducts a lot of routine testing on samples. If the lab has sets of samples, it needs to keep track of testing, generating worklists, and reporting results on a continuing basis; a LIMS may well be appropriate for their work. It is designed for a highly structured operational environment as described earlier.\nELNs are useful in an operational environment that is less structured, whose needs and direction may change and whose data storage and analysis requirements are more fluid. That is usually in labs designated as \"research,\" but not exclusively. For example, an analytical lab doing method development could use an ELN to support that work. \nBoth LIMS and ELNs are \u201ctop tier\u201d levels of software. LIMS may be subordinate to an ELN in a research lab whose work includes routine testing. Functionality in the \"Needs\" list that is not part of the products (functionality is determined by the vendor, usually with customer input) can be supplied by offerings from third-party vendors. Those can consist of applications that can be linked to the LIMS and ELN, or be completely independent products. \nTable 2 describes characteristics of LIMS and ELN.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nTable 2. Characteristics of LIMS and ELN\n\n\nLIMS\n\nELN\n\n\n\u2022\tLIMS has a well-defined database structure and the software components to work with it and support its underlying processes.\r\n\n\u2022\tIt is purpose-built to manage sample logins, sample tracking, results entry, results tracking, reporting, etc. These comprise its core functionality.\r\n\n\u2022\tIn addition, LIMS may include instrument maintenance databases, trend analysis, inventory, personnel records, etc.\n\n\n\u2022\tELNs have modules that can be organized to support projects and manage data according the research process used in that lab's work.\r\n\n\u2022\tSome ELNs, at the vendors discretion, will contain graphics modules, inventory modules, and links to third-party applications such as reaction databases, molecular modeling, and statistical analysis.\n\n\n\n\nSupporting tiers of software \nThere are limits to what a vendor can or wants to include in their products. The more functionality, the higher the cost to the customer, and the more complex the support issue becomes. One of those areas is data storage.\nThe results storage in LIMS is usually limited to sets of numerical values or alphanumeric strings, e.g., the color of something. Those results are often based on the analysis of larger data files from instruments, images, or other sources, files too large to be accommodated within a LIMS. That problem was solved in at least two ways: the creation of the SDMS and IDS. From the standpoint of data files, both have some elements in common, though IDSs are more limited.\nThe SDMS acts as a large file cabinet, where different types of materials can be put into them\u2014images, charts, scanned documents, data files, etc.\u2014and then be referenced by the LIMS or ELN. The results sit in LIMS or ELN, and supporting information is linked to the results in the SDMS. That keeps the LIMS and ELN databases easier to structure while still supporting the lab's needs to manage large files from a variety of sources and formats.\nThat same facility is available through an IDS, but only for the devices that the IDS is connected to, e.g., chromatographs, spectrometers, etc. In addition to that function, IDSs support instrumental data collection, analysis, and reporting. They can also be linked to LIMS and ELNs by electronically receiving worklists and then electronically sending the results back, thus avoiding the need for entering the data manually.\nThe LES is also an aid to the laboratory, ensuring that laboratory methods and procedures are carried out correctly, with documented support for each step in the method. They can be seen as a quasi-automation system, except instead of automation hardware doing the work, the laboratorian is doing it, guided step-by-step by strict adherence to the method as embedded in software. The problem that this type of system, originally styled as an \u201celectronic laboratory notebook\u201d by Velquest Inc. (later purchased by Accelrys) was to ensure that there was documented evidence that every step in a lab procedure was properly carried out by qualified personnel, using calibrated\/maintained instruments, current reagents, with all data electronically captured with potential links to LIMS or other systems. That system would provide bullet-proof support for data and information generated by procedures in regulated environments. That in turn means that the data\/information produced is reliable and can stand up to challenges.\nImplementations of LES have ranged from stand-alone applications that linked to LIMS, ELNs, and SDMS, to programmable components of LIMS and ELNs. Instead of having a stand-alone framework to implement an LES, as with Velquest's product, embedded systems provide a scripting (i.e., programming by the user) facility within a LIMS that has access to the entire LIMS database, avoiding the need to interface two products. That embedded facility put a lot of pressure on the programmer to properly design, test, and validate each procedure in an isolated structure, separate from the active LIMS so that programming errors didn\u2019t compromise the integrity of the database. Note: procedure execution in stand-alone systems requires validation as well.\nAs for the IDS, instrument vendors of the late 1960s explored the benefits of connecting laboratory instruments to computer systems to see what could be gained from that combination. One problem they wanted to address was the handling of the large volumes of data that instruments produced. At that time, analog instrument output was often recorded on chart paper, and a single sample through a chromatograph might be recorded on a chart that was one or more feet long. A day\u2019s work generated a lot of paper that had to be evaluated manually, which proved time-consuming and labor-intensive. Vendors have since successfully developed computer-instrument combinations that automatically transform the instrument's analog output to a digital format, and then store and process that data to produce useful information (results), eliminating the manual effort and making labs more cost-effective in the process. This was the first step in instrument automation; the user was still required to introduce the sample into the device. The second step solved that problem in many instances through the creation of automatic samplers that moved the samples into position for analysis. This includes auto-injectors, flow-through cells, and other autosamplers, depending on the analytical technique.\nAutosamplers have ranged from devices that used a syringe to take a portion of a sample from a vial and inject it into the instrument, to systems that would carry out some sample preparation tasks and then inject the sample&#91;11&#93;, to pneumatic tube-based systems&#91;12&#93; that would bring vials from a central holding area, inject the sample and then return the sample to holding, where it would be available for further work or disposal.\nThe key to all this was the IDS computer and its programming that coordinated all these activities, acquired the data, and then processed it. Life was good as long as human intelligence evaluated the results, looked for anomalies, and took remedial action where needed. For a more detailed discussion of this subject please see Notes on Instrument Data Systems.\nThe instrument data system took us a long way toward an automated laboratory, but there was still some major hurdles to cross, including sample preparation, sample storage management, and systems integration. While much progress has been made, there is a lot more work to do.\n\nGetting work done quickly and at a low cost \nProductivity is one of the driving factors in laboratory work, as in any production environment. What is the most efficient and effective way to accomplish high-quality work at the lowest possible cost? That may not sound like \"science,\" but it is about doing science in an industrial world, in both research and service labs. That need drives software development, new systems, better instrumentation, and investments in robotics and informatics technologies.\nThat need was felt most acutely in the clinical chemistry market in the 1980s. In that field, the cost of testing was an annual contractual agreement between the lab and its clients. If costs increased during that contract year, it impacted the lab's income, profits, and ability to function. Through an industry-wide effort, the labs agreed to pursue the concept of total laboratory automation (TLA). That solution involved the labs working with vendors and associations to create a set of communications standards and standardized testing protocols that would enable the clinical chemistry labs to contain costs and greatly increase their level of operational effectiveness. The communications protocols led to the ability to integrate instrumentation and computer systems, streamlining operations and data transfer. The standardized test protocols allowed vendors to develop custom instrumentation tailored to those protocols, and to have personnel educated in their use.&#91;13&#93;&#91;14&#93;\nThe traditional way of improving productivity in industrial processes, whether on the production line or in the laboratory is through automation. This is discussed in detail in Elements of Laboratory Technology Management and Considerations in the Automation of Laboratory Procedures. However, we'll elaborate more here.\nConnecting an IDS to a LIMS, SDMS, or ELN is one form of automation, in the sense that information about samples and work to be done can travel automatically between a LIMS to an IDS and be processed, with the results getting returned without human intervention. However, making such automation successful requires several conditions:\n\nProven, validated procedures and methods;\nA proven, validated automated version of those methods (the method doesn\u2019t have to be re-validated, but the implementation of the method does&#91;15&#93;);\nA clear economic justification for the automation, including sufficient work to be done to make the automation of the process worthwhile; and,\nStandardization in communications and equipment where possible (this is one of the key success factors in clinical chemistry\u2019s TLA program, and the reason for the success in automation and equipment development in processes using microplates).\nRobotics is often one of the first things people think of when automation is suggested. It is also one of the more difficult to engineer because of the need for expertise in electromechanical equipment, software development, and interfacing between control systems and the robotic components themselves. If automation is a consideration, then the user should look first to commercial products. Vendors are looking for any opportunity to provide tools for the laboratory market. Many options have already been exploited or are under development. Present your needs to vendors and see what their reaction is. As noted earlier, user needs drove the development of autosamplers, which are essentially robots. Aside from purpose-built robotic add-ons to laboratory instrumentation, a common approach is user-designed robotics. We'll cover more on the subject of user-built systems below, but the bottom line is that they are usually more expensive to design, build, and maintain than the original project plan allows for.\nRobotics has a useful role in sample preparation. That requires careful consideration of the source of the samples and their destination. The most successful applications of robotics are in cases where the samples are in a standardized container, and the results of the preparation are similarly standardized. As noted above, this is one reason why sample processing using microplates has been so successful. The standard format of the plates with a fixed set of geometries for sample well placement means that the position of samples is predictable, and equipment can be designed to take advantage of that. \nSample preparation with non-standard containers requires specialized engineering to make adaptations for variations. Early robotics used a variety of grippers to grasp test tubes, flasks, bottles, etc., and in the long run, they were unworkable for long-term applications, often requiring frequent adjustments. \nSample storage management is another area where robotics has a potential role but is constrained by the lack of standardization in sample containers, a point that varies widely by industry. In some cases, samples, particularly those that originate with consumers (e.g., water testing), can come in a variety of containers and they have to be handled manually to organize them in a form that a sample inventory system can manage. Life sciences applications can have standardized formats for samples, but in cases such as biobanking, retrieval issues can arise because the samples may be stored in freezers with multiple levels, making them difficult to access.\nA basic sample storage management system would be linked to a LIMS, have an inventory of samples with locations, appropriate environmental controls, a barcode system to make labels machine-readable, and if robotics were considered, be organized so that a robot could have access to all materials without disrupting others. It would also have to interface cleanly with the sample preparation and sample disposal functions.\n\nArtificial intelligence applications in the lab \nArtificial intelligence (AI) in the lab is both an easy and difficult subject to write about. It's easy because anything written will be out-of-date as it is produced, and it's difficult because we really have no idea where things are going, and what we think of as an advanced AI now will be superseded next month, and probably has been in classified intelligence circles. With that said, there are still some useful things to say about the subject that would benefit you.\nWe need to be very cautious about the application of AI to lab work, if nothing else, because you are signing your name to lab results, not the AI. If something is challenged, or found to be a problem, you are responsible and accountable for the work. This is particularly problematic for AI usage since we can\u2019t trace back to the cause of the problem. In traditional programming, we have the code and can find the source of a programming problem. There is no traceback with AI systems as they currently exist. Was there a coding issue? Was there a training issue? Was the training data set biased?\nThe application of computing technology to lab work has placed layers of computing between the scientist and the actual measurements made in the lab. Each layer holds the potential for problems to develop, and assumptions to be made, which the analyst may not be aware of. Put a sample into the instrument, and the computer produces a report. Between the analog output of the instrument\u2014the actual instruments' measurement\u2014and what the analyst sees we have:\n\nThe analog-to-digital converter (ADC), which reads the signal and converts it to a digital value 9there are different types of ADC, some better suited to some applications than others);\nNoise filtering, which may precede the ADC or exist in the form of digital signal processing;\nSoftware that converts the raw data to a more usable form, ranging from a simple pass-through (nothing needed), to peak detection, baseline correction, overlapping peak resolution, peak size calculations, etc.;\nQuantitative analysis, based on the previous points for samples and reference materials;\nMonitoring, checking for anomalies and segregation of problem samples; and\nWhatever capabilities an AI provides.\nNone of this is a problem as long as the analyst is aware of what is going on and has taken steps to ensure that none of those actions adversely affect the results of the analysis. This is the direction that laboratory computing is taking, and it provides a useful basis for laboratory automation systems that will reduce the cost of doing work, and free busy personnel to do other work. AI is another potentially useful layer to streamlining the work you are signing your name to. Similar concerns would also apply to automated sample preparation.\nThere is a long list of applications that could benefit from AI technologies, and they are being explored and exploited. The question of what those applications are was posed to ChatGPT-4 (the prompt was \"What are some good examples of successful applications of artificial intelligence applied to laboratory work?\"), and it responded as such:\n\nCertainly! Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) have made significant inroads into laboratory work across various scientific disciplines. Here are some successful applications:\n1. Automated Image Analysis:\n\n- Pathology: Automated detection and classification of tumors in histopathological slides.\n- Microbiology: Automated identification and counting of bacterial colonies or reading antibiotic susceptibility tests.\n- Cell Biology: Analyzing cell morphology, cell counting, or detecting cellular events in microscopy images.\n2. Predictive Analytics:\n\n- Drug Discovery: Predicting drug interactions and potential drug candidates by analyzing chemical structures.\n- Genomics: Predicting potential disease genes or understanding gene function.\n3. Laboratory Automation and Robotics:\n\n- Sample Handling: Robots equipped with AI can adaptively handle and process samples.\n- Optimization: AI can optimize experimental conditions such as reaction times, temperatures, or concentrations.\n4. Data Mining:\n\n- Literature Analysis: AI can scan vast amounts of published research to identify trends, potential collaborations, or overlooked conclusions.\n- High-throughput Screening: Analyzing and identifying compounds with desired properties from large libraries.\n5. Spectroscopy and Chromatography:\n\n- Analyzing complex spectra or chromatograms, distinguishing minute differences or predicting material properties based on spectral data. (https:\/\/cen.acs.org\/physical-chemistry\/computational-chemistry\/Computers-learning-analyze-chemists-spectra\/101\/i7)\n6. Predictive Maintenance:\n\n- Predicting when equipment needs maintenance or identifying early signs of malfunction, ensuring that lab operations run smoothly.\n7. Natural Language Processing (NLP):\n\n- Automated transcription of lab notes or voice commands.\n- Extracting structured data from unstructured lab reports.\n8. Proteomics &amp; Metabolomics:\n\n- Analyzing complex data sets to identify biomarkers or metabolic pathways.\n- Mass spectrometry data interpretation and peptide identification.\n9. Clinical Decision Support:\n\n- Assisting doctors in diagnosing diseases based on lab results, medical history, and other data sources.\n10. Environment Monitoring:\n\n- Detecting pollutants or pathogens in environmental samples using pattern recognition.\n11. Simulation &amp; Modeling:\n\n- Computational chemistry: Predicting molecular behaviors or drug-target interactions.\n- Systems biology: Modeling complex biological systems or pathways.\n12. Quality Control &amp; Assurance:\n\n- Detecting anomalies or outliers in routine lab measurements.\n- Predicting and ensuring the consistency of lab results over time.\n13. Biobanking:\n\n- Optimizing storage and retrieval of biological samples using pattern recognition and predictive analytics.\n14. Genetic Analysis and Personalized Medicine:\n\n- Predicting disease susceptibility or drug response based on genetic data.\n15. 3D Bioprinting:\n\n- Using AI to optimize the design and production of 3D-printed tissues or organs.\nThese are just a few of the many applications of AI in laboratory settings. As technology advances, it's likely that AI will become an even more integral part of laboratory work, driving efficiencies and enabling new discoveries.\nWhile that is an interesting list, more specifics would be useful. ChatGPT-4 received the follow-up question, \"Can you provide reference for those examples?\"\n\nOf course! While I can't directly link you to the references, I can mention landmark papers, well-known projects, or general topics that you can further search to access the original sources. Here's a non-exhaustive list based on the applications mentioned:\n1. Automated Image Analysis:\n\n- Esteva, A., et al. (2017). Dermatologist-level classification of skin cancer with deep neural networks. Nature. (https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/nature21056)\n- Coudray, N., et al. (2018). Classification and mutation prediction from non\u2013small cell lung cancer histopathology images using deep learning. Nature Medicine.\n2. Predictive Analytics:\n\n- Wallach, I., et al. (2015). AtomNet: A deep convolutional neural network for bioactivity prediction in structure-based drug discovery. arXiv preprint.\n3. Laboratory Automation and Robotics:\n\n- Gil, Y., et al. (2018). Toward the Geoscience Paper of the Future: Best Practices for Documenting and Sharing Research from Data to Software to Provenance. Earth and Space Science. (https:\/\/agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1002\/2015EA000136)\n4. Data Mining:\n\n- Jensen, L. J., et al. (2006). STRING 8\u2014a global view on proteins and their functional interactions in 630 organisms. Nucleic Acids Research.\n5. Spectroscopy and Chromatography:\n\n- Pasolli, E., et al. (2016). Machine learning meta-analysis of large metagenomic datasets: tools and biological insights. PLoS Computational Biology. (https:\/\/www.semanticscholar.org\/paper\/Machine-Learning-Meta-analysis-of-Large-Metagenomic-Pasolli-Truong\/b067701cf2a2d54ecde7b4e9c25b843d787b66c2)\n6. Natural Language Processing (NLP):\n\n- Jensen, L. J., et al. (2006). Literature mining for the biologist: from information retrieval to biological discovery. Nature Reviews Genetics.\n7. Proteomics &amp; Metabolomics:\n\n- Smith, C. A., et al. (2006). XCMS: Processing mass spectrometry data for metabolite profiling using nonlinear peak alignment, matching, and identification. Analytical Chemistry.\n8. Clinical Decision Support:\n\n- Rajkomar, A., et al. (2018). Scalable and accurate deep learning with electronic health records. NPJ Digital Medicine. (https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/31304302\/)\n9. Environment Monitoring:\n\n- Aksenov, A. A., et al. (2014). Global survey of the oxygen isotope composition of bioavailable soil water. Earth and Planetary Science Letters.\n10. Simulation &amp; Modeling:\n\n- Duvenaud, D., et al. (2015). Convolutional networks on graphs for learning molecular fingerprints. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems.\n11. Quality Control &amp; Assurance:\n\n- Hinton, G. E., et al. (2012). Improving neural networks by preventing co-adaptation of feature detectors. arXiv preprint. (https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1207.0580)\n12. Genetic Analysis and Personalized Medicine:\n\n- LeCun, Y., et al. (2015). Deep learning. Nature.\nThese references are based on well-accepted papers and findings up to my last training cut-off in January 2022. You might want to search for these papers or topics in databases like Google Scholar, PubMed, or academic journals for full access and more recent works on the subject.\nThe URLs in italics are ones that have been verified. \nThis latter list is consistent with material that has been found in advertising and the literature. For example, Mettler Toledo has been advertising an AI system for its thermal analysis products.&#91;16&#93; Articles are also available describing the automated analysis of spectra.&#91;17&#93; There is even an AI-prompted interview with ChatGPT about how it sees applications to spectroscopy.&#91;18&#93;\nThe approach Mettler takes with thermal analysis is interesting. It presents the results as a suggested analysis of the data and makes it easy for the analysis to adjust settings if it disagrees with that result.&#91;16&#93; It means that the analyst has to examine each result, and after review accepts the responsibility for the work by either making adjustments or accepting things as they are. This requires an experienced analyst. The problems begin if we skip that step in pursuit of fully automated facilities, are in a rush to release results, or put the tools in the hands of inexperienced personnel.\nAI offers a great deal of potential benefits to laboratory work, something marketers are going to exploit to attract more customers. Product offerings need to be viewed skeptically as supposed benefits may be less than promised, or not as fully tested as needed. Unlike dealing with spelling checkers that consistently make improper word substitutions, AI-generated errors in data analysis are dangerous because they may go undetected.\n\nSystems development: Tinkering vs. engineering \nOne common practice in laboratory work, particularly in research, is modifying equipment or creating new configurations of equipment and instruments to get work done. That same thought pattern often extends to software development; components such as spreadsheets, compilers, database systems, and so on are common parts of laboratory computer systems. Many people include programming as part of their list of skills. That can lead to the development of special purpose software to solve issues in data handling and analysis.\nThat activity in an industrial lab is potentially problematic. Organizations have controls over what software development is permitted so that organizational security isn\u2019t compromised and that the development activities do not create problems with organizational or regulatory requirements and guidelines.\nIf a need for software develops, there are recognized processes for defining, implementing, and validating those projects. One of the best-known in laboratory science comes from ISPE's GAMP guidelines.&#91;8&#93; There is also a discussion of the methodology in Considerations in the Automation of Laboratory Procedures.\nThe development process begins with a \u201cneeds analysis\u201d that describes why the project is being undertaken and what it is supposed to accomplish, along with the benefits of doing it. That is followed by a user-requirements document that has to be agreed upon before the project begins. Once that is done, a prototype system(s) can be developed that will give you a chance to explore different options for development, project requirements, etc., that will form the basis of a design specification for the development of the actual project (whereupon the prototype is scrapped). At this point, the rest of the GAMP process is followed through the completion of the project. The end result is a proven, working, documented system that can be relied upon (based on evidence) to work and be supported. If changes are needed, the backup documentation is there to support that work.\nThis is an engineering approach to systems development. Those systems may result in software, a sample preparation process, or the implementation of an automated test method. It is needed to ensure that things work, and if the developer is no longer available, the project can still be used, supported, modified, etc., as needed. The organizations investment is protected, the data and information produced can be supported and treated as reliable, and all guidelines and regulations are being met.\n\nIn closing... \nThe purpose of this document is to give the student a high-level overview of the purpose and use of the major informatics systems that are commonly used in industrial research and service laboratories. This is an active area of development, with new products and platforms being released annually, usually around major conferences. The links included are starting points to increasing the depth of the material.\n\nAbout the author \nInitially educated as a chemist, author Joe Liscouski (joe dot liscouski at gmail dot com) is an experienced laboratory automation\/computing professional with over forty years of experience in the field, including the design and development of automation systems (both custom and commercial systems), LIMS, robotics and data interchange standards. He also consults on the use of computing in laboratory work. He has held symposia on validation and presented technical material and short courses on laboratory automation and computing in the U.S., Europe, and Japan. He has worked\/consulted in pharmaceutical, biotech, polymer, medical, and government laboratories. His current work centers on working with companies to establish planning programs for lab systems, developing effective support groups, and helping people with the application of automation and information technologies in research and quality control environments.\n\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 Liscouski, J.&#32;(June 2023).&#32;\"Harnessing Informatics for Effective Lab Inspections and Audits\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;LabLynx, Inc.&#32;https:\/\/www.lablynx.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/06\/Article-Harnessing-Informatics-for-Effective-Lab-Inspections-and-Audits.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Wilkinson,&#32;Mark D.&#59;&#32;Dumontier,&#32;Michel&#59;&#32;Aalbersberg,&#32;IJsbrand Jan&#59;&#32;Appleton,&#32;Gabrielle&#59;&#32;Axton,&#32;Myles&#59;&#32;Baak,&#32;Arie&#59;&#32;Blomberg,&#32;Niklas&#59;&#32;Boiten,&#32;Jan-Willem&#32;et al.&#32;(15 March 2016).&#32;\"The FAIR Guiding Principles for scientific data management and stewardship\"&#32;(in en).&#32;Scientific Data&#32;3&#32;(1): 160018.&#32;doi:10.1038\/sdata.2016.18.&#32;ISSN&#160;2052-4463.&#32;PMC&#160;PMC4792175.&#32;PMID&#160;26978244.&#32;https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/sdata201618 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 3.0 3.1 3.2 Schmitt, S.&#32;(2016).&#32;Assuring Data Integrity for Life Sciences.&#32;DHI Publishing, LLC.&#32;ISBN&#160;1-933722-97-5.&#32;https:\/\/www.pda.org\/bookstore\/product-detail\/3149-assuring-data-integrity-for-life-sciences . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Data Integrity for the FDA Regulated Industry\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Quality Systems Compliance, LLC.&#32;12 January 2019.&#32;https:\/\/qscompliance.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/01\/ALCOA-Principles.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"21 CFR Part 11 Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures\".&#32;Code of Federal Regulations.&#32;National Archives.&#32;11 November 2023.&#32;https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-21\/chapter-I\/subchapter-A\/part-11 .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"40 CFR Part 792 Good Laboratory Practice Standards\".&#32;Code of Federal Regulations.&#32;National Archives.&#32;15 November 2023.&#32;https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-40\/chapter-I\/subchapter-R\/part-792 .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"42 CFR Part 493 Laboratory Requirements\".&#32;Code of Federal Regulations.&#32;National Archives.&#32;13 November 2023.&#32;https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-42\/chapter-IV\/subchapter-G\/part-493 .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 8.0 8.1 \"What is GAMP?\".&#32;International Society for Pharmaceutical Engineering.&#32;2023.&#32;https:\/\/ispe.org\/initiatives\/regulatory\/what-gamp .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Pankonin, M.&#32;(27 May 2021).&#32;\"Regulations vs. Standards: Clearing up the Confusion\".&#32;Association of Equipment Manufacturers.&#32;https:\/\/www.aem.org\/news\/regulations-vs-standards-clearing-up-the-confusion .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Liscouski, J.&#32;(April 2022).&#32;\"Improving Lab Systems: From Paper to Spreadsheets to LIMS\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;LabLynx, Inc.&#32;https:\/\/www.lablynx.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Improving-Lab-Systems-From-Paper-to-Spreadsheets-to-LIMS.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"7693A Automated Liquid Sampler - Video\".&#32;Agilent Technologies, Inc.&#32;https:\/\/www.agilent.com\/en\/video\/7693a-video .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"TurboTube for Baytek LIMS software\".&#32;Baytek International.&#32;https:\/\/www.baytekinternational.com\/products\/turbotube .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Leichtle, A.B.&#32;(1 December 2020).&#32;\"Total Laboratory Automation\u2014 Samples on Track\".&#32;Clinical Laboratory News.&#32;Association for Diagnostics &amp; Laboratory Medicine.&#32;https:\/\/www.aacc.org\/cln\/articles\/2020\/december\/total-laboratory-automation-samples-on-track .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Leichtle, A.B.&#32;(1 January 2021).&#32;\"Total Lab Automation: What Matters Most\".&#32;Clinical Laboratory News.&#32;Association for Diagnostics &amp; Laboratory Medicine.&#32;https:\/\/www.aacc.org\/cln\/articles\/2021\/january\/total-lab-automation-what-matters-most .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Webster,&#32;G&#59;&#32;Kott,&#32;L&#59;&#32;Maloney,&#32;T&#32;(1 June 2005).&#32;\"Considerations When Implementing Automated Methods into GxP Laboratories\"&#32;(in en).&#32;Journal of the Association for Laboratory Automation&#32;10&#32;(3): 182\u2013191.&#32;doi:10.1016\/j.jala.2005.03.003.&#32;http:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1016\/j.jala.2005.03.003 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 16.0 16.1 \"AIWizard \u2013 Artificial Intelligence for Thermal Analysis\".&#32;Mettler Toledo.&#32;https:\/\/www.mt.com\/us\/en\/home\/library\/know-how\/lab-analytical-instruments\/ai-wizard.html .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Jung,&#32;Guwon&#59;&#32;Jung,&#32;Son Gyo&#59;&#32;Cole,&#32;Jacqueline M.&#32;(2023).&#32;\"Automatic materials characterization from infrared spectra using convolutional neural networks\"&#32;(in en).&#32;Chemical Science&#32;14&#32;(13): 3600\u20133609.&#32;doi:10.1039\/D2SC05892H.&#32;ISSN&#160;2041-6520.&#32;PMC&#160;PMC10055241.&#32;PMID&#160;37006683.&#32;http:\/\/xlink.rsc.org\/?DOI=D2SC05892H . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Workman Jr., J.&#32;(17 May 2023).&#32;\"An Interview with AI About Its Potential Role in Vibrational and Atomic Spectroscopy\".&#32;Spectroscopy Online.&#32;https:\/\/www.spectroscopyonline.com\/view\/an-interview-with-ai-about-its-potential-role-in-vibrational-and-atomic-spectroscopy .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics<\/a>\nCategory: LII:Guides, white papers, and other publicationsNavigation menuPage actionsLIIDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsLIIDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 4 January 2024, at 15:45.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 1,819 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","5a96b4c0c6ab1c4015afdb606bda1125_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-202 ns-subject page-LII_A_Science_Student_s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics rootpage-LII_A_Science_Student_s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">LII:A Science Student's Guide to Laboratory Informatics<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p><b>Title<\/b>: <i>A Science Student's Guide to Laboratory Informatics<\/i>\n<\/p><p><b>Author for citation<\/b>: Joe Liscouski, with editorial modifications by Shawn Douglas\n<\/p><p><b>License for content<\/b>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International<\/a>\n<\/p><p><b>Publication date<\/b>: November 2023\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Introduction\">Introduction<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>An undergraduate science education aims to teach people what they need to know to pursue a particular scientific discipline; it emphasizes foundational elements of the discipline. In most cases in current science education, the time allotted to teaching a scientific discipline is often insufficient to address the existing and growing knowledge base and deal with the multidisciplinary aspects of executing <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33\">laboratory<\/a> work in both industrial and academic settings; the focus is primarily on educational topics. Yet employers in science-based industries want to hire people \"ready to work,\" leaving a significant gap between the goals of science education and the background needed to be productive in the workplace. One example of this gap is found in the lack of emphasis on <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">laboratory informatics<\/a> in laboratory-adjacent scientific endeavors.\n<\/p><p>The purpose of this guide is to provide a student with a look at the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Informatics_(academic_field)\" title=\"Informatics (academic field)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0391318826a5d9f9a1a1bcc88394739f\">informatics<\/a> landscape in <i>industrial labs<\/i>. The guide has two goals: \n<\/p>\n<ol><li>Provide a framework to help the reader understand what they need to know to be both comfortable and effective in an industrial setting, giving them a starting point for learning about the product classes and technologies; and,<\/li>\n<li>Give an instructor an outline of a survey course should they want to pursue teaching this type of material.<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>This guide is not intended to provide a textbook-scale level of discussion. It's an annotated map of the laboratory portion of a technological world, identifying critical points of interest and how they relate to one another, while making recommendations for the reader to learn more. Its intent is that in one document you can appreciate what the technologies are, and if you hear their names, you'll be able to understand the technologies' higher-level positioning and function. The details, which are continually developing, will be referenced elsewhere.\n<\/p><p>Note that this guide references LIMSforum.com on multiple occasions. LIMSforum is an educational forum for laboratory informatics that will ask you to sign in for access to its contents. There is no charge for accessing or using any of the materials; the log-in is for security purposes. Sign-in to LIMSforum can be done with a variety of existing social media accounts, or you can create a new LIMSforum account.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-What's_lacking_in_modern_laboratory_education?\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"What.27s_lacking_in_modern_laboratory_education.3F\">What's lacking in modern laboratory education?<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The science you\u2019ve learned in school provides a basis for understanding laboratory methods, solving problems, conducting projects\/research, and developing methods. It has little to do with the orchestration of industrial lab operations. That role was first filled by paper-based procedures and now firmly falls in the realm of electronic management systems. So why is your laboratory experience in your formal education different from that in industrial labs? After all, both include <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Research\" title=\"Research\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"409634fd90113f119362927fe222f549\">research<\/a>, testing, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chemistry\" title=\"Chemistry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"792a1b261a4ecc7803e3f7f1de2dbda1\">chemistry<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Biotechnology\" title=\"Biotechnology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"115005039d4cf0b4ef55ec14dc6d66da\">biotechnology<\/a>, pharmaceutical development, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Materials_science\" title=\"Materials science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"89f5ce5de41da20cf3a2144a5731d5e6\">material development<\/a>, engineering, etc.\n<\/p><p>Educational lab work is about understanding principles and techniques, developing skills by executing procedures, and conducting research projects. Industrial work is about producing data, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d\">information<\/a>, materials, and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Medical_device\" title=\"Medical device\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8e821122daa731f0fa8782fae57831fa\">devices<\/a>, some supporting research, others supporting production\/manufacturing operations. Those products are subject to both <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Regulatory_compliance\" title=\"Regulatory compliance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7dbc9be278a8efda25a4b592ee6ef0ca\">regulatory review<\/a> and are subject to internal guidelines. Suppose a regulatory inspector finds fault with a lab's data. In that case, the consequences can range from more detailed inspection and, if warranted, closing the lab or the entire production facility until remedial actions are enacted.\n<\/p><p>Because of the importance of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_integrity\" title=\"Data integrity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"382a9bb77ee3e36bb3b37c79ed813167\">data integrity<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_quality\" title=\"Data quality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7fe43b05eae4dfa9b5c0547cc8cfcceb\">quality<\/a>, industrial laboratories operate under the requirements, regulations, and standards of a variety of sources, including corporate guidelines, the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Food_and_Drug_Administration\" title=\"Food and Drug Administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2be8927071ac419c0929f7aa1ede7fe\">Food and Drug Administration<\/a> (FDA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/International_Organization_for_Standardization\" title=\"International Organization for Standardization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"116defc5d89c8a55f5b7c1be0790b442\">International Organization for Standardization<\/a> (ISO), and others. These regulatory and standard-based efforts aim to ensure that the data and information used to make decisions about product quality is maintained and defensible. It all comes down to product <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Quality_(business)\" title=\"Quality (business)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c4ac43430d1c3a3a15d1255257aaea37\">quality<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Safety_engineering\" title=\"Safety engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a4ee82a1c5643fa1a566a98409f65af8\">safety<\/a>, so for example, that the acetaminophen capsule you might take has the proper dosage and is free of contamination.\n<\/p><p>Outside of regulations and standards, even company policy can drive the desire for timely, high-quality analytical results. Corporate guidelines for lab operations ensure that laboratory data and information is well-managed and supportable. Consider a lawsuit brought by a consumer about product quality. Suppose the company can't demonstrate that the data supporting product quality is on solid ground. In that case, they may be fined with significant damages. Seeking to avoid this, the company puts into place enforceable policy and procedures (P&amp;P) and may even put into place a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Quality_management_system\" title=\"Quality management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dfecf3cd6f18d4a5e9ac49ca360b447d\">quality management system<\/a> (QMS).\n<\/p><p>As noted, labs are production operations. There is more leeway in research, but service labs (i.e., analytical, physical properties, quality control, contract testing, etc.) are heavily production-oriented, so some refer to the work as \"scientific manufacturing\" or \"scientific production work\" because of the heavy reliance on <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_automation\" title=\"Laboratory automation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0061880849aeaca05f8aa27ae171f331\">automation<\/a>. That dependence on automation has led to the adoption of systems such as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00\">laboratory information management systems<\/a> (LIMS), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Electronic laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f\">electronic laboratory notebooks<\/a> (ELN), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Scientific_data_management_system\" title=\"Scientific data management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f38d322b743f578fef487b6f3d7c253\">scientific data management systems<\/a> (SDMS), instrument data systems (IDS), and robotics to organize and manage the work, and produce results. Some aspects of research, where large volumes of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Sample_(material)\" title=\"Sample (material)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f8cd41a077a88d02370c02a3ba3d9d6\">sample<\/a> processing are essential, have the same issues. Yet realistically, how immersed are today's student scientists in the realities of these systems and their use outside of academia? Are they being taught sufficiently about these and other electronic systems that are increasingly finding their way into the modern industrial laboratory?\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Operational_models_for_research_and_service_laboratories\">Operational models for research and service laboratories<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Before we get too deeply into laboratory informatics concepts, we need to describe the setting where informatics tools are used. Otherwise, the tools won\u2019t make sense. Scientific work, particularly laboratory work, is process-driven at several levels. Organizational processes describe how a business works and how the various departments relate to each other. Laboratories have processes operating at different levels; one may describe how the lab functions and carries out its intended purpose, and others detail how experimental procedures are carried out. Some of these processes\u2014accounting, for example\u2014are largely, with a few exceptions, the same across organizations in differing industries. Others depend on the industry and are the basis for requiring industry experience before hiring people at the mid- and upper levels. Still other activities, such as research, depend on the particular mission of a lab within an organization. A given company may have several different research laboratories directed at different areas of work with only the word \u201cresearch\u201d and some broad generalizations about what is in common. However, their internal methods of operation can vary widely.\n<\/p><p>We\u2019ll begin by looking at the working environment. Figure 1 shows the functions we need to consider. That model is based on the author\u2019s experience; however, it fits many applied research groups in different industries whose work is intended to lead to new and improved products. The names of the labs may change to include <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Microbiology\" title=\"Microbiology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"920bf32dc9c9cf492c58c4c5484df41f\">microbiology<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Toxicology\" title=\"Toxicology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c1c9e1a7e33df53c6ca721eee8b5381\">toxicology<\/a>, electronics, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Forensic_science\" title=\"Forensic science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"415d36a7b65494677b6d2873d5febec1\">forensics<\/a>, etc., depending on the industry, but the functional behavior will be similar.\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig1_Liscouski_SciStudGuideLabInfo23.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"efea1d0623f27e4ef9e65e0afeed5777\"><img alt=\"Fig1 Liscouski SciStudGuideLabInfo23.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/3\/3b\/Fig1_Liscouski_SciStudGuideLabInfo23.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 1.<\/b> An organizational structure of an R&amp;D group.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>The labs I was working in supported R&amp;D in polymers and pharmaceuticals because that's what the overarching company had broad interest in. The research labs (left column of Figure 1) were focused on those projects. The other facilities consisted of:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Analytical research: This lab had four functions: routine chemical analysis in support of the research labs, new method development to support both research and production <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Quality_control\" title=\"Quality control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1e0e0c2eb3e45aff02f5d61799821f0f\">quality control<\/a> (QC), non-routine analytical work to address special projects, and process monitoring that tested the accuracy of the production QC labs (several production facilities were making different products).<\/li>\n<li>Physical properties research: Similar in function to the analytical lab, this lab measured the physical properties of polymers instead of performing chemical analysis.<\/li>\n<li>Materials characterization: This group worked with research and special projects looking at the composition of polymers and their properties such as rheology, molecular weight distribution, and other characteristics.<\/li>\n<li>Fabrication: The fabrication facility processed experimental polymers into blends, films, and other components that could be further tested in the physical properties lab.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Once an experimental material reached a stage where it was ready for scale-up development, it entered the pilot plant, where production processes were designed and tested to see if the material could be made in larger quantities and still retain its desirable properties (i.e., effectively produced to scale). A dedicated testing lab supported the pilot plant to do raw materials, in-process, and post-production testing. If a product met its goals, it was moved to a production facility for larger-scale testing and eventually commercial production.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Intra-lab_workflows\">Intra-lab workflows<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Let\u2019s look at each of these support lab groups more closely and examine how their <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow\" title=\"Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8\">workflows<\/a> relate.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Analytical_research\">Analytical research<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The workflows in this lab fell into two categories: routine testing (i.e., the service lab model) and research. In the routine testing portion, samples could come from the research labs, production facilities, and the pilot plant testing lab. The research work could come from salespeople (e.g., \u201cWe found this in a sample of a competitive product, what is it?\u201d, \u201cOur customer asked us to analyze this,\" etc.), customer support trying to solve customer issues, and researchers developing test methods to support research. The methods used for analysis could come from various sources depending on the industry, e.g., standards organizations such as ASTM International (formerly American Society for Testing Materials, but their scope expanded over time), peer-reviewed academic journals, vendors, and intra-organizational sources.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Physical_properties_research\">Physical properties research<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The work here was predominately routine testing (i.e., the service lab model). Although samples could come from a variety of sources, as with analytical research, the test methods were standardized and came from groups like ASTM, and in some cases the customers of the company's products. Standardized procedures were used to compare results to testing by other organizations, including potential customers. Labs like this are today found in a variety of industries, including pharmaceuticals, where the lab might be responsible for tablet uniformity testing, among other things.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Materials_characterization\">Materials characterization<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>As noted, this lab performed work that fell between the analytical and physical properties labs. While their test protocols were standardized within the labs, the nature of the materials they worked on involved individual considerations on how the analysis should be approached and the results interpreted. At one level, they were a service lab and followed that behavior. On another, the execution of testing required more than \"just another sample\" thinking.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Fabrication\">Fabrication<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The fabrication facility processed materials from a variety of sources: evaluation samples from both the production facility and pilot plant, as well as competitive material evaluation from the research labs. They also did parts fabrication for testing in the physical properties lab. Some physical tests required plastic materials formed into special shapes; for example, tensile bars for tensile strength testing (test bars are stretched to see how they deformed and eventually failed). The sample sizes they worked with ranged from a few pounds to thousands of pounds (e.g., film production).\n<\/p><p>The pilot plant testing lab did evaluations on scaled-up processing materials. They had to be located within the pilot plant for fast turn-around testing, including on-demand work and routine analysis. They also serviced process chromatographs for in-line testing. Their test procedures came from both the chemical and physical labs as they were responsible for a variety of tests on small samples; anything larger was sent to the analytical research labs. The pilot plant testing lab followed a service lab model.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"On_the_service_lab_model_and_research_in_general\">On the service lab model and research in general<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The service lab model has been noted several times and is common in most industries. The details of sample types and testing will vary, but the operational behavior will be the same and will work like this:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>Samples are submitted for testing. In many labs, these are done on paper forms listing sample type, testing to be done, whom to bill, and a description of the sample and any unique concerns or issues. In labs with a LIMS, this can be done online by lab personnel or the sample submitter.<\/li>\n<li>The work is logged in (electronically using a LIMS or manually for paper-based systems), and rush samples are brought to management's attention. Note that in the pilot plant test lab, everything is in a rush as the next steps in the plant\u2019s work may depend upon the results.<\/li>\n<li>Analysts generate worklists (whether electronic or paper, an ordered representation of sample or specimen locations and what analyses must be performed upon them by a specific instrument and\/or analyst using specified procedures) and perform the required analysis, and results are recorded in the LIMS or <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"be60c7be96aba8e9a84537fd8835fa54\">laboratory notebooks<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>The work is reviewed and approved for release and, in paper systems, recorded on the submission forms.<\/li>\n<li>Reports are sent to whoever submitted the work electronically, or via the method the submitter requested.<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>Work from non-routine samples may be logged in under \u201cspecial projects,\u201d though it may create the need for additional testing.\n<\/p><p>There is no similar model for research work besides project descriptions, initial project outlines, etc. The nature of the work will change as the project progresses and more is learned. Recording results, observations, plans, etc., requires a flexible medium capable of maintaining notes, printouts, charts, and other forms of information. As a result, ELNs are modular systems consisting of a central application with the ability to link to a variety of functional modules such as graphics, statistics, molecular drawing, reaction databases, user-define database structures to hold experimental data, and more. For additional details, see <i><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:The_Application_of_Informatics_to_Scientific_Work:_Laboratory_Informatics_for_Newbies\" title=\"LII:The Application of Informatics to Scientific Work: Laboratory Informatics for Newbies\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8b467af534a70312a21f63b61be26cd\">The Application of Informatics to Scientific Work: Laboratory Informatics for Newbies<\/a><\/i>.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"The_role_of_laboratory_informatics\">The role of laboratory informatics<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Lab informatics has several tiers of systems (Figure 2) that can be applied to lab work to make it more effective and efficient. \n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig2_Liscouski_SciStudGuideLabInfo23.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b453c95e8ac81829e0e31f145f69b7a\"><img alt=\"Fig2 Liscouski SciStudGuideLabInfo23.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/8\/80\/Fig2_Liscouski_SciStudGuideLabInfo23.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 2.<\/b> Tiered structure of laboratory informatics.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>The top tier consists of ELNs and LIMS, while supporting those systems are SDMS, as well as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_execution_system\" title=\"Laboratory execution system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"774bdcab852f4d09565f0486bfafc26a\">laboratory execution systems<\/a> (LES) and IDS (which are are a combination of instruments and computer systems). Typical examples are <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chromatography_data_system\" title=\"Chromatography data system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a424bb889d8507b7e8912f2faf2570c6\">chromatography data systems<\/a> (CDS) connected to one or more <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chromatography\" title=\"Chromatography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2615535d1f14c6cffdfad7285999ad9d\">chromatographs<\/a>, a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Mass_spectrometry\" title=\"Mass spectrometry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fb548eafe2596c35d7ea741849aa83d4\">mass spectrometer<\/a> connected to a dedicated computer, and almost any major instrument in an instrument-computer combination. CDSs are, at this point, unique in their ability to support multiple instruments. Sharing the same tier as LES and IDS are devices like pH meters, balances, and other devices with no databases associated with them; these instruments must be programmed to be used with upper-tier systems. Their data output can be manually entered into a LIMS, ELN, or LES, but in regulated labs, the input has to be verified by a second individual. Below that are mechanisms for sample preparation, management, and storage. Our initial concern will be with the top-tier systems. \n<\/p><p>Next we look at the interactions involved in such workflows. The primary interaction between a service lab and someone requesting their services is shown in Figure 3.\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig3_Liscouski_SciStudGuideLabInfo23.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"63ea439ce50da38a759af06c04380b8d\"><img alt=\"Fig3 Liscouski SciStudGuideLabInfo23.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/c\/c8\/Fig3_Liscouski_SciStudGuideLabInfo23.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 3.<\/b> Sample request\/results flow.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>Samples are submitted by the research group or other groups, and the request proceeds through the system as described above. The split between the LIMS in Figure 2 illustrates the separation between logging samples in, the analysis process, and using the LIMS as an administrative tool for completing the work request and returning results to the submitter. Also note that Figure 2 shows the classical assignment of informatics products to labs: LIMS in service labs and notebooks (usually ELNs) to research labs. However, that assignment is an oversimplification; the systems have broader usage in both types of laboratory workflows. In the research labs, work may generate a large amount of testing that has to be done quickly so that the next steps in the experiments can be determined. The demand may be great enough to swamp the service labs, and they wouldn't be able to provide the turn-around time needed for research. In these cases, a LIMS would be added to the research lab's range of informatics tools so that high-demand testing would be done within those labs. Other, less demanding testing would be submitted to the service labs. The research lab LIMS could be an entirely independent installation or work with the same core system as the service labs. The choice would depend on the locations of the labs, the need for instrument connections, how cooperative they are, and corporate politics.\n<\/p><p>The analytical research and materials characterization labs in Figure 1 could justify an ELN based on research associated with method development work. In addition to providing a means of detailing the research needed to create a new procedure, the ELN would need access to a variety of databases and tools, including chemical reaction modeling, molecular structure representation, published methods retrieval, etc., as well as any corporate research databases that could exist in a large organization.\n<\/p><p>The fabrication facility could use an ELN to record the progress of any non-routine work that was being done. Equipment operating conditions, problems encountered and solved, and the results of their processing would be noted. This could be coordinated with the pilot plant or product development group\u2019s work.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Laboratory_operations_and_their_associated_informatics_tools\">Laboratory operations and their associated informatics tools<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Laboratory operations and work can be divided into two levels:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Data and information generation: This is where lab procedures are executed; the informatics tools consist of LES, IDS, and support for automation and devices such as pH meters, scales, etc.<\/li>\n<li>Data, information, and operations management: This involves the management of the data and information ultimately generated, as well as the operational processes that led up to the creation that data and information. The informatics tools at this level consist of LIMS, ELN, and SDMS.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>The following largely addresses the latter, recognizing that the execution of analytical procedures\u2014both electronically and manually\u2014results in the creation of data and information that must be properly managed. Data, information, and operations management (i.e., laboratory management) involves keeping track of everything that goes on in the lab, including:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Lab personnel records: The qualifications, personnel files (along with human resources), vacation schedules, education\/training, etc. of the lab's personnel.<\/li>\n<li>Equipment lists and maintenance: Records related to scheduled maintenance, repairs, calibration, qualification for use, and software upgrades, if appropriate.<\/li>\n<li>General process-related documentation: All lab documents, reports, guidelines, sample records, problems and non-conformities, method descriptions, contacts with vendors, etc.<\/li>\n<li>Sample-specific records: What samples need work, what is the scope of the work, results, associated reports, etc.<\/li>\n<li>Inventory: Records related to what materials and equipment (including personal protective equipment) are on hand, but also where those material and equipment are, their age (some materials such as prepared reagents have a limited useful lifetime, in other cases materials may have a limited shelf-life), and any special handling instructions such as storage and disposal.<\/li>\n<li>Chemical and organism safety: Any special conditions needed for chemicals and organisms, their maintenance, condition, related records (e.g., material safety data sheets), etc.<\/li>\n<li>Data governance efforts<\/li>\n<li>Data integrity efforts<\/li>\n<li>Regulatory compliance efforts: Documentation regarding laboratory effort to meet regulatory requirements or avoid regulatory issues, including preparation for regulatory audits.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LiscouskiHarnessing23_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LiscouskiHarnessing23-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Many of those laboratory operational aspects will be familiar to you, others less so. The last three bullets may be the least familiar to you. The primary point of lab operations is to produce data and information, which will then be used to support production and research operations. That data and information must be reliable and supportable. People have to trust that the analysis was performed correctly and that it can be relied upon to make decisions about product quality, to determine whether production operations are under control, or to take the next step in a research program. That\u2019s where regulatory compliance data governance, data integrity, and regulatory compliance come in.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_governance\">Data governance<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Data governance refers to the overall management of the availability, usability, integrity, and security of the data employed in an enterprise. It encompasses a set of processes, roles, policies, standards, and metrics that ensure the effective and efficient use of information in enabling an organization to achieve its goals. Its primary purpose is to ensure that data serves the organization's needs and that there's a framework in place to handle data-related issues.\n<\/p><p>Data governance-related efforts have become more important over time, especially in how data and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Metadata\" title=\"Metadata\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f872d4d6272811392bafe802f3edf2d8\">metadata<\/a> are stored and made available. We see this importance come up with recent frameworks such as the FAIR principles, that ask that data and metadata be findable, accessible, interoperable, and reusable.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_integrity\">Data integrity<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Data integrity refers to the accuracy and consistency of data over its lifecycle. It ensures that data remains unaltered and uncorrupted unless there's a specific need for a change. It\u2019s focused more on the validity and reliability of data rather than the broader management processes. Its primary purpose is to ensure that data is recorded exactly as intended and, upon retrieval, remains the same as when it was stored.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>While data governance is a broader concept that deals with the overall management and strategy of data handling in an organization, data integrity is specifically about ensuring the accuracy and reliability of the data. Both are essential for making informed decisions based on the data and ensuring that the data can be trusted.\n<\/p><p>The topic of data integrity has also increasingly become important.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup> A framework called ALCOA+ (fully, ALCOA-CCEA) has been developed by the FDA to help define and guide work on data integrity. ALCO+ asks that paper and electronic data and information be attributable, legible, contemporaneous, original, accurate, complete, consistent, enduring, and available, which all further drive data integrity initiatives in the lab and beyond.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-QSCDataInt19_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-QSCDataInt19-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup> For more on this topic, see Schmitt's <i>Assuring Data Integrity for Life Sciences<\/i>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_3-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Regulatory_compliance\">Regulatory compliance<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The purpose of placing regulations on laboratory operations varies, but the general idea across them all is to ensure that lab operations are safe, well-managed, and that laboratory data and information are reliable. These regulations cover personnel, their certifications\/qualifications, equipment, reagents, safety procedures, and the validity of lab processes, among other things. This includes ensuring that instruments have been calibrated and are in good working order, and that all lab processes have been validated. Laboratory process validation in particular is an interesting aspect and one that causes confusion about what it means and who it applies to.\n<\/p><p>In the late 1970s, when the original FDA guidelines for manufacturing and laboratory practices appeared, there was considerable concern about what \u201cvalidation\u201d meant and to what it was applied. The best description of the term is \"documented proof that something (e.g., a process) works.\" The term \"validation\u201d is only applied to processes; equipment used during the process has to be \"qualified for use.\" In short, if you are going to carry out a procedure, you have to have documented evidence that the procedure does what it is supposed to do and that the tools used in its execution are appropriate for the need they are to fill. If you are going to generate data and information, do it according to a proven process. This was initially applied to manufacturing and production, including testing and QC, but has since been more broadly used. There were questions about its application to research since the FDA didn\u2019t have oversight over research labs, but those concerns have largely, in industrial circles, disappeared. There is one exception to the FDA's formal oversight in research, which has to do with clinical trials that are still part of the research and development (R&amp;D) process. Product development and production involving human, animal, or food safety, for example, are still subject to regulatory review.\n<\/p><p>This all culminates down to this: if you you produce data and information, do it through a proven (or even standardized) methodology; how else can you trust the results?\n<\/p><p>Sources for regulations and guidelines affecting laboratories include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><b>FDA<\/b>: This includes <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\" title=\"21 CFR Part 11\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a\">21 CFR Part 11<\/a> of the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, which helps ensure security, integrity, and confidentially of electronic records.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CFR21_11_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CFR21_11-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b>EPA<\/b>: This includes 40 CFR Part 792 on good laboratory practice<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CFR40_792_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CFR40_792-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Centers_for_Medicare_and_Medicaid_Services\" title=\"Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"654b4449e4816e190325b420c264df1a\">Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services<\/a> (CMS)<\/b>: This includes 42 CFR Part 493 on laboratory requirements for complying with the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\" title=\"Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"64bdae1dc17c40c28e0c560396a6ae35\">Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments<\/a> (CLIA)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CFR42_493_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CFR42_493-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b>International Society for Pharmaceutical Engineering (ISPE)<\/b>: This includes their work on <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Good_Automated_Manufacturing_Practice\" title=\"Good Automated Manufacturing Practice\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a0f3d9c5bc4e330dbaec137fbe7f5dbb\">Good Automated Manufacturing Practice<\/a> (GAMP) guidance<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISPEWhatIsGAMP_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISPEWhatIsGAMP-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b>American Association for Laboratory Accreditation (A2LA)<\/b>: This includes guidelines and accreditation requirements that labs must adhere to as part of accrediting to a particular standard. This includes standards like the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_9000\" title=\"ISO 9000\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53ace2d12e80a7d890ce881bc6fe244a\">ISO 9000<\/a> family of standards and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_17025\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 17025\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a89cebb34370dd860cce86881cbf29c\">ISO\/IEC 17025<\/a>. The ISO 9000 family is a set of five QMS standards that help organizations ensure that they meet customer and other stakeholder needs within statutory and regulatory requirements related to a product or service. ISO\/IEC 17025 <i>General requirements for the competence of testing and calibration laboratories<\/i> is the primary standard used by testing and calibration laboratories, and there are special technology considerations to be made when complying. (See <i><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMS_Selection_Guide_for_ISO\/IEC_17025_Laboratories\" title=\"LII:LIMS Selection Guide for ISO\/IEC 17025 Laboratories\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a88af9104987b4cee166d0b4c621519b\">LIMS Selection Guide for ISO\/IEC 17025 Laboratories<\/a><\/i> for more on this topic.) In most countries, ISO\/IEC 17025 is the standard for which most labs must hold accreditation to be deemed technically competent.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>A comment should be made about the interplay of regulations, standards, and guidelines. The difference between regulations and standards is that regulations have the law to support their enforcement.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PankoninReg21_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PankoninReg21-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Standards are consensus agreements that companies, industries, and associations use to define \u201cbest practices.\u201d Guidelines are proposed standards of organizational behavior that may or may not eventually become regulations. The FDA regulations for example, began as guidelines, underwent discussion and modification, and eventually became regulations under 21 CFR Part 11. For a more nuanced discussion in one particular lab-related area, materials science, see <i><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_FAQ:What_standards_and_regulations_affect_a_materials_testing_laboratory%3F\" title=\"LIMS FAQ:What standards and regulations affect a materials testing laboratory?\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f5b3ba26d2ece29023b26cb6bb605778\">What standards and regulations affect a materials testing laboratory?<\/a><\/i>.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Meeting_the_needs_of_data_governance,_data_integrity,_and_regulatory_compliance\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Meeting_the_needs_of_data_governance.2C_data_integrity.2C_and_regulatory_compliance\">Meeting the needs of data governance, data integrity, and regulatory compliance<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Data governance, data integrity, and regulatory compliance are, to an extent, laboratory cultural issues. Your organization has to instill practices that contribute to meeting the requirements. Informatics tools can provide the means for executing the tasks to meet those needs. Still, first, it is a personnel consideration.\n<\/p><p>The modern lab essentially has four ways of meeting those needs:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Paper-based record systems using forms and laboratory notebooks;<\/li>\n<li>Spreadsheet software;<\/li>\n<li>LIMS; and<\/li>\n<li>ELN.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p><i><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:The_Application_of_Informatics_to_Scientific_Work:_Laboratory_Informatics_for_Newbies\" title=\"LII:The Application of Informatics to Scientific Work: Laboratory Informatics for Newbies\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8b467af534a70312a21f63b61be26cd\">The Application of Informatics to Scientific Work: Laboratory Informatics for Newbies<\/a><\/i> addresses these four ways in detail, but we'll briefly discuss these points further here.\n<\/p><p>Systems like LIMS, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system\" title=\"Laboratory information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64\">laboratory information systems<\/a> (LIS), ELN, and LES can assist a lab in meeting regulatory requirements, standards, and guidelines by providing tools to meet enforcement requirements. For example, one common requirement is the need to provide an <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Audit_trail\" title=\"Audit trail\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96a617b543c5b2f26617288ba923c0f0\">audit trail<\/a> for data and information. (We'll discuss that in more detail later.) While the four product classes noted have audit trails built in, efforts to build a sample tracking system in a spreadsheet often do not have that capability as it would be difficult to implement. Beyond that, the original LES as envisioned by Velquest was intended to provide documented proof that a lab procedure was properly executed by qualified personnel, with qualified equipment and reagents, and documentation for all steps followed along with collected data and information. This again was designed to meet the expectations for a well-run lab.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Paper-based_systems\">Paper-based systems<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Paper-based systems were once all we had, and they could adequately deal with all of the issues noted as they existed up to the early 1970s. Then, the demands of lab operations and growing regulatory compliance at the end of that decade developed a need for better tools. Compliance with laboratory practices depended on the organization\u2019s enforcement. Enforcement failures led to the development of a formal, enforced regulatory program.\n<\/p><p>The structure of lab operations changes due to the increasing availability of electronic data capture; having measurements in electronic form made them easier to work with if you had the systems in place to do so. Paper-based systems didn't lend themselves to that. You had to write results down on paper, and in order to later use those results you had to copy them to other documents or re-enter them into a program. In many cases, it was all people could afford, but that was a false economy as the cost of computer-based systems saved considerable time and effort. Electronic systems also afforded lab personnel a wider range of data analysis options, yielding more comprehensive work.\n<\/p><p>Word processors represent one useful step up from paper-based systems, but word processors lack some of the flexibility of paper. Another drawback is ensuring compliance with regulations and guidelines. Since everything can be edited, an external mechanism has to be used to sign and witness entries. One possible workaround is to print off each day's work and have that signed. However, that simply inherits the problems with managing paper and makes audit trails difficult.\n<\/p><p>An audit trail is a tool for keeping track of changes to data and information. People make mistakes, something changes, and an entry in a notebook or electronic system has to be corrected or updated. In the laboratory environment, you can't simply erase something or change an entry. Regulatory compliance, organizational guidelines, and data integrity requirements prevent that, which is part of the reason that entries have to be in ink to detect alterations. Changes are made in paper notebooks by lightly crossing out the old data (it still has to be readable), writing the updated information, noting the date and time of the change, why the change was made, and having the new entry signed and witnessed. That process acts as an audit trail, ensuring that results aren\u2019t improperly altered. Paper-based systems require this voluntarily and should be enforced at the organizational level. Electronic laboratory systems do this as part of their design.\n<\/p><p>Table 1 examines the pros and cons of using a paper-based system in the laboratory.\n<\/p>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table class=\"wikitable\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td colspan=\"2\" style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><b>Table 1.<\/b> The pros and cons of using a paper-based system in the laboratory\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">Pros\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">Cons\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">\u2022\tLow cost<br \/>\u2022\tEasily transportable<br \/>\u2022\tNo power required<br \/>\u2022\tBuilt-in backup copies<br \/>\u2022\tHigh level of flexibility (writing, drawing, charts, etc.)<br \/>\u2022\tSignature block for author\/witness\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">\u2022\tMay be difficult to read<br \/>\u2022\tEasily damaged, destroyed<br \/>\u2022\tNo\/limited loss prevention<br \/>\u2022\tManual searches<br \/>\u2022\tData\/information must be copied to be used<br \/>\u2022\tDifficult to integrate with other users data<br \/>\u2022\tHigh cost of use, everything is manual<br \/>\u2022\tAudit practices are manual and either self or organizationally enforced\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Spreadsheet_software\">Spreadsheet software<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Spreadsheets have benefited many applications that need easy-to-produce calculation and database systems for home, office, and administrative work. The word \"laboratory\" doesn't appear in that sentence because of the demands for data integrity in laboratory applications. Spreadsheet applications are easy to produce for calculations, graphs, etc. Their ease of use and openness to undocumented modifications make them a poor choice for routine calculations. They're attractive because of their simplicity of use and inherent power, but they prove inappropriate for their lack of controls over editing, lack of audit trails, etc. If you need a routine calculation package, it should be done according to standard software development guidelines. One major drawback is the difficulty of validating a spreadsheet, instituting controls, and ensuring that the scripting hasn\u2019t been tampered with. Spreadsheets don't accommodate any of those requirements; spreadsheets are tools, and the applications need to be built. Purpose-built laboratory database systems such as LIMS, on the other hand, are much better equipped to handle those issues. \n<\/p><p>Some have turned to developing \"spreadsheet-based LIMS.\" This type of project development requires a formal software development effort; it's not just building a spreadsheet and populating it with data and formulas. Current industrial lab operations are subject to corporate and regulatory guidelines, and violating them can have serious repercussions, including shutting down the lab or production facility. Software development requires documentation, user requirement documents, design documents, user manuals, and materials to support the software. What looks like a fun project may become a significant part of your work. This impacts the cost factor; the development and support costs of a spreadsheet-based LIMS may occupy your entire time. \n<\/p><p>Performance is another matter. Spreadsheet systems typically allow a single user at a time. They don't have the underlying database management support needed for simultaneous multi-user operations. This is one reason spreadsheet implementations give way to replacements with LIMS in industrial labs.\n<\/p><p>For more on the topic of transitioning from paper to spreadsheets to LIMS, see the article \"Improving Lab Systems: From Paper to Spreadsheets to LIMS.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LiscouskiImproving22_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LiscouskiImproving22-10\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup> This article will be helpful to you in considering a direction for laboratory informatics development and planning, describing the strengths and weaknesses of different approaches. It also contains references to regulatory compliance documents on the use of spreadsheets.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"LIMS_and_ELN\">LIMS and ELN<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The commercial software market has evaluated the needs of research and service laboratory operations and developed software specifically designed to address those points. LIMS was designed to meet the requirements of service laboratories such as QC testing, contract testing, analytical lab, and similar groups. The important item is not the name of the lab but its operational characteristics\u2014the processes used\u2014as described earlier. The same software systems could easily be at home in a research lab that conducts a lot of routine testing on samples. If the lab has sets of samples, it needs to keep track of testing, generating worklists, and reporting results on a continuing basis; a LIMS may well be appropriate for their work. It is designed for a highly structured operational environment as described earlier.\n<\/p><p>ELNs are useful in an operational environment that is less structured, whose needs and direction may change and whose data storage and analysis requirements are more fluid. That is usually in labs designated as \"research,\" but not exclusively. For example, an analytical lab doing method development could use an ELN to support that work. \n<\/p><p>Both LIMS and ELNs are \u201ctop tier\u201d levels of software. LIMS may be subordinate to an ELN in a research lab whose work includes routine testing. Functionality in the \"Needs\" list that is not part of the products (functionality is determined by the vendor, usually with customer input) can be supplied by offerings from third-party vendors. Those can consist of applications that can be linked to the LIMS and ELN, or be completely independent products. \n<\/p><p>Table 2 describes characteristics of LIMS and ELN.\n<\/p>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table class=\"wikitable\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td colspan=\"2\" style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><b>Table 2.<\/b> Characteristics of LIMS and ELN\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">LIMS\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">ELN\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">\u2022\tLIMS has a well-defined database structure and the software components to work with it and support its underlying processes.<br \/>\n<p>\u2022\tIt is purpose-built to manage sample logins, sample tracking, results entry, results tracking, reporting, etc. These comprise its core functionality.<br \/>\n\u2022\tIn addition, LIMS may include instrument maintenance databases, trend analysis, inventory, personnel records, etc.\n<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">\u2022\tELNs have modules that can be organized to support projects and manage data according the research process used in that lab's work.<br \/>\n<p>\u2022\tSome ELNs, at the vendors discretion, will contain graphics modules, inventory modules, and links to third-party applications such as reaction databases, molecular modeling, and statistical analysis.\n<\/p>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Supporting_tiers_of_software\">Supporting tiers of software<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>There are limits to what a vendor can or wants to include in their products. The more functionality, the higher the cost to the customer, and the more complex the support issue becomes. One of those areas is data storage.\n<\/p><p>The results storage in LIMS is usually limited to sets of numerical values or alphanumeric strings, e.g., the color of something. Those results are often based on the analysis of larger data files from instruments, images, or other sources, files too large to be accommodated within a LIMS. That problem was solved in at least two ways: the creation of the SDMS and IDS. From the standpoint of data files, both have some elements in common, though IDSs are more limited.\n<\/p><p>The SDMS acts as a large file cabinet, where different types of materials can be put into them\u2014images, charts, scanned documents, data files, etc.\u2014and then be referenced by the LIMS or ELN. The results sit in LIMS or ELN, and supporting information is linked to the results in the SDMS. That keeps the LIMS and ELN databases easier to structure while still supporting the lab's needs to manage large files from a variety of sources and formats.\n<\/p><p>That same facility is available through an IDS, but only for the devices that the IDS is connected to, e.g., chromatographs, spectrometers, etc. In addition to that function, IDSs support instrumental data collection, analysis, and reporting. They can also be linked to LIMS and ELNs by electronically receiving worklists and then electronically sending the results back, thus avoiding the need for entering the data manually.\n<\/p><p>The LES is also an aid to the laboratory, ensuring that laboratory methods and procedures are carried out correctly, with documented support for each step in the method. They can be seen as a quasi-automation system, except instead of automation hardware doing the work, the laboratorian is doing it, guided step-by-step by strict adherence to the method as embedded in software. The problem that this type of system, originally styled as an \u201celectronic laboratory notebook\u201d by Velquest Inc. (later purchased by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Accelrys,_Inc.\" title=\"Accelrys, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"80b4cca2a39ccb7ba8e07211d62267a7\">Accelrys<\/a>) was to ensure that there was documented evidence that every step in a lab procedure was properly carried out by qualified personnel, using calibrated\/maintained instruments, current reagents, with all data electronically captured with potential links to LIMS or other systems. That system would provide bullet-proof support for data and information generated by procedures in regulated environments. That in turn means that the data\/information produced is reliable and can stand up to challenges.\n<\/p><p>Implementations of LES have ranged from stand-alone applications that linked to LIMS, ELNs, and SDMS, to programmable components of LIMS and ELNs. Instead of having a stand-alone framework to implement an LES, as with Velquest's product, embedded systems provide a scripting (i.e., programming by the user) facility within a LIMS that has access to the entire LIMS database, avoiding the need to interface two products. That embedded facility put a lot of pressure on the programmer to properly design, test, and validate each procedure in an isolated structure, separate from the active LIMS so that programming errors didn\u2019t compromise the integrity of the database. Note: procedure execution in stand-alone systems requires validation as well.\n<\/p><p>As for the IDS, instrument vendors of the late 1960s explored the benefits of connecting laboratory instruments to computer systems to see what could be gained from that combination. One problem they wanted to address was the handling of the large volumes of data that instruments produced. At that time, analog instrument output was often recorded on chart paper, and a single sample through a chromatograph might be recorded on a chart that was one or more feet long. A day\u2019s work generated a lot of paper that had to be evaluated manually, which proved time-consuming and labor-intensive. Vendors have since successfully developed computer-instrument combinations that automatically transform the instrument's analog output to a digital format, and then store and process that data to produce useful information (results), eliminating the manual effort and making labs more cost-effective in the process. This was the first step in instrument automation; the user was still required to introduce the sample into the device. The second step solved that problem in many instances through the creation of automatic samplers that moved the samples into position for analysis. This includes auto-injectors, flow-through cells, and other autosamplers, depending on the analytical technique.\n<\/p><p>Autosamplers have ranged from devices that used a syringe to take a portion of a sample from a vial and inject it into the instrument, to systems that would carry out some sample preparation tasks and then inject the sample<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Agilent7693A_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Agilent7693A-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, to pneumatic tube-based systems<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BaytekTT_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BaytekTT-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup> that would bring vials from a central holding area, inject the sample and then return the sample to holding, where it would be available for further work or disposal.\n<\/p><p>The key to all this was the IDS computer and its programming that coordinated all these activities, acquired the data, and then processed it. Life was good as long as human intelligence evaluated the results, looked for anomalies, and took remedial action where needed. For a more detailed discussion of this subject please see <i><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Notes_on_Instrument_Data_Systems\" title=\"LII:Notes on Instrument Data Systems\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b7330228fd59158aab6fab82ad0e7cc\">Notes on Instrument Data Systems<\/a><\/i>.\n<\/p><p>The instrument data system took us a long way toward an automated laboratory, but there was still some major hurdles to cross, including sample preparation, sample storage management, and systems integration. While much progress has been made, there is a lot more work to do.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Getting_work_done_quickly_and_at_a_low_cost\">Getting work done quickly and at a low cost<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Productivity is one of the driving factors in laboratory work, as in any production environment. What is the most efficient and effective way to accomplish high-quality work at the lowest possible cost? That may not sound like \"science,\" but it is about doing science in an industrial world, in both research and service labs. That need drives software development, new systems, better instrumentation, and investments in robotics and informatics technologies.\n<\/p><p>That need was felt most acutely in the clinical chemistry market in the 1980s. In that field, the cost of testing was an annual contractual agreement between the lab and its clients. If costs increased during that contract year, it impacted the lab's income, profits, and ability to function. Through an industry-wide effort, the labs agreed to pursue the concept of total laboratory automation (TLA). That solution involved the labs working with vendors and associations to create a set of communications standards and standardized testing protocols that would enable the clinical chemistry labs to contain costs and greatly increase their level of operational effectiveness. The communications protocols led to the ability to integrate instrumentation and computer systems, streamlining operations and data transfer. The standardized test protocols allowed vendors to develop custom instrumentation tailored to those protocols, and to have personnel educated in their use.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LeichtleTotal20_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LeichtleTotal20-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LeichtleTotal21_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LeichtleTotal21-14\">&#91;14&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The traditional way of improving productivity in industrial processes, whether on the production line or in the laboratory is through automation. This is discussed in detail in <i><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Elements_of_Laboratory_Technology_Management\" title=\"LII:Elements of Laboratory Technology Management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2000eea677bcd5ee1fcecdab32743800\">Elements of Laboratory Technology Management<\/a><\/i> and <i><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Considerations_in_the_Automation_of_Laboratory_Procedures\" title=\"LII:Considerations in the Automation of Laboratory Procedures\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0147011cc1eb892e1a35e821657a6d9\">Considerations in the Automation of Laboratory Procedures<\/a><\/i>. However, we'll elaborate more here.\n<\/p><p>Connecting an IDS to a LIMS, SDMS, or ELN is one form of automation, in the sense that information about samples and work to be done can travel automatically between a LIMS to an IDS and be processed, with the results getting returned without human intervention. However, making such automation successful requires several conditions:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Proven, validated procedures and methods;<\/li>\n<li>A proven, validated automated version of those methods (the method doesn\u2019t have to be re-validated, but the implementation of the method does<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">&#91;15&#93;<\/a><\/sup>);<\/li>\n<li>A clear economic justification for the automation, including sufficient work to be done to make the automation of the process worthwhile; and,<\/li>\n<li>Standardization in communications and equipment where possible (this is one of the key success factors in clinical chemistry\u2019s TLA program, and the reason for the success in automation and equipment development in processes using microplates).<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Robotics is often one of the first things people think of when automation is suggested. It is also one of the more difficult to engineer because of the need for expertise in electromechanical equipment, software development, and interfacing between control systems and the robotic components themselves. If automation is a consideration, then the user should look first to commercial products. Vendors are looking for any opportunity to provide tools for the laboratory market. Many options have already been exploited or are under development. Present your needs to vendors and see what their reaction is. As noted earlier, user needs drove the development of autosamplers, which are essentially robots. Aside from purpose-built robotic add-ons to laboratory instrumentation, a common approach is user-designed robotics. We'll cover more on the subject of user-built systems below, but the bottom line is that they are usually more expensive to design, build, and maintain than the original project plan allows for.\n<\/p><p>Robotics has a useful role in sample preparation. That requires careful consideration of the source of the samples and their destination. The most successful applications of robotics are in cases where the samples are in a standardized container, and the results of the preparation are similarly standardized. As noted above, this is one reason why sample processing using microplates has been so successful. The standard format of the plates with a fixed set of geometries for sample well placement means that the position of samples is predictable, and equipment can be designed to take advantage of that. \n<\/p><p>Sample preparation with non-standard containers requires specialized engineering to make adaptations for variations. Early robotics used a variety of grippers to grasp test tubes, flasks, bottles, etc., and in the long run, they were unworkable for long-term applications, often requiring frequent adjustments. \n<\/p><p>Sample storage management is another area where robotics has a potential role but is constrained by the lack of standardization in sample containers, a point that varies widely by industry. In some cases, samples, particularly those that originate with consumers (e.g., water testing), can come in a variety of containers and they have to be handled manually to organize them in a form that a sample inventory system can manage. Life sciences applications can have standardized formats for samples, but in cases such as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Biobanking\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Biobanking\" data-key=\"9b28907f4da2412ae15cd25822a250e8\">biobanking<\/a>, retrieval issues can arise because the samples may be stored in freezers with multiple levels, making them difficult to access.\n<\/p><p>A basic sample storage management system would be linked to a LIMS, have an inventory of samples with locations, appropriate environmental controls, a barcode system to make labels machine-readable, and if robotics were considered, be organized so that a robot could have access to all materials without disrupting others. It would also have to interface cleanly with the sample preparation and sample disposal functions.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Artificial_intelligence_applications_in_the_lab\">Artificial intelligence applications in the lab<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c45a597361ca47e1cd8112af676276e\">Artificial intelligence<\/a> (AI) in the lab is both an easy and difficult subject to write about. It's easy because anything written will be out-of-date as it is produced, and it's difficult because we really have no idea where things are going, and what we think of as an advanced AI now will be superseded next month, and probably has been in classified intelligence circles. With that said, there are still some useful things to say about the subject that would benefit you.\n<\/p><p>We need to be very cautious about the application of AI to lab work, if nothing else, because you are signing your name to lab results, not the AI. If something is challenged, or found to be a problem, you are responsible and accountable for the work. This is particularly problematic for AI usage since we can\u2019t trace back to the cause of the problem. In traditional programming, we have the code and can find the source of a programming problem. There is no traceback with AI systems as they currently exist. Was there a coding issue? Was there a training issue? Was the training data set biased?\n<\/p><p>The application of computing technology to lab work has placed layers of computing between the scientist and the actual measurements made in the lab. Each layer holds the potential for problems to develop, and assumptions to be made, which the analyst may not be aware of. Put a sample into the instrument, and the computer produces a report. Between the analog output of the instrument\u2014the actual instruments' measurement\u2014and what the analyst sees we have:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>The analog-to-digital converter (ADC), which reads the signal and converts it to a digital value 9there are different types of ADC, some better suited to some applications than others);<\/li>\n<li>Noise filtering, which may precede the ADC or exist in the form of digital signal processing;<\/li>\n<li>Software that converts the raw data to a more usable form, ranging from a simple pass-through (nothing needed), to peak detection, baseline correction, overlapping peak resolution, peak size calculations, etc.;<\/li>\n<li>Quantitative analysis, based on the previous points for samples and reference materials;<\/li>\n<li>Monitoring, checking for anomalies and segregation of problem samples; and<\/li>\n<li>Whatever capabilities an AI provides.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>None of this is a problem as long as the analyst is aware of what is going on and has taken steps to ensure that none of those actions adversely affect the results of the analysis. This is the direction that laboratory computing is taking, and it provides a useful basis for laboratory automation systems that will reduce the cost of doing work, and free busy personnel to do other work. AI is another potentially useful layer to streamlining the work you are signing your name to. Similar concerns would also apply to automated sample preparation.\n<\/p><p>There is a long list of applications that could benefit from AI technologies, and they are being explored and exploited. The question of what those applications are was posed to ChatGPT-4 (the prompt was \"What are some good examples of successful applications of artificial intelligence applied to laboratory work?\"), and it responded as such:\n<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>Certainly! Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) have made significant inroads into laboratory work across various scientific disciplines. Here are some successful applications:\n<\/p><p>1. Automated Image Analysis:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Pathology: Automated detection and classification of tumors in histopathological slides.<\/dd>\n<dd>- Microbiology: Automated identification and counting of bacterial colonies or reading antibiotic susceptibility tests.<\/dd>\n<dd>- Cell Biology: Analyzing cell morphology, cell counting, or detecting cellular events in microscopy images.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>2. Predictive Analytics:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Drug Discovery: Predicting drug interactions and potential drug candidates by analyzing chemical structures.<\/dd>\n<dd>- Genomics: Predicting potential disease genes or understanding gene function.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>3. Laboratory Automation and Robotics:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Sample Handling: Robots equipped with AI can adaptively handle and process samples.<\/dd>\n<dd>- Optimization: AI can optimize experimental conditions such as reaction times, temperatures, or concentrations.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>4. Data Mining:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Literature Analysis: AI can scan vast amounts of published research to identify trends, potential collaborations, or overlooked conclusions.<\/dd>\n<dd>- High-throughput Screening: Analyzing and identifying compounds with desired properties from large libraries.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>5. Spectroscopy and Chromatography:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Analyzing complex spectra or chromatograms, distinguishing minute differences or predicting material properties based on spectral data. (<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/cen.acs.org\/physical-chemistry\/computational-chemistry\/Computers-learning-analyze-chemists-spectra\/101\/i7\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/cen.acs.org\/physical-chemistry\/computational-chemistry\/Computers-learning-analyze-chemists-spectra\/101\/i7<\/a>)<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>6. Predictive Maintenance:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Predicting when equipment needs maintenance or identifying early signs of malfunction, ensuring that lab operations run smoothly.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>7. Natural Language Processing (NLP):\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Automated transcription of lab notes or voice commands.<\/dd>\n<dd>- Extracting structured data from unstructured lab reports.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>8. Proteomics &amp; Metabolomics:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Analyzing complex data sets to identify biomarkers or metabolic pathways.<\/dd>\n<dd>- Mass spectrometry data interpretation and peptide identification.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>9. Clinical Decision Support:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Assisting doctors in diagnosing diseases based on lab results, medical history, and other data sources.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>10. Environment Monitoring:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Detecting pollutants or pathogens in environmental samples using pattern recognition.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>11. Simulation &amp; Modeling:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Computational chemistry: Predicting molecular behaviors or drug-target interactions.<\/dd>\n<dd>- Systems biology: Modeling complex biological systems or pathways.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>12. Quality Control &amp; Assurance:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Detecting anomalies or outliers in routine lab measurements.<\/dd>\n<dd>- Predicting and ensuring the consistency of lab results over time.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>13. Biobanking:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Optimizing storage and retrieval of biological samples using pattern recognition and predictive analytics.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>14. Genetic Analysis and Personalized Medicine:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Predicting disease susceptibility or drug response based on genetic data.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>15. 3D Bioprinting:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Using AI to optimize the design and production of 3D-printed tissues or organs.<\/dd><\/dl><\/blockquote>\n<p>These are just a few of the many applications of AI in laboratory settings. As technology advances, it's likely that AI will become an even more integral part of laboratory work, driving efficiencies and enabling new discoveries.\n<\/p><p>While that is an interesting list, more specifics would be useful. ChatGPT-4 received the follow-up question, \"Can you provide reference for those examples?\"\n<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>Of course! While I can't directly link you to the references, I can mention landmark papers, well-known projects, or general topics that you can further search to access the original sources. Here's a non-exhaustive list based on the applications mentioned:\n<\/p><p>1. Automated Image Analysis:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Esteva, A., et al. (2017). Dermatologist-level classification of skin cancer with deep neural networks. <i>Nature<\/i>. (<i><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/nature21056\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/nature21056<\/a><\/i>)<\/dd>\n<dd>- Coudray, N., et al. (2018). Classification and mutation prediction from non\u2013small cell lung cancer histopathology images using deep learning. <i>Nature Medicine<\/i>.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>2. Predictive Analytics:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Wallach, I., et al. (2015). AtomNet: A deep convolutional neural network for bioactivity prediction in structure-based drug discovery. <i>arXiv<\/i> preprint.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>3. Laboratory Automation and Robotics:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Gil, Y., et al. (2018). Toward the Geoscience Paper of the Future: Best Practices for Documenting and Sharing Research from Data to Software to Provenance. <i>Earth and Space Science<\/i>. (<i><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1002\/2015EA000136\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1002\/2015EA000136<\/a><\/i>)<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>4. Data Mining:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Jensen, L. J., et al. (2006). STRING 8\u2014a global view on proteins and their functional interactions in 630 organisms. <i>Nucleic Acids Research<\/i>.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>5. Spectroscopy and Chromatography:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Pasolli, E., et al. (2016). Machine learning meta-analysis of large metagenomic datasets: tools and biological insights. <i>PLoS Computational Biology<\/i>. (<i><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.semanticscholar.org\/paper\/Machine-Learning-Meta-analysis-of-Large-Metagenomic-Pasolli-Truong\/b067701cf2a2d54ecde7b4e9c25b843d787b66c2\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.semanticscholar.org\/paper\/Machine-Learning-Meta-analysis-of-Large-Metagenomic-Pasolli-Truong\/b067701cf2a2d54ecde7b4e9c25b843d787b66c2<\/a><\/i>)<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>6. Natural Language Processing (NLP):\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Jensen, L. J., et al. (2006). Literature mining for the biologist: from information retrieval to biological discovery. <i>Nature Reviews Genetics<\/i>.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>7. Proteomics &amp; Metabolomics:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Smith, C. A., et al. (2006). XCMS: Processing mass spectrometry data for metabolite profiling using nonlinear peak alignment, matching, and identification. <i>Analytical Chemistry<\/i>.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>8. Clinical Decision Support:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Rajkomar, A., et al. (2018). Scalable and accurate deep learning with electronic health records. <i>NPJ Digital Medicine<\/i>. (<i><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/31304302\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/31304302\/<\/a><\/i>)<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>9. Environment Monitoring:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Aksenov, A. A., et al. (2014). Global survey of the oxygen isotope composition of bioavailable soil water. <i>Earth and Planetary Science Letters<\/i>.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>10. Simulation &amp; Modeling:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Duvenaud, D., et al. (2015). Convolutional networks on graphs for learning molecular fingerprints. <i>Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems<\/i>.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>11. Quality Control &amp; Assurance:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Hinton, G. E., et al. (2012). Improving neural networks by preventing co-adaptation of feature detectors. <i>arXiv<\/i> preprint. (<i><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1207.0580\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1207.0580<\/a><\/i>)<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>12. Genetic Analysis and Personalized Medicine:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- LeCun, Y., et al. (2015). Deep learning. <i>Nature<\/i>.<\/dd><\/dl><p>\nThese references are based on well-accepted papers and findings up to my last training cut-off in January 2022. You might want to search for these papers or topics in databases like Google Scholar, PubMed, or academic journals for full access and more recent works on the subject.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>The URLs in italics are ones that have been verified. \n<\/p><p>This latter list is consistent with material that has been found in advertising and the literature. For example, Mettler Toledo has been advertising an AI system for its thermal analysis products.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MTAIWizard_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MTAIWizard-16\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Articles are also available describing the automated analysis of spectra.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">&#91;17&#93;<\/a><\/sup> There is even an AI-prompted interview with ChatGPT about how it sees applications to spectroscopy.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WorkmanAnInt23_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WorkmanAnInt23-18\">&#91;18&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The approach Mettler takes with thermal analysis is interesting. It presents the results as a suggested analysis of the data and makes it easy for the analysis to adjust settings if it disagrees with that result.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MTAIWizard_16-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MTAIWizard-16\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup> It means that the analyst has to examine each result, and after review accepts the responsibility for the work by either making adjustments or accepting things as they are. This requires an experienced analyst. The problems begin if we skip that step in pursuit of fully automated facilities, are in a rush to release results, or put the tools in the hands of inexperienced personnel.\n<\/p><p>AI offers a great deal of potential benefits to laboratory work, something marketers are going to exploit to attract more customers. Product offerings need to be viewed skeptically as supposed benefits may be less than promised, or not as fully tested as needed. Unlike dealing with spelling checkers that consistently make improper word substitutions, AI-generated errors in data analysis are dangerous because they may go undetected.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Systems_development:_Tinkering_vs._engineering\">Systems development: Tinkering vs. engineering<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>One common practice in laboratory work, particularly in research, is modifying equipment or creating new configurations of equipment and instruments to get work done. That same thought pattern often extends to software development; components such as spreadsheets, compilers, database systems, and so on are common parts of laboratory computer systems. Many people include programming as part of their list of skills. That can lead to the development of special purpose software to solve issues in data handling and analysis.\n<\/p><p>That activity in an industrial lab is potentially problematic. Organizations have controls over what software development is permitted so that organizational security isn\u2019t compromised and that the development activities do not create problems with organizational or regulatory requirements and guidelines.\n<\/p><p>If a need for software develops, there are recognized processes for defining, implementing, and validating those projects. One of the best-known in laboratory science comes from ISPE's GAMP guidelines.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISPEWhatIsGAMP_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISPEWhatIsGAMP-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup> There is also a discussion of the methodology in <i><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Considerations_in_the_Automation_of_Laboratory_Procedures\" title=\"LII:Considerations in the Automation of Laboratory Procedures\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0147011cc1eb892e1a35e821657a6d9\">Considerations in the Automation of Laboratory Procedures<\/a><\/i>.\n<\/p><p>The development process begins with a \u201cneeds analysis\u201d that describes why the project is being undertaken and what it is supposed to accomplish, along with the benefits of doing it. That is followed by a user-requirements document that has to be agreed upon before the project begins. Once that is done, a prototype system(s) can be developed that will give you a chance to explore different options for development, project requirements, etc., that will form the basis of a design specification for the development of the actual project (whereupon the prototype is scrapped). At this point, the rest of the GAMP process is followed through the completion of the project. The end result is a proven, working, documented system that can be relied upon (based on evidence) to work and be supported. If changes are needed, the backup documentation is there to support that work.\n<\/p><p>This is an engineering approach to systems development. Those systems may result in software, a sample preparation process, or the implementation of an automated test method. It is needed to ensure that things work, and if the developer is no longer available, the project can still be used, supported, modified, etc., as needed. The organizations investment is protected, the data and information produced can be supported and treated as reliable, and all guidelines and regulations are being met.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"In_closing...\">In closing...<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The purpose of this document is to give the student a high-level overview of the purpose and use of the major informatics systems that are commonly used in industrial research and service laboratories. This is an active area of development, with new products and platforms being released annually, usually around major conferences. The links included are starting points to increasing the depth of the material.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"About_the_author\">About the author<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Initially educated as a chemist, author Joe Liscouski (joe dot liscouski at gmail dot com) is an experienced laboratory automation\/computing professional with over forty years of experience in the field, including the design and development of automation systems (both custom and commercial systems), LIMS, robotics and data interchange standards. He also consults on the use of computing in laboratory work. He has held symposia on validation and presented technical material and short courses on laboratory automation and computing in the U.S., Europe, and Japan. He has worked\/consulted in pharmaceutical, biotech, polymer, medical, and government laboratories. His current work centers on working with companies to establish planning programs for lab systems, developing effective support groups, and helping people with the application of automation and information technologies in research and quality control environments.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-LiscouskiHarnessing23-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LiscouskiHarnessing23_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Liscouski, J.&#32;(June 2023).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.lablynx.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/06\/Article-Harnessing-Informatics-for-Effective-Lab-Inspections-and-Audits.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Harnessing Informatics for Effective Lab Inspections and Audits\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;LabLynx, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.lablynx.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/06\/Article-Harnessing-Informatics-for-Effective-Lab-Inspections-and-Audits.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.lablynx.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/06\/Article-Harnessing-Informatics-for-Effective-Lab-Inspections-and-Audits.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Harnessing+Informatics+for+Effective+Lab+Inspections+and+Audits&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Liscouski%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Liscouski%2C+J.&amp;rft.date=June+2023&amp;rft.pub=LabLynx%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lablynx.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2023%2F06%2FArticle-Harnessing-Informatics-for-Effective-Lab-Inspections-and-Audits.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Wilkinson,&#32;Mark D.&#59;&#32;Dumontier,&#32;Michel&#59;&#32;Aalbersberg,&#32;IJsbrand Jan&#59;&#32;Appleton,&#32;Gabrielle&#59;&#32;Axton,&#32;Myles&#59;&#32;Baak,&#32;Arie&#59;&#32;Blomberg,&#32;Niklas&#59;&#32;Boiten,&#32;Jan-Willem&#32;<i>et al.<\/i>&#32;(15 March 2016).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/sdata201618\" target=\"_blank\">\"The FAIR Guiding Principles for scientific data management and stewardship\"<\/a>&#32;(in en).&#32;<i>Scientific Data<\/i>&#32;<b>3<\/b>&#32;(1): 160018.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1038%2Fsdata.2016.18\" target=\"_blank\">10.1038\/sdata.2016.18<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Serial_Number\" data-key=\"a5dec3e4d005e654c29ad167ab53f53a\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/2052-4463\" target=\"_blank\">2052-4463<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Central\" data-key=\"c85bdffd69dd30e02024b9cc3d7679e2\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC4792175\/\" target=\"_blank\">PMC4792175<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/26978244\" target=\"_blank\">26978244<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/sdata201618\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/sdata201618<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=The+FAIR+Guiding+Principles+for+scientific+data+management+and+stewardship&amp;rft.jtitle=Scientific+Data&amp;rft.aulast=Wilkinson&amp;rft.aufirst=Mark+D.&amp;rft.au=Wilkinson%2C%26%2332%3BMark+D.&amp;rft.au=Dumontier%2C%26%2332%3BMichel&amp;rft.au=Aalbersberg%2C%26%2332%3BIJsbrand+Jan&amp;rft.au=Appleton%2C%26%2332%3BGabrielle&amp;rft.au=Axton%2C%26%2332%3BMyles&amp;rft.au=Baak%2C%26%2332%3BArie&amp;rft.au=Blomberg%2C%26%2332%3BNiklas&amp;rft.au=Boiten%2C%26%2332%3BJan-Willem&amp;rft.au=da+Silva+Santos%2C%26%2332%3BLuiz+Bonino&amp;rft.date=15+March+2016&amp;rft.volume=3&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=160018&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1038%2Fsdata.2016.18&amp;rft.issn=2052-4463&amp;rft_id=info:pmc\/PMC4792175&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/26978244&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fsdata201618&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:0-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_3-0\">3.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_3-1\">3.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_3-2\">3.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Schmitt, S.&#32;(2016).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.pda.org\/bookstore\/product-detail\/3149-assuring-data-integrity-for-life-sciences\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Assuring Data Integrity for Life Sciences<\/i><\/a>.&#32;DHI Publishing, LLC.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;1-933722-97-5<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.pda.org\/bookstore\/product-detail\/3149-assuring-data-integrity-for-life-sciences\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.pda.org\/bookstore\/product-detail\/3149-assuring-data-integrity-for-life-sciences<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Assuring+Data+Integrity+for+Life+Sciences&amp;rft.aulast=Schmitt%2C+S.&amp;rft.au=Schmitt%2C+S.&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft.pub=DHI+Publishing%2C+LLC&amp;rft.isbn=1-933722-97-5&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pda.org%2Fbookstore%2Fproduct-detail%2F3149-assuring-data-integrity-for-life-sciences&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-QSCDataInt19-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-QSCDataInt19_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/qscompliance.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/01\/ALCOA-Principles.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data Integrity for the FDA Regulated Industry\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Quality Systems Compliance, LLC.&#32;12 January 2019<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/qscompliance.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/01\/ALCOA-Principles.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/qscompliance.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/01\/ALCOA-Principles.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Data+Integrity+for+the+FDA+Regulated+Industry&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=12+January+2019&amp;rft.pub=Quality+Systems+Compliance%2C+LLC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fqscompliance.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2019%2F01%2FALCOA-Principles.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CFR21_11-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CFR21_11_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-21\/chapter-I\/subchapter-A\/part-11\" target=\"_blank\">\"21 CFR Part 11 Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Code of Federal Regulations<\/i>.&#32;National Archives.&#32;11 November 2023<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-21\/chapter-I\/subchapter-A\/part-11\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-21\/chapter-I\/subchapter-A\/part-11<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=21+CFR+Part+11+Electronic+Records%3B+Electronic+Signatures&amp;rft.atitle=Code+of+Federal+Regulations&amp;rft.date=11+November+2023&amp;rft.pub=National+Archives&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ecfr.gov%2Fcurrent%2Ftitle-21%2Fchapter-I%2Fsubchapter-A%2Fpart-11&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CFR40_792-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CFR40_792_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-40\/chapter-I\/subchapter-R\/part-792\" target=\"_blank\">\"40 CFR Part 792 Good Laboratory Practice Standards\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Code of Federal Regulations<\/i>.&#32;National Archives.&#32;15 November 2023<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-40\/chapter-I\/subchapter-R\/part-792\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-40\/chapter-I\/subchapter-R\/part-792<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=40+CFR+Part+792+Good+Laboratory+Practice+Standards&amp;rft.atitle=Code+of+Federal+Regulations&amp;rft.date=15+November+2023&amp;rft.pub=National+Archives&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ecfr.gov%2Fcurrent%2Ftitle-40%2Fchapter-I%2Fsubchapter-R%2Fpart-792&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CFR42_493-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CFR42_493_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-42\/chapter-IV\/subchapter-G\/part-493\" target=\"_blank\">\"42 CFR Part 493 Laboratory Requirements\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Code of Federal Regulations<\/i>.&#32;National Archives.&#32;13 November 2023<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-42\/chapter-IV\/subchapter-G\/part-493\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-42\/chapter-IV\/subchapter-G\/part-493<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=42+CFR+Part+493+Laboratory+Requirements&amp;rft.atitle=Code+of+Federal+Regulations&amp;rft.date=13+November+2023&amp;rft.pub=National+Archives&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ecfr.gov%2Fcurrent%2Ftitle-42%2Fchapter-IV%2Fsubchapter-G%2Fpart-493&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ISPEWhatIsGAMP-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ISPEWhatIsGAMP_8-0\">8.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ISPEWhatIsGAMP_8-1\">8.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ispe.org\/initiatives\/regulatory\/what-gamp\" target=\"_blank\">\"What is GAMP?\"<\/a>.&#32;International Society for Pharmaceutical Engineering.&#32;2023<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/ispe.org\/initiatives\/regulatory\/what-gamp\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/ispe.org\/initiatives\/regulatory\/what-gamp<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=What+is+GAMP%3F&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=2023&amp;rft.pub=International+Society+for+Pharmaceutical+Engineering&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fispe.org%2Finitiatives%2Fregulatory%2Fwhat-gamp&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PankoninReg21-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-PankoninReg21_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Pankonin, M.&#32;(27 May 2021).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.aem.org\/news\/regulations-vs-standards-clearing-up-the-confusion\" target=\"_blank\">\"Regulations vs. Standards: Clearing up the Confusion\"<\/a>.&#32;Association of Equipment Manufacturers<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.aem.org\/news\/regulations-vs-standards-clearing-up-the-confusion\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.aem.org\/news\/regulations-vs-standards-clearing-up-the-confusion<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Regulations+vs.+Standards%3A+Clearing+up+the+Confusion&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Pankonin%2C+M.&amp;rft.au=Pankonin%2C+M.&amp;rft.date=27+May+2021&amp;rft.pub=Association+of+Equipment+Manufacturers&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aem.org%2Fnews%2Fregulations-vs-standards-clearing-up-the-confusion&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LiscouskiImproving22-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LiscouskiImproving22_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Liscouski, J.&#32;(April 2022).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.lablynx.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Improving-Lab-Systems-From-Paper-to-Spreadsheets-to-LIMS.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Improving Lab Systems: From Paper to Spreadsheets to LIMS\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;LabLynx, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.lablynx.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Improving-Lab-Systems-From-Paper-to-Spreadsheets-to-LIMS.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.lablynx.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Improving-Lab-Systems-From-Paper-to-Spreadsheets-to-LIMS.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Improving+Lab+Systems%3A+From+Paper+to+Spreadsheets+to+LIMS&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Liscouski%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Liscouski%2C+J.&amp;rft.date=April+2022&amp;rft.pub=LabLynx%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lablynx.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2023%2F03%2FImproving-Lab-Systems-From-Paper-to-Spreadsheets-to-LIMS.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Agilent7693A-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Agilent7693A_11-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.agilent.com\/en\/video\/7693a-video\" target=\"_blank\">\"7693A Automated Liquid Sampler - Video\"<\/a>.&#32;Agilent 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rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.baytekinternational.com\/products\/turbotube\" target=\"_blank\">\"TurboTube for Baytek LIMS software\"<\/a>.&#32;Baytek International<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.baytekinternational.com\/products\/turbotube\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.baytekinternational.com\/products\/turbotube<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=TurboTube+for+Baytek+LIMS+software&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Baytek+International&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.baytekinternational.com%2Fproducts%2Fturbotube&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LeichtleTotal20-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LeichtleTotal20_13-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Leichtle, A.B.&#32;(1 December 2020).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.aacc.org\/cln\/articles\/2020\/december\/total-laboratory-automation-samples-on-track\" target=\"_blank\">\"Total Laboratory Automation\u2014 Samples on Track\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Clinical Laboratory News<\/i>.&#32;Association for Diagnostics &amp; Laboratory Medicine<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.aacc.org\/cln\/articles\/2020\/december\/total-laboratory-automation-samples-on-track\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.aacc.org\/cln\/articles\/2020\/december\/total-laboratory-automation-samples-on-track<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Total+Laboratory+Automation%E2%80%94+Samples+on+Track&amp;rft.atitle=Clinical+Laboratory+News&amp;rft.aulast=Leichtle%2C+A.B.&amp;rft.au=Leichtle%2C+A.B.&amp;rft.date=1+December+2020&amp;rft.pub=Association+for+Diagnostics+%26+Laboratory+Medicine&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aacc.org%2Fcln%2Farticles%2F2020%2Fdecember%2Ftotal-laboratory-automation-samples-on-track&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LeichtleTotal21-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LeichtleTotal21_14-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Leichtle, A.B.&#32;(1 January 2021).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.aacc.org\/cln\/articles\/2021\/january\/total-lab-automation-what-matters-most\" target=\"_blank\">\"Total Lab Automation: What Matters Most\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Clinical Laboratory News<\/i>.&#32;Association for Diagnostics &amp; Laboratory Medicine<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.aacc.org\/cln\/articles\/2021\/january\/total-lab-automation-what-matters-most\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.aacc.org\/cln\/articles\/2021\/january\/total-lab-automation-what-matters-most<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Total+Lab+Automation%3A+What+Matters+Most&amp;rft.atitle=Clinical+Laboratory+News&amp;rft.aulast=Leichtle%2C+A.B.&amp;rft.au=Leichtle%2C+A.B.&amp;rft.date=1+January+2021&amp;rft.pub=Association+for+Diagnostics+%26+Laboratory+Medicine&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aacc.org%2Fcln%2Farticles%2F2021%2Fjanuary%2Ftotal-lab-automation-what-matters-most&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-15\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Webster,&#32;G&#59;&#32;Kott,&#32;L&#59;&#32;Maloney,&#32;T&#32;(1 June 2005).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1016\/j.jala.2005.03.003\" target=\"_blank\">\"Considerations When Implementing Automated Methods into GxP Laboratories\"<\/a>&#32;(in en).&#32;<i>Journal of the Association for Laboratory Automation<\/i>&#32;<b>10<\/b>&#32;(3): 182\u2013191.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.jala.2005.03.003\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.jala.2005.03.003<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1016\/j.jala.2005.03.003\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1016\/j.jala.2005.03.003<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Considerations+When+Implementing+Automated+Methods+into+GxP+Laboratories&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Association+for+Laboratory+Automation&amp;rft.aulast=Webster&amp;rft.aufirst=G&amp;rft.au=Webster%2C%26%2332%3BG&amp;rft.au=Kott%2C%26%2332%3BL&amp;rft.au=Maloney%2C%26%2332%3BT&amp;rft.date=1+June+2005&amp;rft.volume=10&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=182%E2%80%93191&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1016%2Fj.jala.2005.03.003&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jala.2005.03.003&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MTAIWizard-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MTAIWizard_16-0\">16.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MTAIWizard_16-1\">16.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> 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title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=AIWizard+%E2%80%93+Artificial+Intelligence+for+Thermal+Analysis&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Mettler+Toledo&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mt.com%2Fus%2Fen%2Fhome%2Flibrary%2Fknow-how%2Flab-analytical-instruments%2Fai-wizard.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Jung,&#32;Guwon&#59;&#32;Jung,&#32;Son Gyo&#59;&#32;Cole,&#32;Jacqueline M.&#32;(2023).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/xlink.rsc.org\/?DOI=D2SC05892H\" target=\"_blank\">\"Automatic materials characterization from infrared spectra using convolutional neural 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href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC10055241\/\" target=\"_blank\">PMC10055241<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/37006683\" target=\"_blank\">37006683<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/xlink.rsc.org\/?DOI=D2SC05892H\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/xlink.rsc.org\/?DOI=D2SC05892H<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Automatic+materials+characterization+from+infrared+spectra+using+convolutional+neural+networks&amp;rft.jtitle=Chemical+Science&amp;rft.aulast=Jung&amp;rft.aufirst=Guwon&amp;rft.au=Jung%2C%26%2332%3BGuwon&amp;rft.au=Jung%2C%26%2332%3BSon+Gyo&amp;rft.au=Cole%2C%26%2332%3BJacqueline+M.&amp;rft.date=2023&amp;rft.volume=14&amp;rft.issue=13&amp;rft.pages=3600%E2%80%933609&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1039%2FD2SC05892H&amp;rft.issn=2041-6520&amp;rft_id=info:pmc\/PMC10055241&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/37006683&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fxlink.rsc.org%2F%3FDOI%3DD2SC05892H&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WorkmanAnInt23-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-WorkmanAnInt23_18-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Workman Jr., J.&#32;(17 May 2023).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.spectroscopyonline.com\/view\/an-interview-with-ai-about-its-potential-role-in-vibrational-and-atomic-spectroscopy\" target=\"_blank\">\"An Interview with AI About Its Potential Role in Vibrational and Atomic Spectroscopy\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Spectroscopy Online<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.spectroscopyonline.com\/view\/an-interview-with-ai-about-its-potential-role-in-vibrational-and-atomic-spectroscopy\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.spectroscopyonline.com\/view\/an-interview-with-ai-about-its-potential-role-in-vibrational-and-atomic-spectroscopy<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=An+Interview+with+AI+About+Its+Potential+Role+in+Vibrational+and+Atomic+Spectroscopy&amp;rft.atitle=Spectroscopy+Online&amp;rft.aulast=Workman+Jr.%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Workman+Jr.%2C+J.&amp;rft.date=17+May+2023&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.spectroscopyonline.com%2Fview%2Fan-interview-with-ai-about-its-potential-role-in-vibrational-and-atomic-spectroscopy&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240109215845\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.448 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.558 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 13557\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 96082\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 34646\/2097152 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Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","5a96b4c0c6ab1c4015afdb606bda1125_images":["https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/3\/3b\/Fig1_Liscouski_SciStudGuideLabInfo23.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/8\/80\/Fig2_Liscouski_SciStudGuideLabInfo23.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/c\/c8\/Fig3_Liscouski_SciStudGuideLabInfo23.png"],"5a96b4c0c6ab1c4015afdb606bda1125_timestamp":1704907032,"87d7f050e0c47d7762a90382989592a1_type":"article","87d7f050e0c47d7762a90382989592a1_title":"Directions in Laboratory Systems: One Person's Perspective","87d7f050e0c47d7762a90382989592a1_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective","87d7f050e0c47d7762a90382989592a1_plaintext":"\n\nLII:Directions in Laboratory Systems: One Person's PerspectiveFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchTitle: Directions in Laboratory Systems: One Person's Perspective\nAuthor for citation: Joe Liscouski, with editorial modifications by Shawn Douglas\nLicense for content: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International\nPublication date: November 2021\n\nContents \n\n1 Introduction \n\n1.1 Intended audience \n1.2 About the content \n\n\n2 Looking forward and back: Where do we begin? \n\n2.1 The \"laboratory of the future\" and laboratory systems engineering \n2.2 But how did we get here? \n2.3 Moving forward \n\n\n3 Laboratory computing \n4 How automation affects people's work in the lab \n\n4.1 It can make routine work easier and more productive, reducing costs and improving ROI \n4.2 Automation can cause some jobs to end, or at least change them significantly \n\n\n5 Development of industry-wide guidelines \n\n5.1 C-1. Education for lab management and lab personnel \n5.2 C-3. Long-term usable access to lab information in databases without vendor controls \n5.3 C-4. Archived instrument data in standardized formats and standardized vendor software \n5.4 C-6. Communications \n\n5.4.1 Additional note on Bluetooth-enabled instruments \n\n\n\n\n6 Laboratory work and scientific production \n\n6.1 Different kinds of laboratory work \n6.2 Scientific production \n6.3 Demonstrating process stability: The standard sample program \n\n\n7 Where is the future of lab automation going to take us? \n8 Applying automation to lab work \n\n8.1 More on the quality control lab and its process management \n\n8.1.1 Early QC testing \n8.1.2 Normal QC testing \n8.1.3 A thought experiment \n\n\n\n\n9 The creation of a \"center for laboratory systems engineering\" \n10 Appendix 1: A very brief historical note \n\n10.1 1.1 Collecting data from instruments \n10.2 1.2 The beginning of laboratory informatics systems \n10.3 1.3 Electro-mechanical robotics \n\n10.3.1 1.3.1 Two approaches to sample processing with robotics \n\n\n10.4 1.4 Sample storage organization \n\n10.4.1 1.4.1 The nature of incoming samples \n\n\n\n\n11 Abbreviations, acronyms, and initialisms \n12 Footnotes \n13 About the author \n14 References \n\n\n\nIntroduction \nThe purpose of this work is to provide one person's perspective on planning for the use of computer systems in the laboratory, and with it a means of developing a direction for the future. Rather than concentrating on \u201cscience first, support systems second,\u201d it reverses that order, recommending the construction of a solid support structure before populating the lab with systems and processes that produce knowledge, information, and data (K\/I\/D).\n\nIntended audience \nThis material is intended for those working in laboratories of all types. The biggest benefit will come to those working in startup labs since they have a clean slate to work with, as well as those freshly entering into scientific work as it will help them understand the roles of various systems. Those working in existing labs will also benefit by seeing a different perspective than they may be used to, giving them an alternative path for evaluating their current structure and how they might adjust it to improve operations. \nHowever, all labs in a given industry can benefit from this guide since one of its key points is the development of industry-wide guidelines to solving technology management and planning issues, improving personnel development, and more effectively addressing common projects in automation, instrument communications, and vendor relationships (resulting in lower costs and higher success rates). This would also provide a basis for evaluating new technologies (reducing risks to early adopters) and fostering product development with the necessary product requirements in a particular industry.\n\nAbout the content \nThis material follows in the footsteps of more than 15 years of writing and presentation on the topic. That writing and presentation\u2014compiled here\u2014includes:\n\nAre You a Laboratory Automation Engineer? (2006)\nElements of Laboratory Technology Management (2014)\nA Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization's Work (2018)\nLaboratory Technology Management &amp; Planning (2019)\nNotes on Instrument Data Systems (2020)\nLaboratory Technology Planning and Management: The Practice of Laboratory Systems Engineering (2020)\nConsiderations in the Automation of Laboratory Procedures (2021)\nThe Application of Informatics to Scientific Work: Laboratory Informatics for Newbies (2021)\nWhile that material covers some of the \u201cwhere do we go from here\u201d discussions, I want to bring a lot of it together in one spot so that we can see what the entire picture looks like, while still leaving some of the details to the titles above. Admittedly, there have been some changes in thinking over time from what was presented in those pieces. For example, the concept of \"laboratory automation engineering\" has morphed into \"laboratory systems engineering,\" given that in the past 15 years the scope of laboratory automation and computing has broadened significantly. Additionally, references to \"scientific manufacturing\" are now replaced with \"scientific production,\" since laboratories tend to produce ideas, knowledge, results, information, and data, not tangible widgets. And as the state of laboratories continues to dynamically evolve, there will likely come more changes.\nOf special note is 2019's Laboratory Technology Management &amp; Planning webinars. They provide additional useful background towards what is covered in this guide.\n\n Looking forward and back: Where do we begin? \n The \"laboratory of the future\" and laboratory systems engineering \nThe \u201claboratory of the future\u201d (LOF) makes for an interesting playground of concepts. People's view of the LOF is often colored by their commercial and research interests. Does the future mean tomorrow, next month, six years, or twenty years from now? In reality, it means all of those time spans coupled with the length of a person's tenure in the lab, and the legacy they want to leave behind.\nHowever, with those varied time spans we\u2019ll need flexibility and adaptability for managing data and information while also preserving access and utility for the products of lab work, and that requires organization and planning. Laboratory equipment will change and storage media and data formats will evolve. The instrumentation used to collect data and information will change, and so will the computers and software applications that manage that data and information. Every resource that has been expended in executing lab work has been to develop knowledge, information, and data (K\/I\/D). How are you going to meet that management challenge and retain the expected return on investment (ROI)? Answering it will be one of the hallmarks of the LOF. It will require a deliberate plan that touches on every aspect of lab work: people, equipment and systems choices, and relationships with vendors and information technology support groups. Some points reside within the lab while others require coordination with corporate groups, particularly when we address long-term storage, ease of access, and security (both physical and electronic).\nDuring discussions of the LOF, some people focus on the technology behind the instruments and techniques used in lab work, and they will continue to impress us with their sophistication. However, the bottom line of those conversations is their ability to produce results: K\/I\/D.\nModern laboratory work is a merger of science and information technology. Some of the information technology is built into instruments and equipment, the remainder supports those devices or helps manage operations. That technology needs to be understood, planned, and engineered into smoothly functioning systems if labs are to function at a high level of performance.\nGiven all that, how do we prepare for the LOF, whatever that future turns out to be? One step is the development of \u201claboratory systems engineering\u201d as a means of bringing structure and discipline to the use of informatics, robotics, and automation to lab systems.\nBut who is the laboratory systems engineer (LSE)? The LSE is someone able to understand and be conversant in both the laboratory science and IT worlds, relating them to each other to the benefit of lab operation effectiveness while guiding IT in performing their roles. A fully dedicated LSE will understand a number of important principles:\n\nKnowledge, information, and data should always be protected, available, and usable.\nData integrity is paramount.\nSystems and their underlying components should be supportable, meaning they are proven to meet users' needs (validated), capable of being modified without causing conflicts with results produced by previous versions, documented, upgradable (without major disruption to lab operations), and able to survive upgrades in connected systems.\nSystems should be integrated into lab operations and not exist as isolated entities, unless there are overriding concerns.\nSystems should be portable, meaning they are able to be relocated and installed where appropriate, and not restricted to a specific combination of hardware and\/or software that can\u2019t be duplicated.\nThere should be a smooth, reproducible (bi-directional, if appropriate), error-free (including error detection and correction) flow of results, from data generation to the point of use or need.\n But how did we get here? \nThe primary purpose of laboratory work is developing and carrying out scientific methods and experiments, which are used to answer questions. We don\u2019t want to lose sight of that, or the skill needed to do that work. Initially the work was done manually, which inevitably limited the amount of data and information that could be produced, and in turn the rate at which new knowledge could be developed and distributed.\nHowever, the introduction of electronic instruments changed that, and the problem shifted from data and information production to data and information utilization (including the development of new knowledge), distribution, and management. That\u2019s where we are today.\nScience plays a role in the production of data and information, as well as the development of knowledge. In between we have the tools used in data and information collection, storage, analysis, etc. That\u2019s what we\u2019ll be talking about in this document. The equipment and concepts we\u2019re concerned with here are the tools used to assist in conducting that work and working with the results. They are enablers and amplifiers of lab processes. As in almost any application, the right tools used well are an asset.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 1. Databases for knowledge, information, and data (K\/I\/D) are represented as ovals, and the processes acting on them as arrows.&#91;1&#93;\n\n\n\nOne problem with the distinction between science and informatics tools is that lab personnel understand the science, but they largely don't understand the intricacies of information and computing technologies that comprise the tools they use to facilitate their work. Laboratory personnel are educated in a variety of scientific disciplines, each having its own body of knowledge and practices, each requiring specialization. Shouldn't the same apply to the expertise needed to address the \u201ctools\u201d? On one hand we have chromatographers, spectroscopists, physical chemists, toxicologists, etc., and on the other roboticists, database experts, network specialists, and so on. In today's reality these are not IT specialists but rather LSEs who understand how to apply the IT tools to lab work with all the nuances and details needed to be successful.\n\nMoving forward \nIf we are going to advance laboratory science and its practice, we need the right complement of experienced people. Moving forward to address laboratory- and organization-wide productivity needs a different perspective; rather than ask how we improve things at the bench, ask how we improve the processes and organization.\nThis guide is about long-term planning for lab automation and K\/I\/D management. The material in this guide is structured in sections, and each section starts with a summary, so you can read the summary and decide if you want more detail. However, before you toss it on the \u201clater\u201d pile, read the next few bits and then decide what to do.\nLong-term planning is essential to organizational success. The longer you put it off, the more expensive it will be, the longer it will take to do it, and the more entrenched behaviors you'll have to overcome. Additionally, you won\u2019t be in a position to take advantage of the developing results.\nIt\u2019s time to get past the politics and the inertia and move forward. Someone has to take the lead on this, full-time or part-time, depending on the size of your organization (i.e., if there's more than one lab, know that it affects all of them). Leadership should be from the lab side, not the IT side, as IT people may not have the backgrounds needed and may view everything through their organizations priorities. (However, their support will be necessary for a successful outcome.)\nThe work conducted on the lab bench produces data and information. That is the start of realizing the benefits from research and testing work. The rest depends upon your ability to work with that data and information, which in turn depends on how well your data systems are organized and managed. This culminates in maximizing benefit at the least cost, i.e., ROI. It\u2019s important to you, and it\u2019s important to your organization.\nPlanning has to be done at least four levels:\n\nIndustry-wide (e.g., biotech, mining, electronics, cosmetics, food and beverage, plastics, etc.)\nWithin your organization\nWithin your lab\nWithin your lab processes\nOne important aspect of this planning process\u2014particularly at the top, industry-wide level\u2014is the specification of a framework to coordinate product, process (methods), or standards research and development at the lower levels. This industry-wide framework is ideally not a \u201cthis is what you must do\u201d but rather a common structure that can be adapted to make the work easier and, as a basis for approaching vendors for products and product modifications that will benefit those in your industry, give them confidence that the requests have a broader market appeal. If an industry-wide approach isn\u2019t feasible, then larger companies may group together to provide the needed leadership. Note, however, that this should not be perceived as an industry\/company vs. vendor effort; rather, this is an industry\/company working with vendors. The idea of a large group effort is to demonstrate a consensus viewpoint and that vendors' development efforts won\u2019t be in vain.\nThe development of this framework, among other things, should cover:\n\nInformatics\nCommunications (networking, instrument control and data, informatics control and data, etc.)\nPhysical security (including power)\nData integrity and security\nCybersecurity\nThe FAIR principles (the findability, accessibility, interoperability, and reusability of data&#91;2&#93;)\nThe application of cloud and virtualization technologies\nLong-term usable access to lab information in databases without vendor controls (i.e., the impact of software as a service and other software subscription models)\nBi-directional data interchange between archived instrument data in standardized formats and vendor software, requiring tamper-proof formats\nInstrument design for automation\nSample storage management\nGuidance for automation\nEducation for lab management and lab personnel\nThe conversion of manual methods to semi- or fully automated systems\nThese topics affect both a lab's science personnel and its LSEs. While some topics will be of more interest to the engineers than the scientists, both groups have a stake in the results, as do any IT groups.\nAs digital systems become more entrenched in scientific work, we may need to restructure our thinking from \u201clab bench\u201d and \u201cinformatics\u201d to \u201cdata and information sources\u201d and \u201cdigital tools for working, organizing, and managing those elements.\" Data and information sources can extend to third-party labs and other published material. We have to move from digital systems causing incremental improvements (today\u2019s approach), to a true revolutionary restructuring of how science is conducted.\n\nLaboratory computing \nKey point: Laboratory systems are planned, designed, and engineered. They are not simply a collection of components. Laboratory computing is a transformational technology, one which has yet to fully emerge in large part because those who work in laboratories with computing aren\u2019t fully educated about it to take advantage of it.\nLaboratory computing has always been viewed as an \"add-on\" to traditional laboratory work. These add-ons have the potential to improve our work, make it faster, and make it more productive (see Appendix 1 for more details).\nThe common point-of-view in the discussion of lab computing has been focused on the laboratory scientist or manager, with IT providing a supporting role. That isn\u2019t the only viewpoint available to us, however. Another viewpoint is from that of the laboratory systems engineer (LSE), who focuses on data and information flow. This latter viewpoint should compel us to reconsider the role of computing in the laboratory and the higher level needs of laboratory operations.\nWhy is this important? Data and information generation may represent the end of the lab bench process, but it\u2019s just the beginning of its use in broader scientific work. The ability to take advantage of those elements in the scope of manufacturing and corporate research and development (R&amp;D) is where the real value is realized. That requires planning for storage, access, and utilization over the long term.\nThe problem with the traditional point-of-view (i.e., instrumentation first, with computing in a supporting role) is that the data and information landscape is built supporting the portion of lab work that is the most likely to change (Figure 2). You wind up building an information architecture to meet the requirements of diverse data structures instead of making that architecture part of the product purchase criteria. Systems are installed as needs develop, not as part of a pre-planned information architecture.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 2. Hierarchy of lab systems, noting frequency of change\n\n\n\nDesigning an informatics architecture has some things in common with building a house. You create the foundation first, a supporting structure that everything sits on. Adding the framework sets up the primary living space, which can be modified as needed without disturbing the foundation (Figure 3). If you built the living space first and then wanted to install a foundation, you\u2019d have a mess to deal with.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 3. Comparison of foundation and living\/working space levels in an organization\n\n\n\nThe same holds true with laboratory informatics. Set the foundation\u2014the laboratory information management system (LIMS), electronic laboratory notebook (ELN), scientific data management system (SDMS), etc.\u2014first, then add the data and information generation systems. That gives you a common set of requirements for making connections and can clarify some issues in product selection and systems integration. It may seem backwards if your focus is on data and information production, but as soon as you realize that you have to organize and manage those products, the benefits will be clear.\nYou might wonder how you go about setting up a LIMS, ELN, etc. before the instrumentation is set. However it isn\u2019t that much of a problem. You know why your lab is there and what kind of work you plan to do. That will guide you in setting up the foundation. The details of tests can be added as need. Most of that depends on having your people educated in what the systems are and how to use them.\nOur comparison between a building and information systems does bring up some additional points. A building's access to utilities runs through control points; water and electricity don\u2019t come in from the public supply to each room but run through central control points that include a distribution system with safety and management features. We need the same thing in labs when it comes to network access. In our current society, access to private information for profit is a fact of life. While there are desirable features of lab systems available through network access (remote checking, access to libraries, updates, etc.), they should be controlled so that those with malicious intent are prevented access, and data and information are protected. Should instrument systems and office computers have access to corporate and external networks? That\u2019s your decision and revolves around how you want your lab run, as well as other applicable corporate policies.\nThe connections layer in Figure 3 is where devices connect to each other and the major informatics layer. This layer includes two functions: basic networking capability and application-to-application transfer. Take for example moving pH measurements to a LIMS or ELN; this is where things can get very messy. You need to define what that is and what the standards are to ensure a well-managed system (more on that when we look at industry-wide guidelines).\nTo complete the analogy, people do move the living space of a house from one foundation to another, often making for an interesting experience. Similarly, it\u2019s also possible to change the informatics foundation from one product set to another. It means exporting the contents of the database(s) to a product-independent format and then importing into the new system. If you think this is something that might be in your future, make the ability to engage in that process part of the product selection criteria. Like moving a house, it isn\u2019t going to be fun.&#91;3&#93;&#91;4&#93;&#91;5&#93; The same holds true for ELN and SDMS.\n\n How automation affects people's work in the lab \nKey point: There are two basic ways lab personnel can approach computing: it\u2019s a black box that they don\u2019t understand but is used as part of their work, or they are fully aware of the equipment's capabilities and limitations and know how to use it to its fullest benefit.\nWhile lab personnel may be fully educated in the science behind their work, the role of computing\u2014from pH meters to multi-instrument data systems\u2014may be viewed with a lack of understanding. That is a significant problem because they are responsible for the results that those systems produce, and they may not be aware of what happens to the signals from the instruments, where the limitations lie, and what can turn a well-executed procedure to junk because an instrument or computer setting wasn\u2019t properly evaluated and used. \nIn reality, automation has both a technical impact on their work and an impact on themselves. These are outlined below.\nTechnical impact on work:\n\nIt can make routine work easier and more productive, reducing costs and improving ROI (more on that below).\nIt can allow work to be performed that might otherwise be too expensive to entertain. There are techniques such as high-throughput screening and statistical experimental design that are useful in laboratory work but might be avoided because the effort of generating the needed data is too labor-intensive and time-consuming. Automated systems can relieve that problem and produce the volumes of data those techniques require.\nIt can improve accuracy and reproducibility. Automated systems, properly designed and implemented, are inherently more reproducible than a corresponding manual system.\nIt can increase safety by limiting people's exposure to hazardous situations and materials.\nIt can also be a financial hole if proper planning and engineering aren\u2019t properly applied to a project. \u201cScope creep,\u201d changes in direction, and changes in project requirements and personnel are key reasons that projects are delayed or fail.\nImpact on the personnel themselves:\n\nIt can increase technical specialization, potentially improving work opportunities and people's job satisfaction. Having people move into a new technology area gives them an opportunity to grow both personally and professionally.\nFull automation of a process can cause some jobs to end, or at least change them significantly (more on that below).\nIt can elevate routine work to more significant supervisory roles.\nMost of these impacts are straightforward to understand, but several require further elaboration.\n\n It can make routine work easier and more productive, reducing costs and improving ROI \nThis sounds like a standard marketing pitch; is there any evidence to support it? In the 1980s, clinical chemistry labs were faced with a problem: the cost for their services was set on an annual basis without any adjustments permitted for rising costs during that period. If costs rose, income dropped; the more testing they did the worse the problem became. They addressed this problem as a community, and that was a key factor in their success. Clinical chemistry labs do testing on materials taken from people and animals and run standardized tests. This is the kind of environment that automation was created for, and they, as a community, embarked on a total laboratory automation (TLA) program. That program had a number of factors: education, standardization of equipment (the tests were standardized so the vendors knew exactly what they needed in equipment capabilities), and the development of instrument and computer communications protocols that enabled the transfer of data and information between devices (application to application).\nOrganizations such as the American Society for Clinical Laboratory Science (ASCLS) and the American Association for Clinical Chemistry (AACC), as well as many others, provide members with education and industry-wide support organization. Other examples include the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI), a non-profit organization that develops standards for laboratory automation and informatics (e.g., AUTO03-A2 on laboratory automation&#91;6&#93;), and Health Level Seven, Inc., a non-profit organization that provide software standards for data interoperability. \nGiven that broad, industry-wide effort to address automation issues, the initial response was as follows&#91;7&#93;:\n\nBetween 1965 and 2000, the Consumer Price Index increased by a factor of 5.5 in the United States.\nDuring the same 36 years, at Mount Sinai Medical Center's chemistry department, the productivity (indicated as the number of reported test results\/employee\/year) increased from 10,600 to 104,558 (9.3-fold).\nWhen expressed in constant 1965 dollars, the total cost per test decreased from $0.79 to $0.15.\nIn addition, the following data (Table 1 and 2) from Dr. Michael Bissell of Ohio State University provides further insight into the resulting potential increase in labor productivity by implementing TLA in the lab&#91;8&#93;:\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nTable 1. Overall productivity of labor\r\n&#160;\r\nFTE = Full-time equivalent; TLA = Total laboratory automation\n\n\nRatio\n\nPre-TLA\n\nPost-Phase 1\n\nChange\n\n\nTest\/FTE\n\n50,813\n\n64,039\n\n+27%\n\n\nTests\/Tech FTE\n\n80,058\n\n89,120\n\n+11%\n\n\nTests\/Paid hour\n\n20.8\n\n52.9\n\n+24%\n\n\nTests\/Worked hour\n\n24.4\n\n30.8\n\n+26%\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nTable 2. Productivity of labor-processing area\r\n&#160;\r\nFTE = Full-time equivalent; TLA = Total laboratory automation\n\n\nRatio\n\nPre-TLA\n\nPost-Phase 1\n\nChange\n\n\nSpecimens\/Processing FTE\n\n39,899\n\n68,708\n\n+72%\n\n\nSpecimens\/Processing paid hour\n\n19.1\n\n33.0\n\n+73%\n\n\nRequests\/Processing paid hour\n\n12.7\n\n21.5\n\n+69%\n\n\n\nThrough TLA, improvements can be seen in:\n\nImproved sample throughput\nCost reduction\nLess variability in the data\nReduced and more predictable consumption of materials\nImproved use of people's talents\nWhile this data is almost 20 years old, it illustrates the impact in a change from a manual system to an automated lab environment. It also gives us an idea of what might be expected if industry- ir community-wide automation programs were developed.\nClinical laboratories are not unique in the potential to organize industry-wide standardized aspects of technology and work, and provide education. The same can be done anywhere as long as the ability to perform a particular test procedure isn\u2019t viewed as a unique competitive advantage. The emerging Cannabis testing industry represents one such opportunity, among others.\nThe clinical industry has provided a template for the development of laboratory systems and automation. The list of instruments that meet the clinical communications standard continues to grow (e.g., Waters' MassLynx LIMS Interface&#91;9&#93;). There is nothing unique about the communications standards that prevent them from being used as a basis for development in other industries, aside from the data dictionary. As such, we need to move from an every-lab-for-itself approach to lab systems development toward a more cooperative and synergistic model.\n\n Automation can cause some jobs to end, or at least change them significantly \nOne of the problems that managers and the people under them get concerned about is change. No matter how beneficial the change is for the organization, it raises people\u2019s anxiety levels and can affect their job performance unless they are prepared for it. In that context, questions and concerns staff may have in relation to automating aspects of a job include:\n\nHow are these changes going to affect my job and my income? Will it cause me to lose my job? That\u2019s about as basic as it gets, and it can impact people at any organizational level.\nBringing in new technologies and products means learning new things, and that opens up the possibility that people may fail or not be as effective as they are currently. It can reshuffle the pecking order.\nThe process of introducing new equipment, procedures, etc. is going to disrupt the lab's workflow. The changes may be procedural structural, or both; how are you going to deal with those issues?\nTwo past examples will highlight different approaches. In the first, a multi-instrument automation system was being introduced. Management told the lab personnel what was going to happen and why, and that they would be part of the final acceptance process. If they weren\u2019t happy, the system would be modified to meet their needs. The system was installed, software written to meet their needs, instruments connected, and the system was tested. Everyone was satisfied except one technician, and that proved to be a major roadblock to putting the system into service. The matter was discussed with the lab manager, who didn\u2019t see the problem; as soon as the system was up and running, that technician would be given a new set of responsibilities, something she was interested in. But no one told her that. As she saw it, once the system came on line she was out of a job. (One of the primary methods used in that lab's work was chromatography, with the instrument output recorded on chart paper. Most measurements were done using peak height, but peak area was used for some critical analyses. Those exacting measurements, made with a planimeter, were her responsibility and her unique\u2014as she saw it\u2014contribution to the lab's work. The instrument system replaced the need for this work. The other technicians and chemists had no problem adapting to the data system.) However, a short discussion between she and the lab manager alleviated the concerns.\nThe second example was handled a lot differently, and was concerned with the implementation of a lab\u2019s first LIMS. The people in the lab knew something was going on but not the details. Individual meetings were held with each member of the lab team to discuss what was being considered and to learn of their impressions and concerns (these sessions were held with an outside consultant, and the results were reported to management in summary form). Once that was completed, the project started, with the lab manager holding a meeting of all lab personnel and IT, describing what was going to be done, why, how the project was going to proceed, and the role of those working in the lab in determining product requirement and product selection. The concerns raised in the individual sessions were addressed up-front, and staff all understood that no one was going to lose their job, or suffer a pay cut. Yes, some jobs would change, and where appropriate that was discussed with each individual. There was an educational course about what a LIMS was, its role in the lab's work, and how it would improve the lab\u2019s operations. When those sessions were completed, the lab\u2019s personnel looked forward to the project. They were part of the project and the process, rather than having it done without their participation. In short, instead of it happening to them, it happened with them as willing participants.\nPeople's attitudes about automation systems and being willing participants in their development can make a big difference in a project's success or failure. You don\u2019t want people to feel that the incoming system and the questions surrounding it are threatening, or seen as something that is potentially going to end their employment. They may not freely participate or they may leave when you need them the most.\nAll of this may seem daunting for a lab to take on by itself. Large companies may have the resources to handle it, but we need more than a large company to do this right; we need an industry-wide effort.\n\nDevelopment of industry-wide guidelines \nKey point: The discussion above about clinical labs illustrates what can be accomplished when an industry group focuses on a technology problem. We need to extend that thinking\u2014and action\u2014to a broader range of industries individually. The benefits of an industry-wide approach to addressing technology and education issues include:\n\nproviding a wider range of inputs to solving problems;\nproviding a critical marketing mass to lobby vendors to create products that fit customers\u2019 needs in a particular industry;\ndeveloping an organized educational program with emphasis on that industry's requirements;\ngiving labs (startup and existing) a well-structured reference point to guide them (not dictate) in making technology decisions;\nreducing the cost of automation, with improved support; and\nwhere competitive issues aren\u2019t a factor, enabling industry-funded R&amp;D technology development and implementation for production or manufacturing quality, process control (integration of online quality information), and process management.\nThe proposal: each industry group should define a set of guidelines to assist labs in setting up an information infrastructure. For the most part, large sections would end up similar across multiple industries, as there isn\u2019t that much behavioral distinction between some industry sets. The real separation would come in two places: the data dictionaries (data descriptions) and the nature of the testing and automation to implement that testing. Where there is a clear competitive edge to a test or its execution, each company may choose to go it alone, but that still leaves a lot of room for cooperation in method development, addressing both the basic science and its automated implementations, particularly where ASTM, USP, etc. methods are employed.\nThe benefits of this proposal are noted in the key point above. However, the three most significant ones are arguably:\n\nthe development of an organized education program with an emphasis on industry requirements;\nthe development of a robust communications protocol for application-to-application transfers; and,\nthe ability to lobby vendors from an industry-wide basis for product development, modification, and support.\nIn the \"Looking forward and back\" section earlier in this guide, we showed a bulleted list of considerations for the development of such a guideline-based framework. What follows is a more organized version of those points, separated into three sections, which all need to be addressed in any industry-based framework. For the purposes of this guide, we'll focus primarily on Section C: \"Issues that need concerted attention.\" Section A on background and IT support, and Section B on lab-specific background information, aren't discussed as they are addressed elsewhere, particularly in the previous works referenced in the Introduction. \n\nA. General background and routine IT support\n1. Physical security (including power)\n2. Cybersecurity\n3. Cloud and virtualization technologies<\/dd>\nB. Lab-specific background information\n1. Informatics (could be an industry-specific version of ASTM E1578 - 18 Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics&#91;10&#93;)\n2. Sample storage management and organization (see Appendix 1, section 1.4 of this guide)\n3. Guidance for automation\n4: Data integrity and security (see S. Schmitt's Assuring Data Integrity for Life Sciences&#91;11&#93;, which has broader application outside the life sciences)\n5. The FAIR principles (the findability, accessibility, interoperability, and reusability of data; see Wilkinson et al. 2016&#91;2&#93;)<\/dd>\nC. Issues that need concerted attention:\n1. Education for lab management and lab personnel\n2. The conversion of manual methods to semi- or full-automated methods (see Considerations in the Automation of Laboratory Procedures for more)\n3. Long-term usable access to lab information in databases without vendor controls (i.e., the impact of software as a service and other software subscription models)\n4. Archived instrument data in standardized formats and standardized vendor software (requires tamper-proof formats)\n5. Instrument design for automation (Most instruments and their support software are dual-use, i.e., they work as stand-alone devices via front panels, or through software controls. While this is a useful selling tool\u2014whether by manual or automated use\u2014it means the device is larger, more complex, and expensive than a automation-only device that uses software [e.g., a smartphone or computer] for everything. Instruments and devices designed for automation should be more compact and permit more efficient automation systems.)\n6. Communications (networking, instrument control and data, informatics control and data, etc.)<\/dd>\nWe'll now go on to expand upon items C-1, C-3, C-4, and C-6.\n\nC-1. Education for lab management and lab personnel \nLaboratory work has become a merger of two disciplines: science and information technology (including robotics). Without the first, nothing happens; without the second, work will proceed but at a slower more costly pace. There are different levels of education requirements. For those working at the lab bench, not only do they need to understand the science, but also how the instrumentation and supporting computers systems (if any, including those embedded in the instrument) make and transform measurements into results. \u201cThe computer did it\u201d is not a satisfactory answer to \u201chow did you get that result,\u201d nor is \u201cmagic,\" or maintaining willful ignorance of exactly how the instrument measurements are taken. Laboratorians are responsible and accountable for the results, and they should be able to explain the process of how they were derived, including how settings on the instrument and computer software affect that work. Lab managers should understand the technologies at the functional level and how the systems interact with each other. They are accountable for the overall integrity of the systems and the data and information they contain. IT personnel should understand how lab systems differ from office applications and why business-as-usual for managing office applications doesn\u2019t work in the lab environment. The computer systems are there to support the instruments, and any changes that may affect that relationship should be initiated with care; the instrument vendor\u2019s support for computer systems upgrades is essential.\nAs such, we need a new personnel position, that of the laboratory systems engineer or LSE, to provide support for the informatics architecture. This isn\u2019t simply an IT person; it should be someone who is fluent in both the science and the information technology applied to lab work. (See Laboratory Technology Planning and Management: The Practice of Laboratory Systems Engineering for more on this topic.)\n\nC-3. Long-term usable access to lab information in databases without vendor controls \nThe data and information your lab produces, with the assistance of instrumentation and instrument data systems, is yours, and no one should put limits on your ability to work with it. There is a problem with modern software design: most lab data and information can only be viewed through applications software. In some cases, the files may be used with several applications, but often it is the vendor's proprietary formats that limit access. In those instances, you have to maintain licenses for that software for as long as you need access to the data and information, even if the original application has been replaced by something else. This can happen for a variety of reasons:\n\nBetter technology is available from another vendor\nA vendor sold part of its operations to another organization\nOrganizations merge\nCompletion of a consulting or research contract requires all data to be sent to the contracting organization\nAll of these, and others, are reasons for maintaining multiple versions of similar datasets that people need access to yet don\u2019t want to maintain licenses for into the future, even though they still must consider meeting regulatory (FDA, EPA, ISO, etc.) requirements.\nAll of this revolves around your ability to gain value from your data and information without having to pay for its access. The vendors don\u2019t want to give their software away for free either. What we need is something like the relationship between Adobe Acrobat Reader and the Adobe Acrobat application software. The latter gives you the ability to create, modify, comment, etc. documents, while the former allows you to view them. The Reader gives anyone the ability to view the contents, just not alter it. We need a \u201creader\u201d application for instrument data collected and processed by an instrument data system. We need to be able to view the reports, raw data, etc. and export the data in a useful format, everything short of acquiring and processing new data. This gives you the ability to work with your intellectual property and allows it to be viewed by regulatory agencies if that becomes necessary, without incurring unnecessary costs or depriving the vendor of justifiable income.\nThis has become increasingly important as vendors have shifted to a subscription model for software licenses in place of one-time payments with additional charges for voluntary upgrades. One example from another realm illustrates the point. My wife keeps all of her recipes in an application on her iPad. One day she looked for a recipe and received a message that read, roughly, \u201cNo access unless you upgrade the app &lt;not free&gt;.\u201d As it turned out, a Google search recommended re-installing the current app instead. It worked, but she upgraded anyhow, just to be safe. It\u2019s your content, but who \u201cowns\u201d it if the software vendor can impose controls on how it is used?\nAs more of our work depends on software, we find ourselves in a constant upgrade loop of new hardware, new operating systems, and new applications just to maintain the status quo. We need more control over what happens to our data. Industry-wide guidelines backed by the buying power of an industry could create vendor policies that would mitigate that. Earlier in this document we noted that the future is going to extend industry change for a long time, with hardware and software evolving in ways we can\u2019t imagine. Hardware changes (anyone remember floppy disks?) inevitably make almost everything obsolete, so how do we protect our access to data and information? Floppy disks were the go-to media 40 years ago, and since then cassette tapes, magnetic tape, Zip drives, CD-ROMs, DVDs, Syquest drives, and other types of storage media have come and gone. Networked systems, at the moment, are the only consistent and reliable means of exchange and storage as datasets increase in size.\nOne point we have to take into account is that versions of applications will only function on certain versions of operating systems and databases. All three elements are going to evolve, and at some point we\u2019ll have to deal with \u201cold\u201d generations while new ones are coming online. One good answer to that is emulation. Some software systems like VMWare Corporation's VMware allow packages of operating systems, databases, and applications to operate on computers regardless of their age, with each collection residing in a \u201ccontainer\u201d; we can have several generations of those containers residing on a computer and execute them at will, as if they were still running on the original hardware. If you are looking for the data for a particular sample, go to the container that covers its time period and access it. Emulation packages are powerful tools; using them you can even run Atari 2600 games on a Windows or OS X system.\nAddressing this issue is generally bigger than what a basic laboratory-based organization can handle, involving policy making and support from information technology support groups and corporate legal and financial management. The policies have to take into account physical locations of servers, support, financing, regulatory support groups, and international laws, even if your company isn\u2019t a multinational (third-party contracting organizations may be). Given this complexity, and the fact that most companies in a given industry will be affected, industry-wide guidelines would be useful.\n\nC-4. Archived instrument data in standardized formats and standardized vendor software \nThis has been an area of interest for over 25 years, beginning with the Analytical Instrument Association's work that resulted in a set of ASTM Standard Guides:\n\nASTM E2078 - 00(2016) Standard Guide for Analytical Data Interchange Protocol for Mass Spectrometric Data&#91;12&#93;\nASTM E1948 - 98(2014) Standard Guide for Analytical Data Interchange Protocol for Chromatographic Data&#91;13&#93;\nMillipore Sigma continues to invest in solutions based on the Analytical Information Markup Language (AnIML) standard (an outgrowth of work done at NIST).&#91;14&#93; There have also been a variety of standards programs, all of which have a goal of moving instrument data into a neutral data format that is free of proprietary interests, allowing it to be used and analyzed as the analyst needs (e.g., JCAMP-DX&#91;15&#93; and GAML&#91;16&#93;).\nData interchange standards can help address issues in two aspects of data analysis: qualitative and quantitative work. In qualitative applications, the exported data can imported into other packages that provide facilities not found in the original data acquisition system. Examining an infrared spectra or nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) scan depends upon peak amplitude, shape, and positions to provide useful information, and some software (including user-developed software) may provide facilities that the original data acquisition system didn\u2019t, or it might be a matter of having a file to send to someone for review or inclusion in another project.\nQuantitative analysis is a different matter. Techniques such as chromatography, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP), and atomic absorption spectroscopy, among others, rely on the measurement of peak characteristics or single wavelength absorbance measurements in comparison with measurements made on standards. A single chromatogram is useless (for quantitative work) unless the standards are available. (However, it may be useful for qualitative work if retention time references to appropriate known materials are available.) If you are going to export the data for any of the techniques noted, and others as well, you need the full collection of standards and samples for the data to be of any value.\nYet there is a problem with some, if not all of these programs: they trust the integrity of the analyst to use the data honestly. It is possible for people to use these exported formats in ways that circumvent current data integrity practices and falsify results.\nThere are good reasons to want vendor neutral data formats so that data sets can be examined by user-developed software, to put it into a form where the analysis is not limited by a vendor's product design. It also holds the potential for separating data acquisition from data analysis as long as all pertinent data and information (e.g., standards and samples) were held together in a package that could not be altered without detection. It may be that something akin to blockchain technology could be used to register and manage access to datasets on a company-by-company basis (each company having it\u2019s own registry that would become part of the lab's data architecture).\nThese standards formats are potentially very useful to labs, created by people with a passion for doing something useful and beneficial to the practice of science, sometimes at their own expense. This is another area where a coordinated industry-wide statement of requirements and support would lead to some significant advancements in systems development, and enhanced capability for those practicing instrumental science.\nIf these capabilities are important to you, than addressing that need has to be part of an industry-wide conversation and consensus to provide the marketing support to have the work done.\n\nC-6. Communications \nMost computers and electronic devices in the laboratory have communications capability built in: RS-232 (or similar), digital I\/O, Ethernet port, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, IEEE-488, etc. What these connection types do is provide the potential for communications, and the realization of that potential depends on message formatting, structure of the contents, and moving beyond proprietary interests to those expressed by an industry-wide community. There are two types of devices that need to be addressed: computer systems that service instruments (instrument data systems), and, devices that don\u2019t require an external computer to function (pH meters, balances, etc.) that may have Ethernet ports, serial ASCII, digital I\/O, or IEEE-488 connections. In either of these cases, the typical situation is one in which the vendor has determined a communications structure and the user has to adapt their systems to it, often using custom programming to parse messages and take action. \nThe user community needs to determine its needs and make them known using community-wide buying power as justification for asking for vendor development efforts. As noted earlier, this is not an adversarial situation, but rather a maturation of industry-wide communities working with vendors; the \u201cbuying power\u201d comments simply give the vendors the confidence that its development efforts won\u2019t be in vain.\nIn both cases we need application-to-application message structures that meet several needs. They should be able to handle test method identifications, so that the receiving application knows what the\nmessage is addressing, as well as whether the content is a list of samples to be processed or samples that have already been processed, with results. Additionally, the worklist message should ideally contain, in attribute-value pairs, the number of samples, with a list of sample IDs to be processed. As for the completed work message, the attribute-value pairs would also ideally contain the number of samples processed, the sample IDs, and the results of the analysis (which could be one or more elements depending on the procedure). Of course, there may be other elements required of these message structures; these were just examples. Ultimately, the final framework could be implemented in a format similar to that used in HTML files: plain-text that is easily read and machine- and operating-system-independent.\nMapping the message content to database system structure (LIMS or ELN) could be done using a simple built-in application (within the LIMS or ELN) that would graphically display the received message content on one side of a window, with the database\u2019s available fields on the other side. The two sides would then graphically be mapped to one another, as shown in the Figure 4 below. (Note: Since the format of the messages are standardized, we wouldn\u2019t need a separate mapping function to accommodate different vendors).\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 4. Mapping IDS message contents to database system\n\n\n\nThe second case\u2014devices like pH meters, etc.\u2014is a little more interesting since the devices don\u2019t have the same facilities available as a computer system provides. However, in the consumer marketplace, this is well-trod ground, using both a smartphone or tablet as an interface, and translation mechanisms between small, fixed function devices and more extensive applications platforms. The only non-standard element is a single-point Bluetooth connection, as shown in Figure 5.\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 5. Using a smartphone or tablet as an interface to a LIMS or ELN. The procedure takes a series of pH measurements for a series of samples.\n\n\n\nA single-point Bluetooth connection is used to exchange information between the measuring device and the smartphone or tablet. There are multi-point connection devices (the smartphone, for example) but we want to restrict the device to avoid confusion about who is in control of the measuring unit. A setup screen (not shown) would set up the worklist and populate the sample IDs. The \u201cTake Reading\u201d button would read the device and enter the value into the corresponding sample position\u2014taking them in order\u2014and enable the next reading until all samples had been read. \u201cSend\u201d would transmit the formatted message to the LIMS or ELN. Depending on the nature of the device and the procedure being used, the application can take any form, this is just a simple example taking pH measurement for a series of samples. In essence, the device-smartphone combination becomes an instrument data system, and the database setup would be the same as described above.\nThe bottom line is this: standardized message formats can greatly simplify the interfacing of instrument data systems, LIMS, ELNs, and other laboratory informatics applications. The clinical chemistry community created communications standards that would permit meaningful messages to be sent between an instrument data system and database system structured so that either end of the link would recognize the message and be able to extract and use the message content without the custom programming common to most labs today. There is no reason why the same thing can\u2019t be done in any other industry; it may even be possible to adapt the clinical chemistry protocols. The data dictionary (list of test names and attributes) would have to be adjusted, but that is a minor point that can be handled on an industry-by-industry basis and be incorporated as part of a system installation. \nWhat is needed is people coming together as a group and organizing and defining the effort. How important is it to you to streamline the effort in getting systems up and running without custom programming, to work toward a plug-and-play capability that we encounter in consumer systems (an environment where vendors know easy integration is a must or their products won\u2019t sell)?\n\nAdditional note on Bluetooth-enabled instruments \nThe addition of Bluetooth to a device can result in much more compact systems, making the footprint smaller and reducing the cost of the unit. By using a smartphone to replace the front panel controls, the programming can become much more sophisticated. Imagine a Bluetooth-enabled pH meter and a separate Bluetooth, electronically controlled titrator. That combination would permit optimized&#91;a&#93; delivery of titrant making the process faster and more accurate, while also providing a graphical display of the resulting titration curve, putting the full data processing capability of the smartphone and it\u2019s communications at the service of the experiment. Think about what the addition of a simple clock did for thermostats: it opened the door to programmable thermostats and better controls. What would smartphones controlling simple devices like balances, pH meters, titrators, etc. facilitate?\n\nLaboratory work and scientific production \nKey point: Laboratory work is a collection of processes and procedures that have to be carried out for research to progress, or, to support product manufacturing and production processes. In order to meet \u201cproductivity\u201d goals, get enough work done to make progress, or provide a good ROI, we need labs to transition manual to automated (partial or full) execution as much as possible. We also need to ensure and demonstrate process stability, so that lab work itself doesn\u2019t create variability and unreliable results.\n\nDifferent kinds of laboratory work \nThere are different kinds of laboratory work. Some consist of a series of experiments or observations that may not be repeated, or are repeated with expected or unplanned variations. Other experiments may be repeated over and over either without variation or with controlled variations based on gained experience. It is that second set that concerns this writing, because repetition provides a basis and a reason for automation.\nToday we are used to automation in lab work, enacted in the form of computers and robotics ranging from mechanical arms to auto-samplers, auto-titration systems, and more. Some of the technology development we've discussed began many decades before, and there's utility in looking back that far to note how technologies have developed. However, while there are definitely forms of automation and robotics available today, they are not always interconnected, integrated, or compatible with each other; they were produced as products either without an underlying integration framework, or with one that was limited to a few cooperating vendors. This can be problematic.\nThere are two major elements to repetitive laboratory methods: the underlying science and how the procedures are executed. At these methods\u2019 core, however is the underlying scientific method, be it a chemical, biological, or physical sequence. We automate processes not things. We don\u2019t, for example, automate an instrument, but rather the process of using it to accomplish something. If you are automating the use of a telescope to obtain the spectra of a series of stars, you build a control algorithm to look at each star in a list, have the instrument position itself properly, record the data using sensors, process it, and then move on the next star on the list. (You would also build in error detection with messages like \"there isn\u2019t any star there,\" \"cover on telescope,\" and \"it isn\u2019t dark yet,\" along with relevant correction routines). The control algorithm is the automation, while the telescope and sensors are just tools being used.\nWhen building a repetitive laboratory method, the method should be completely described and include aspects such as:\n\nthe underlying science\na complete list of equipment and materials when implemented as a manual process\npossible interferences\ncritical facets of the method\nvariables that have to be controlled and their operating ranges (e.g., temperature, pH of solutions, etc.)\nspecial characteristics of instrumentation\nsafety considerations\nrecommended sources of equipment and sources to be avoided\nsoftware considerations such as possible products, desirable characteristics, and things to be avoided\npotentially dangerous, hazardous situations\nan end-to-end walkthrough of the methods used\nOf course, the method has to be validated. You need to have complete confidence in its ability to produce the results necessary given the input into the process. At this point, the scientific aspects of the work are complete and finished. They may be revisited if problems arise during process automation, but no further changes should be entertained unless you are willing to absorb additional costs and alterations to the schedule. This is a serious matter; one of the leading causes of project failures is \u201cscope creep,\u201d which occurs when incremental changes are made to a process while it is under development. This results in the project becoming a moving target, with seemingly minor changes able to cause a major disruption in the project's design.\n\nScientific production \nAt this point, we have a proven procedure that we need to execute repeatedly on a set of inputs (samples). We aren\u2019t carrying out \"experiments\"; that word suggests that something may be changing in the nature of the procedure, and at this point it shouldn\u2019t. Changes to the underlying process invite a host of problems and may forfeit any chance at a successful automation effort.\nHowever, somewhere in the (distant) future something in the process is likely to change. A new piece of technology may be introduced, equipment (including software) may need to be upgraded, or the timing of a step may need to be adjusted. That\u2019s life. How that change is made is very important. Before it is implemented, the process has to be in place long enough to establish that it works reliably, that it produces useful results, and that there is a history of running the same reference sample(s) over and over again in the mix of samples to show that the process is under control with acceptable variability in results (i.e., statistical process control). In manufacturing and production language, this is referred to as \"evolutionary operations\" (EVOP). But we can pull it all together under the heading \u201cscientific production.\u201d&#91;b&#93;\nIf your reaction to the previous paragraph is \u201cthis is a science lab not a commercial production operation,\u201d you\u2019re getting close to the point. This is a production operation (commercial or not, it depends on the type of lab, contract testing, and other factors) going on within a science lab. It\u2019s just a matter of scale.\n\nDemonstrating process stability: The standard sample program \nOne of the characteristics of a successfully implemented stable process is consistency of the results with the same set of inputs. Basically, if everything is working properly, the same set of samples introduced at the beginning should yield the same results time after time, regardless of whether the implementation is manual or automated. A standard sample program (Std.SP) is a means of demonstrating the stability and operational integrity of a process; it can also tell you if a process is getting out of control. Introduced early in my career, the Std.SP was used to show the consistency of results between analysts in a lab, and to compare the performance of our lab and the quality control labs in the production facilities. The samples were submitted and marked like any similar sample and became part of the workflow. The lab managers maintained control charts of the labs and and individual's performance on the samples. The combined results would show whether the lab and those working there had things under control or if problems were developing. Those problems might be with an individual, a change in equipment performance, or a change in incoming raw materials used in the analysis.\nThe Std.SP was the answer to the typical \u201chow do you know you can trust these results?\u201d question, which often came up when a research program or production line was having issues. This becomes more important when automation is used and the sampling and testing throughput increases. If an automated system is having issues, you are just producing bad data faster. The Std.SP is a high-level test of the system's performance. A deviation of the results trend line or a widening of the variability are indications that something is wrong, which should lead to a detailed evaluation of the system to account for the deviations. A troubleshooting guide should be part of the original method description (containing aspects such as \u201cif something starts going wrong, here\u2019s where to look for problems\u201d or \u201cthe test method is particularly sensitive to \u2026\u201d, etc.) and notes made during the implementation process.\nReference samples are another matter, however. They have to be stable over a long enough period of use to establish a meaningful trend. If the reference samples are stable over a long period of time, you may only need two or three so that the method can be evaluated over different ranges (you may have a higher variability at a lower range than a higher one). If the reference samples are not stable, then their useful lifetime needs to be established and older ones swapped out periodically. There should be some overlap between samples near the end of their useful life and the introduction of new ones so that laboratorians can differentiate between system variation and changes in reference samples. You may need to use more reference samples in these situations.\nThis inevitably becomes a lot of work, and if your lab utilizes many procedures, it can be time-consuming to manage an Std.SP. But before you decide it is too much work, ask yourself how valuable it is to have a solid, documented answer to the \u201chow do you know you can trust these results?\u201d question. Having a validated process or method is a start, but that only holds at the start of a method\u2019s implementation. If all of this is new to you, find someone who understands process engineering and statistical process control and learn more from them.\n\n Where is the future of lab automation going to take us? \nKey point: There is no single \u201cfuture\u201d for laboratories; each lab charts it own path. However there are things they can all do to be better prepared to meet the next day, month, or decade. Plan for flexibility and adaptability. Keep your data and information accessible, educate your personnel to recognize and take advantage of opportunities, and don\u2019t be afraid of taking risks.\nWhere is the future of lab automation going to take us? The simple answer is that the future is in your hands. Lab personnel are going to be making their own choices, and that is both a reflection of reality and part of the problem. Aside from a few industries, labs have approached the subject of automation individually, making their own plans and charting their own course of action. The problems that approach engenders are that it is both inefficient and it wastes resources (e.g., funding, time, effort).\nEarlier we saw how the clinical chemistry industry handled the problem of containing costs through automation: it made the automation work better. Within any given industry, it\u2019s unlikely that the same type of testing is going to differ markedly; there will be unique demands and opportunities, but they will be the exception. Why not pool resources and solve common problems? It would benefit the end-user in the lab as well as the vendor, encouraging those vendors to build products for a specific market rather than meeting the needs of a single customer. Among the biggest issues in automation and lab computing is communications between devices; the clinical chemistry industry has solved that. Their solution has elements that are specific to their work but they should be easily adjusted to meet the needs of other groups.\nWe\u2019re in a phase where we have many technologies that work well independently for their intended purpose, but they don't work well together. We\u2019ve been there before, with two examples to be found in computer networking and computer graphics. \nComputer networks began to emerge commercially in the early 1970s. Each computer vendor had their own approach to networking (similar hardware but different communications protocols). Within each vendor's ecosystem things worked well, yet bridging across ecosystems was interesting. When network installations occurred at customer sites, the best hardware and software people were involved in planning, laying out the systems, installing software, and getting things to work. Installation time was measured in weeks. Today, a reasonably sophisticated home or business network can be install in an hour or two, maybe longer depending on the number of machines and components involved, and when you turn it on, you\u2019d be surprised if it didn\u2019t work. What made the difference? Standards were developed for communications protocols. Instead of each vendor having their own protocol, the world adopted TCP\/IP and everything changed.\nThe path of computer graphics development provides further insight. In the 1970s and 80s, when computer graphics hardware began seeing widespread use, every vendor in the market had their own graphics display hardware and software. If you liked one vendor's graphics library, you had to buy their hardware. If you liked their hardware you had to live with their software. We saw this play out in the early days of the PC, when there were multiple graphics processor card adapters (e.g., enhanced graphics adapter [EGA], color graphics adapter [CGA], video graphics adapter [VGA], Hercules, etc.), and if you had the wrong card installed, the software wouldn\u2019t work (although combination cards allowed the user to switch modes and reduce the number of boards used in the computer). This continued to frustrate users and developers, until a standardized graphics architecture was developed that was device-independent. Problem solved.\nThis is a common theme that comes up over and over. A new technology develops, vendors build products with unique features and those products don\u2019t play well with each other (i.e., they attempt to achieve a strong market positions). Customers get frustrated and standards are developed that convert \u201cdon\u2019t play well\u201d to \"easy integration,\" and the market takes off.\nHow the future of lab automation is going to play out for you is in your hands, but there are things we can do to make it easier. As we noted earlier, few if any of the developments in lab automation were initially done according to a plan, though we\u2019ve also seen what planning can actually do in at least one setting, the field of clinical chemistry. This highlights the fact that not only do you need a plan for your laboratory, but also a plan for automation in your industry would be worthwhile; it would avoid spending resources individually where pooling is a better approach, and it would give you a stronger voice to work with vendors to create products that meet your industry's needs. A set of industry-wide strategies (e.g., for mining, viniculture, cosmetics, materials research, healthcare, biotech, electronics, etc.) would give you a solid starting point for the use of computing and automation technologies in your lab. There still would be plenty of room for unique applications.\nIndustry working groups are one need, while getting people educated is another. Determining how much you are willing to rely on automation is an additional point, which we\u2019ll illustrate with a discussion of quality control labs, in the next section.\nBefore we move on to the next section, however, there are two terms that haven\u2019t been mentioned yet that need to be noted: artificial intelligence (AI) and big data. I\u2019m not sure I know what AI is (the definition and examples change frequently), or that I\u2019d trust what is available today for serious work. For every article that talks about the wonders it will have, there is one that talks about the pitfalls of design, built in bias, and concerns about misapplication. In science, aside from using it as a \u201cdid you know about this?\u201d advisory tool, I\u2019d be concerned about using it. If you don\u2019t know how the AI arrived at its answer (one of AI\u2019s characteristics) why would you trust it? Big data, on the hand, is on a more solid technical footing and should prove useful, though only if your data and information is structured to take advantage of it. You can\u2019t just say \u201chere are all my datasets\u201d; you have to organize them to be usable.\n\nApplying automation to lab work \nKey point: Today, people\u2019s attitudes about work have changed, and with it the world has changed; the COVID-19 pandemic has forced us to re-evaluate models of work. If nothing else, even though we\u2019re talking about science, the use of technology to conduct scientific work is going to take on a new importance. This won\u2019t be solved one lab at a time, but on an industry-by-industry basis. We need to think about key concepts and their implementation as a community if truly effective solutions are to be found and put into practice.\nIn Considerations in the Automation of Laboratory Procedures, the criteria for \"automation readiness\" were described. Two significant points were that a laboratory procedure must both be stable and have a duration of use sufficiently long enough to justify the cost of automation. Beyond that, additional concerns such as safety may come into play, but those two points were the most critical. From those points we can roughly derive the automation needs of research, testing, quality control, and contract laboratories.\nResearch laboratory: Automation in research is going to be predominately at the task level, i.e., portions of a process being done by automated instruments and devices rather than end-to-end automation. This is due to the two key points noted above: research labs often change procedures, with some being very short-lived, and the cost of full-automation (including validation) may not be worth it unless the equipment is designed to be modular, interconnected, and easily programmed. One exception can be seen with Bayer.&#91;17&#93; They are using robotics and microplate technology to automate a high-throughput screen system that couldn\u2019t\u2014in their words\u2014be done practically by people; it's too slow and too expensive. Could something like this become more commonplace?\nTesting laboratory: Non-routine testing laboratories are going to have a mix of task-level and end-to-end automation. It will depend on the stability of the test process and if there is sufficient work to justify the cost of automation, plus what level of control over the form of the incoming samples is available (see Appendix 1, section 1.3 of this guide). Often samples are submitted for multiple tests, which raised an additional concern: is the last step in a procedure destructive to the sample? Samples may be prepared so that they can be used in more than one test procedure. If the test process is destructive, then the initial preparation has to be divided so there is enough material for all testing; this can complicate the automation process.\nQuality control laboratory: Quality control (QC) labs should be the ideal place for automation to take hold. The procedures are well defined, stable, and entrenched. The benefits in faster throughput and cost reduction should be clear. The biggest place for problems is in sample preparation and getting material ready for analysis. Given that the form of the samples is known and predictable, it is worthwhile to spend time in analyzing and designing a means of working with samples. There are going to be some preparation steps that may be too difficult to justify automation; this can be seen with tensile testing of polymers and fibers. The sample or parts fabrication and need to wait for the material to stabilize may make parts of the process difficult to deal with, or not financially justifiable. Insertion into the test apparatus may also be an issue. Testing that can be done by spectroscopic, chromatographic, or other easily automated instrumentation may be migrated from the laboratory to in-line testing, raising questions about the nature of the QC process.\nContract or independent laboratory: The ability to apply automation beyond the task level depends on the kind of work being done; is it specialized or highly flexible? The greater the flexibility (e.g., a number of different procedures with a small number of samples submitted at a time) the more task level automation will apply. However, the justification for automation may not be there. Specialized labs (e.g., clinical chemistry labs) or a lab that specializes in a technique with a high demand and throughput should benefit from a move to end-to-end automation since it reduces costs and improves accuracy and turn-around times (TATs).\n\nMore on the quality control lab and its process management \nThe evolution of QC labs may change our perspective of how QC testing is accomplished, as well as the nature of QC lab operations. Our current view, and that of the last few decades, may change significantly.\n\nEarly QC testing \nSome form of quality testing was done during the production process in prior decades. For example, I\u2019ve seen production station operators bite plastic materials to get an idea of how well the production process, and the expansion of polystyrene beads, was going in the production of Styrofoam cups (though this was not encouraged by management as butane and pentane, used as expansion agents, could cause health problems). If the cup was too stiff or soft, it would indicate a problem in the molding process. There were other \u201cquick and dirty\u201d production floor tests that were run because the TAT in the lab was producing an unacceptable delay (if you\u2019re making adjustments, you need measurements quickly). People may also have wanted to avoid having a record of production problems and changes.\nIn another application (anecdotal reporting from a course on plastics manufacturing)\u2014calendering&#91;c&#93; of plastic coated paper\u2014the production operator would strike the laminated paper with a slender bamboo rod and listen to the sound it made to determine the product quality. According to the course instructor, he was adept at this, and no other test could replace this in-process procedure.\nAs such, it's clear not all \"quality\" testing went on in the laboratory.\n\nNormal QC testing \nTraditionally, QC lab operations became separate from production, partly because of the physical conditions needed to conduct the work, and partly to avoid bias in the results. The conclusion: it was important that the reporting lines of communication be separate and independent from production. QC labs would, and do, perform testing on incoming materials to certify them suitable for use and produced products to see if they met product specifications, as well as perform in-process testing. They would also certify products as qualified for shipment, acting as an unbiased evaluator of product quality.\nQuality tests were manually implemented until the early 1960s. Then we saw the advent of in-process instrumentation and process chromatographs by Fisher Controls and Mine Safety Apparatus, for example. While the instruments themselves were on the production floor, their management and analysis was under the control of the QC lab, at least in the facility I worked in. The instruments' maintenance, calibration, peak measurements, and sample calculations were all done by lab personnel. Since that time, we\u2019ve seen a continued growth in in-line testing for production processes. That said, what\u2019s the logical conclusion of increasing automation?\n\nA thought experiment \nLets posit that we have a production process whose raw materials are fluids and the end product is a fluid. We\u2019d be concerned with certifying in-coming raw materials as suitable for use, while monitoring the production process for product composition and potential contaminants. The end product would have to be certified for shipment.\nIf all the testing were chromatographic with in-process instruments and a chromatography data system (CDS), and\/or in-line spectrophotometric and other in-line or in-process tests, with the results becoming part of the process control system (sample IDs would be a hash of sensor type-location-timestamp), what would the role of the QC lab become? Assuring that the equipment was running properly and regularly calibrated, with periodic verification of test results (off-line testing) is one set of possibilities. Is this a desirable developmental direction? We need to look at the benefits and issues that result from this design.\nBenefits:\n\nIt provides an integrated system where all process sensor and test result data are immediately available to management. This allows them to detect issues faster and provide a more timely response (better process control), reducing down time and off-spec product. If we want to enter the world of science fiction, we can even imagine a combination AI-machine learning solution providing closed loop process monitoring and control.\nIt signifies a potential cost reduction resulting from smaller labs and lower personnel costs.\nIssues:\n\nThere's a loss of independent product evaluation. Basically, you are trusting the system to honestly monitor, report, and reject off-spec, incoming, and outgoing material. In the movie version, this is where the sound track becomes ominous. This loss of independent checking may reduce customer confidence in product quality.\nThe veracity of statistical process control and correction may suffer.\nSystem validation could be challenging as the production process has to be validated, each sensor and instrument data system has to be validated, and the integrated system has to be validated, including the statistical process control.\nAssuming a system were built, how far are we willing to trust automated systems to function without external oversight? The control room would still be populated with people managing the process and exerting a higher level of scrutiny, but you are still trusting the designers of the system to do very sophisticated work, not only in process design but also integrating testing as part of the effort. Ideally you\u2019d want the CDS and other instrument data processing equipment in the control room, where it is more easily used and maintained, than on the process floor. The role of the QC lab would then change to that of an overarching quality manager of the entire system, ensuring that equipment functioned properly, testing was accurate, the process and testing were operating within control limits, and the data logs were correct.\nSome organizations may be past this point, while for others this may be interesting, bordering on science fiction. The point of this thought experiment is to see what could happen and where your comfort level is with it. How much control do you want to give an automated system and how much do you want to retain? What are the consequences of not providing sufficient oversight? How much bad product could be made?\nAlso note that this isn\u2019t an all-or-nothing proposition; give it some room to work, see what happens, and if everything is good, give it more. Just build in a big red button that allows you to reboot and revert to manual operations; in other words, don't self-destruct, just remove some critical controls. A lot depends on the nature of the finished product. If the end product is something critical (e.g., a medical device or therapeutic), you\u2019ll want to be cautious about phasing in automated control systems.\nAll that said, two additional points should be made. First, be willing to play with the ideas. Turn it into a science fiction project (\u201csci fi\u201d is just a playground for \"what ifs\"), remove it from reality enough that people can look at it from different perspectives and see what might work and what might not. Then let people play with those ideas; you might learn something. What are all the things that could go right, and what could go wrong (and what can you do about it)? You probably won't have to worry about alien robots, but malware interference is certainly a factor, as is a network air-gap. There is always the possibility of someone causing a problem; the question of course is how do you detect it and correct it. Second, be willing to model the system. There are a number of modeling packages ideal for this purpose. You can model the behavior and see how different control methods react.\n(While this thought experiment used a process involving fluids only, as they are relatively easy to work with, its worth noting that solid materials become more of an issue, complicating the automation process [see Appendix 1, section 1.4 of this guide]. In some cases sample preparation for testing may be too cumbersome for automation. This would shift the automated-manual testing balance more toward the latter in those cases, introducing delays and disrupting the timing of results to process control.)\n\n The creation of a \"center for laboratory systems engineering\" \nKey point: Throughout this piece, the need for education has been a consistent theme. Developing and using the technologies in lab work, both scientific and informatics-related, will require people who know what they are doing, specifically educated to carry out the work noted above. We also need a means of pulling things together so that there is a centralized resource to start a learning process and continue development from there.\nLet's propose a \"center for laboratory system engineering.\" This center would firstly prepare people to be effective planners, designers, implementers, supporters, and users of laboratory informatics and automation systems in scientific applications. Additionally, the center would ideally drive innovation and provide assistance to scientific personnel and IT groups seeking to apply and manage such laboratory technologies.\nThose goals would be accomplished by:\n\nDeveloping and delivering courses for LSEs, lab personnel, and IT support (These courses would cover technical science topics as well as skills in working with people, conflict resolution, and communications. They would be presented both in-person and online or on-demand to reach a broad audience; an intensive summer course with hands-on experience should also be considered.)\nCreating an LSE certification program\nCarrying out research on the application of informatics, robotics, and computer-assisted data collection and processing\nDocumenting the best practices for an LSE\nAggregating and publishing material on the roles and requirements of the LSE\nIdeally, this center would be part of a university setting so that it could interact with both science and computer science departments, contribute to their programs, and in turn gain from that association.\n\nAppendix 1: A very brief historical note \nIt would be useful to understand how we arrived at our current state in regards to informatics and automation in science. That will make it easier to understand what we need to do to make advancements. There is one key point to take away from this: in the history of lab automation, products weren\u2019t developed according to a grand plan&#91;d&#93; but rather to meet perceived needs and opportunities. Thought processes in this vein have likely included:\n\n\u201cHere\u2019s a problem that needs to be solved.\u201d\n\u201cIf I can figure out how to do X, then I can accomplish Y.\u201d\n\u201cThere\u2019s a business opportunity in building product concept X, which will help people do Y and Z.\"\nSometimes these ideas were voiced by lab personnel, but most of the time they were the result of someone seeing a problem or opportunity and taking the initiative to address it.\n\n1.1 Collecting data from instruments \nIn the late 1960s and early 1970s, instrument companies recognized that connecting a computer to the analog output of an instrument would help lab personnel capture and process data. The form that this product development took depended on how the developer saw the problem. We\u2019re going to look at chromatography&#91;e&#93; as an example for several reasons: it received the most attention for automation, it\u2019s a data rich technique that took considerable manual effort to analyze, and it was and still is one of the most popular instrumental techniques in chemical labs. The product solutions provided by the vendor reflected the technology available and their view of the problem that needed to be solved.\nThe analysis (Figure A1) depends on recognizing and quantifying a series of peaks, each of which represents the amount of a component in a mixture of materials. The size of the peak (measured by area \"better\" or height with respect to a baseline) helps quantify the amount, and the time it takes the peak to appear can be used to help identify the component.\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure A1. Illustration of peaks from chromatograph. Source: public domain\n\n\n\nReference standards are prepared and run along with the samples. The peak response of the standards and their corresponding concentrations are used to draw a calibration curve, and the samples are quantified by comparing peak sizes against that curve (Figure A2).\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure A2. Samples are quantified by comparison to a calibration curve\n\n\n\nThe solutions reflected both the user\u2019s input and the vendor's observations, plus being too close to the problem and not seeing the whole picture. In that same timeframe, computing was expensive and you had to have a lot of processing done to justify the costs. Otherwise you dropped down to microprocessors and scaled back the size of the problem you could tackle. The microprocessor of choice was the Intel 4004, which was superseded by the Intel 8008 in 1972.\nWith computing, the chromatographer could detect peaks and quantify the peak height and area, later printing the results on a strip of paper. This was a big help to the chromatographer since determining peak size, and area in particular, was a major hassle. Prior to computerized methods, chromatographers were using:\n\nmechanical integrators built into the strip chart recorder (that recorded the chromatograph output), which were hard to read and didn\u2019t provide for baseline corrections (critical for accurate results);\na planimeter, which was time-comsuming and demanded careful attention;\na cut-and-weigh method, where the chromatographer literally cut our a copy of the peak and weighed it on a balance, cutting out a reference area, and comparing it to a calibration chart constructed from a similar procedure; and\na method that had the chromatographer counting the boxes the peak enclosed on the chart paper, which was not very accurate, though better than peak height in some cases.\nHaving the quantified peaks printed on a piece of paper meant that the analyst could move quickly to drawing the calibration curve and evaluating the results. However, from the standpoint of being a laborious, time-consuming task, this is only a piece of the problem (a major one, but only a part). Some users connected the output of the integrators (RS-232 serial ASCII) to minicomputers, transferred the integrator information, and completed the analytical process in the larger machines. Several integrators could be connected to a mini-computer so the cost per instrument was reduced. This was a step toward a better solution, but only a step.\nComputer vendors wanted to participate in the same market, but the cost of minicomputers put them at a disadvantage unless they could come at it from a different perspective. They looked at the entire data processing problem, including the points mentioned above, plus getting the computer to compute the calibration curve, complete the analysis, print out a report, and store the report and the data for later retrieval (integrators didn\u2019t have that capability). They could also store the raw digitized instrument output for later analysis and display. The cost per instrument dropped when computer vendors began connecting multiple instruments to one system, some from different labs. Nelson Analytical used a local-to-the-instrument box for data collection and control and then forwarded those information packets to a central system for processing. This bigger-picture view of the problem greatly reduced the workload on the analyst. As computing costs dropped and the power of microchips increased, several different approaches emerged from different vendors that had varied perspectives on computing. Most took the big-picture view but worked on a one-instrument-one-computer-station approach, which benefited small labs since they didn\u2019t have to invest in a minicomputer.\nThe low-cost of microprocessors more readily allowed digital systems to join the lab, to the point where almost every lab device had a computer chip in it (\u201cdigital\u201d was a strong marketing point). Now that we had lots of digital data sources, what was the lab going to do with them?\n\n1.2 The beginning of laboratory informatics systems \nIn the early 1970s, PerkinElmer described its instrument supporting computers as \u201cdata stations.\u201d Then they announced the \u201claboratory information management system\u201d or \"LIMS,\" and the next level of informatics hit the lab market. However, \u201claboratory information management system\u201d was a problematic name for a product that did sample and test tracking. The customers thought it would take into account all of a lab's information, including personnel records, scheduling, budgets, documents, anything that \u201cinformation\u201d could be attached to, ultimately promising more than it could deliver. It took some time, but eventually something like that happened. From a marketing standpoint, it got people\u2019s attention.\nSeveral other vendors, consulting companies, startups, and computer vendors began LIMS development projects (computer vendors felt that database systems were their turf). This was viewed as a strategic offering: the testing lab's operations would revolve around the LIMS, and that gave the LIMS vendor whose product was chosen a strong marketing position in that company.\nThe introduction of the LIMS eventually opened the door to other informatics applications. The major classes and functions of said applications are show in Figure A3.\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure A3. The starting point for major classes of lab informatics systems and the lab functions they addressed\n\n\n\nMissing from the chart are user-developer tools like LabView from National Instruments that enabled users to develop data acquisition and control applications via a graphical user interface.\nThe term \u201celectronic laboratory notebook\u201d or \"ELN\" has had an interesting history. It\u2019s been applied to at least three types of software before its most current iteration. Laboratory Technologies, Inc. first created LABTECH Notebook, a PC-based software package designed to assist users with the communication between a computer and its lab instruments via RS-232 connections. Then there was Wolfram's Mathematica software, an electronic notebook for advanced mathematics. And finally there was Velquest's SmartLAB, an ELN for conducting analyzes and recording information from laboratory procedures, becoming the first laboratory execution system (LES).\nFigure A3 showed a nice clean, somewhat idealized, starting point for the introduction of lab informatics. That didn\u2019t last long. Vendors saw what their competition was doing and the opportunities to expand their products' capabilities (and market acceptance). What were clean, neat, functionality silos became more complex products to attract the attention of scientists and laboratorians (Figure A4).\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure A4. Lab informatics capability expansion\n\n\n\nThese expanded capabilities meant that a single vendor solution could address more of a lab\u2019s needs, simplifying support, installation, and so on through the use of a singular software package. It did, however, make product and vendor selection more of a challenge; you really had to know what you needed. It also raised questions of cross-product compatibility: what instruments connected easily to what LIMS, ELN, or SDMS? If it wasn\u2019t easy, what did you do? Third-party intermediate systems were eventually developed that translated instrument communications similarly in the way database systems did.\nWhile all this was going on in the expanding digital laboratory space, people still had things to do on the lab bench.\n\n1.3 Electro-mechanical robotics \nDuring the 1970s and 80s, vendors noted the amount of time spent doing repetitive tasks at the lab bench. This resulted in two different approaches to product development:\n\nDedicated-function robotics: The development of auto-samplers, auto-titrators, and similar devices that were used to carry out a specific task\nGeneral-purpose robotics: The development of an elaborate kit the use user had to assemble to robotically complete a task; not too different from a computer programming language: the\ncomponents are there, you just have to organize them to make something useful happen\nAlthough each of these approaches was potentially useful, they each presented the user community with different sets of problems.\nThe dedicated-function robotics device generally worked well; that wasn\u2019t the issue. The problem arose when they had to connect to other components and instruments. The use of an auto-sampler, for example, required the user to adjust their sample preparation so that the material to be analyzed wound up in the appropriate sample vials. This may have required adjusting the procedure to accommodate a different set of mechanics than they were used to, e.g., sealing the vials or choosing the proper vial for an application. Auto-samplers feed samples into instruments so there is a matter of setting up control signals for proper coordination with instruments and instrument data systems.\nOther devices such as auto-titrators required a reservoir of samples (in the proper vial formats), and the vials had to be organized so that an analysis on sample ID456 was in fact that sample and that the order didn\u2019t get mixed up. The data output could also be a problem. The default for many vendors was a spreadsheet-compatible file, though it was up to the user to make sense of it and integrate it into the workflow. This was probably the best compromise available until more formalized data interchange and communications standards became available. The vendor had no idea how a particular device was going to fit into a procedure's workflow or what was going to happen to the data further downstream, so a CSV file format as a solution was simple, flexible, and easy to work with. It also meant more work on the user's part on the integration front, representing another place where changes may have to be made if a device is replaced in the future.\nWith the dedicated-function device, which could be as simple as a balance (the process of reading a force exerted on a sensor and converted to a weight is an automated process), we have potentially isolated elements of automation that are either interconnected by programming or someone reading data and re-entering it. However, there is no \u201cplug-and-go\u201d capability.\nAs for the general-purpose robotics device, they could be broken down into two categories: those that were successful in the broad marketplace and those that weren't. In the 1980s, three vendors were competing for attention in the laboratory robotics market: Zymark, Hewlett-Packard, and PerkinElmer. Each of their general-purpose systems had a moveable arm that could grip items and be programmed to carry out lab procedures. Yet they faced a daunting task: the process of gripping items was problematic. The robot didn\u2019t work with just one gripper or \"hand\"; it required multiple interchangeable hands that had to be swapped depending on the next sequence of actions and what items had to be grasped. Those items were typically things designed for human use, including flasks, test tubes, and a variety of other equipment. This problem was non-trivial, a result of having the robot work with equipment designed for humans so that the lab didn\u2019t have to buy duplicate components, which would have raised problems of cost, and the ability to carry on work if the robot didn\u2019t function. Another issue with the grippers and their holders was that they took up space. The Zymark system for example had a central robotic arm that could reach items within the shell of a hemispherical volume; grippers took up space that could be used by other devices. Some people were successful in building systems, but not enough to make the products economically viable. In many respects, the core robotics technologies should have been successful, but the peripheral devices were not up to the necessary operational levels; good for humans, lacking for automation.\nAnother problem was education. The vendors would run courses to train people to use their systems. However, successful implementations required engineering, expertise, and experience, not just experimentation. Further robust systems, those capable of running days on end with built-in error detection and correction, were rare but necessary to avoid processing samples into junk. People had the need and the desire to make working systems, but not the process engineering skills to create successful implementations.\nThe life sciences market, and biotechnology in particular, took a different approach to robotics: they standardized the sample carrier format in the form of the microplate. The physical dimensions of the microplate were constant while the number of sample cells could vary. The image on the right of Figure A5, for example, shows plates with 96, 384, and 1,536 wells, with even higher densities available.\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure A5. A microplate sample holder (left); examples of 96, 384, and 1,536 well holders, care of WikiMedia Commons (right)\n\n\n\nWhat did this mean for robotics? Every device that interacted with a microplate could be reliably designed with a single gripper size and a single aperture size for plates to be inserted. Systems would \u201cknow\u201d where in the sample space the sample wells were. In short, standardization made it easier to build equipment for a marketplace. And a lot of equipment was built and put into successful use.&#91;f&#93;\nThe combination of robotics and microplates also worked well in biotechnology because of the prevalence of liquid samples; this point can not be stressed enough. We are good at working with fluids, including measuring amounts, transferring them, dispensing them, and so on. Solids can be a problem because of cross-contamination if equipment isn\u2019t cleaned, if the solid is tacky, if the particle size isn\u2019t right for the equipment, if it has a tendency to roll, and so on. Solids also have the potential for problems with homogeneity. (You can get layering in liquids, but that can be solved in \u201ctwo shakes.\u201d)\n\n1.3.1 Two approaches to sample processing with robotics \nBroadly speaking, there are two approaches to sample processing with robotics: batching and sample-at-a-time runs. The microplate is an example of batch processing. Each tray is handled (dilution, sealing, reading, etc.) at a station, and you don\u2019t have an opportunity to evaluate the results until the analysis for a tray is completed and reported. Other methods such as ICP, mass spectrometry, chromatography, etc. that use auto-injectors can behave in a similar fashion, or be evaluated on a sample-at-a-time basis. It depends on how the process is planned and implemented, and at what stage the results are evaluated.\nThe sample-at-a-time procedure offers an interesting alternative pathway for automated analysis. This process can include auto-titrators, in addition to the techniques noted, as well as others. Here each sample is processed in stages either one-at-a-time or in overlapping stages. While one sample is being processed in stage 3 (adding a solvent for example), a sample in stage 4 is being injected into an instrument. This means that the results for one sample can be known before the next one is processed. The benefit is that systematic errors can be caught and corrected before all samples are processed. This would reduce waste and improve overall efficiency.\n\n1.4 Sample storage organization \nBefore we leave the topic of samples, we need to address the subject of sample storage organization. This is important, as poor organization and management can nullify any gains from automation. There are two aspects to consider: the organization process itself and the physical nature of the samples.\nIn the life sciences, biobanking and refrigerated storage management have been actively discussed topics. For example a white paper commissioned for Titian Software Ltd. titled The Essential Guide to Managing Laboratory Samples goes into a fair amount of depth on the subject.&#91;18&#93; And if you Google \u201claboratory sample storage management,\u201d you\u2019ll get a sizeable listing of material, including peer-reviewed work by Redrup et al. titled \"Sample Management: Recommendation for Best Practices and Harmonization from the Global Bioanalysis Consortium Harmonization Team.\u201d&#91;19&#93; The abstract of the work of Redrup et al. reads in part&#91;19&#93;:\n\nThe importance of appropriate sample management in regulated bioanalysis is undeniable for clinical and non-clinical study support due to the fact that if the samples are compromised at any stage prior to analysis, the study results may be affected. Health authority regulations do not contain specific guidance on sample management; therefore, as part of the Global Bioanalysis Consortium (GBC), the A5 team was established to discuss sample management requirements and to put forward recommendations.\nIn short, you have to have control of your samples and be able to ensure their integrity.\n\n1.4.1 The nature of incoming samples \nConsiderations about the nature of incoming samples don\u2019t get as much press as they deserve. For example, if you are in quality control, the nature of your incoming samples is going to be consistent and determined by the production process. In fact, sample preparation is likely to be integrated with the test procedure\u2019s automation. If the samples are fluids, the impact on an automation process may be small compared to working with solids. One complicating factor with fluids is the need to remove extraneous material so that downstream problems aren\u2019t created. That removal may be accomplished by filtering, settling, centrifugal separation, batch centrifugation, or other means depending on the amount of material and its composition.\nWorking with solids raises several other issues. First, does the material have to be reduced to a coarse or fine powder before processing? This may be needed to permit precise weighing of amounts or providing a large surface area for solvent extractions. Second, is fabrication of a sample piece required? Some mechanical properties testing of plastics require molding test bars. Other tests may require pressing films for spectral analysis. Other issues exist as well. Some are industry-specific, for example working with hazardous materials (including toxic substances and radioactive samples), and those requiring careful environmental and\/or security controls.\nIn many labs, automation is viewed as something that happens after the samples are logged in. Yet that doesn\u2019t have to be the case. The following paragraphs focus on testing labs because they are the most likely to benefit from automation. They meet the two key criteria for automation implementation: stable procedures and sufficient workload to justify the cost of automation development. That can also happen in research labs, though; in the end it's simply a matter of the nature of the work.\nTesting labs (e.g., quality control and non-routine internal and contract labs) can take steps to streamline their sample handling operations, though unfortunately at the expense of someone else\u2019s labor (just make it worth their effort). For example, those submitting samples can be required to pre-log their samples. This can be accomplished by giving them access to restricted accounts on a LIMS that lets them log samples in, and little more. Sample containers can also be standardized with barcodes. The barcodes can then be required as part of the logging process and are critical to identifying samples that have reached the lab, as well as tracking their physical location. Additionally, sample container sizes and related container forms can also be standardized. These should match the requirements for sample handling in automated systems, if possible. (Unless you supply them, your submitters may not have the tools for sealing sample vials, etc.) Finally, all this cooperative effort to standardize sample reception can be incentivized with price breaks, which is likely to lead to faster TAT. In other words, give them an incentive to work with you, the lab. They are supplying labor that could potentially impact their productivity, so give them a good reason to work with you.\nTesting operations can, as a result, see further benefits:\n\nSample storage management and access is improved.\nYou\u2019ll be more informed of incoming work.\nAutomation and scheduling is enhanced when it begins with the requester instead of post-login.\nMy first professional lab experience was in polymers in an analytical research group (some routine work, a lot of non-routine work). Samples would arrive in a variety of containers (e.g., bags, jars, test tubes, envelopes, fabricated parts taped to sample request forms). Sample matrices would range from pellets, waxes, and powders to liquids, gas cylinders, rolls of film, and more. Classifying those samples, figuring out where to put them, locating them, and preparing them for work (which often involved grinding them in a Wiley mill) was a major time sink, sufficiently so that the actual analysis was a smaller part of the overall workflow. As such, anything you can do to streamline that process will help productivity and contribute to a successful automation project.\n\n Abbreviations, acronyms, and initialisms \nCDS: Chromatography data system\nELN: Electronic laboratory notebook\nEVOP: Evolutionary operations\nICP: Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry\nK\/D\/I: Knowledge, data, and information\nLIMS: Laboratory information management system\nLOF: Laboratory of the future\nLSE: Laboratory systems engineer\nNMR: Nuclear magnetic resonance\nQC: Quality control\nROI: Return on investment\nSDMS: Scientific data management system\nStd.SP: Standard sample program\nTLA: Total laboratory automation\nTAT: Turn-around time\n\nFootnotes \n\n\n\u2191 Where the amount of titrant added is adjusted based on the response to the previous addition. This should yield faster titrations with increased accuracy. \n\n\u2191 In prior writings, the term \u201cscientific manufacturing\u201d was used. The problem with that term is that we\u2019re not making products but instead producing results. Plus \u201cmanufacturing results\u201d has some negative connotations. \n\n\u2191 Wikipedia says this of calendering: \"A calender is a series of hard pressure rollers used to finish or smooth a sheet of material such as paper, textiles, or plastics. Calender rolls are also used to form some types of plastic films and to apply coatings.\" \n\n\u2191 See the discussion on clinical chemistry in the main text. \n\n\u2191 If you\u2019re not familiar with the method, Wikipedia's chromatography page is a good starting point. \n\n\u2191 See Wikipedia's microplate article for more. \n\n\nAbout the author \nInitially educated as a chemist, author Joe Liscouski (joe dot liscouski at gmail dot com) is an experienced laboratory automation\/computing professional with over forty years of experience in the field, including the design and development of automation systems (both custom and commercial systems), LIMS, robotics and data interchange standards. He also consults on the use of computing in laboratory work. He has held symposia on validation and presented technical material and short courses on laboratory automation and computing in the U.S., Europe, and Japan. He has worked\/consulted in pharmaceutical, biotech, polymer, medical, and government laboratories. His current work centers on working with companies to establish planning programs for lab systems, developing effective support groups, and helping people with the application of automation and information technologies in research and quality control environments.\n\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 Liscouski, J.&#32;(2015).&#32;Computerized Systems in the Modern Laboratory: A Practical Guide.&#32;PDA\/DHI.&#32;pp.&#160;432.&#32;ASIN&#160;B010EWO06S.&#32;ISBN&#160;978-1933722863. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 2.0 2.1 Wilkinson, M.D.; Dumontier, M.; Aalbersberg, I.J. et al.&#32;(2016).&#32;\"The FAIR Guiding Principles for scientific data management and stewardship\".&#32;Scientific Data&#32;3: 160018.&#32;doi:10.1038\/sdata.2016.18.&#32;PMC&#160;PMC4792175.&#32;PMID&#160;26978244.&#32;http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&amp;artid=PMC4792175 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Fish, M.; Minicuci, D.&#32;(2005).&#32;\"Overcoming the Challenges of a LIMS Migration\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Research &amp; Development&#32;47&#32;(2).&#32;http:\/\/apps.thermoscientific.com\/media\/SID\/Informatics\/PDF\/Article-Overcoming-the-Challanges.pdf . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Fish, M.; Minicuci, D.&#32;(1 April 2013).&#32;\"Overcoming daunting business challenges of a LIMS migration\".&#32;Scientist Live.&#32;https:\/\/www.scientistlive.com\/content\/overcoming-daunting-business-challenges-lims-migration .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Overcoming the Challenges of Legacy Data Migration\".&#32;FreeLIMS.org.&#32;CloudLIMS.com, LLC.&#32;29 June 2018.&#32;https:\/\/freelims.org\/blog\/legacy-data-migration-to-lims.html .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"AUTO03 Laboratory Automation: Communications With Automated Clinical Laboratory Systems, Instruments, Devices, and Information Systems, 2nd Edition\".&#32;Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute.&#32;30 September 2009.&#32;https:\/\/clsi.org\/standards\/products\/automation-and-informatics\/documents\/auto03\/ .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Sarkozi, L.; Simson, E.; Ramanathan, L.&#32;(2003).&#32;\"The effects of total laboratory automation on the management of a clinical chemistry laboratory. Retrospective analysis of 36 years\".&#32;Clinica Chimica Acta&#32;329&#32;(1\u20132): 89\u201394.&#32;doi:10.1016\/S0009-8981(03)00020-2. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Total Laboratory Automation - Michael Bissell, MD, Ph.D\".&#32;YouTube.&#32;University of Washington.&#32;15 July 2014.&#32;https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=RdwFZyYE_4Q .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"MassLynx LIMS Interface\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Waters Corporation.&#32;November 2016.&#32;https:\/\/www.waters.com\/webassets\/cms\/library\/docs\/720005731en%20Masslynx%20LIMS%20Interface.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ASTM E1578 - 18 Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics\".&#32;ASTM International.&#32;2018.&#32;https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1578.htm .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Schmitt, S., ed.&#32;Assuring Data Integrity for Life Sciences.&#32;DHI Publishing.&#32;pp.&#160;385.&#32;ISBN&#160;9781933722979.&#32;https:\/\/www.dhibooks.com\/assuring-data-integrity-for-life-sciences . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ASTM E2078 - 00(2016) Standard Guide for Analytical Data Interchange Protocol for Mass Spectrometric Data\".&#32;ASTM International.&#32;2016.&#32;https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E2078.htm .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ASTM E1948 - 98(2014) Standard Guide for Analytical Data Interchange Protocol for Chromatographic Data\".&#32;ASTM International.&#32;2014.&#32;https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1948.htm .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"MilliporeSigma Acquires BSSN Software to Accelerate Customers\u2019 Digital Transformation in the Lab\".&#32;Merck KGaA.&#32;6 August 2019.&#32;https:\/\/www.emdgroup.com\/en\/news\/bssn-software-06-08-2019.html .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 McDonald,&#32;Robert S.&#59;&#32;Wilks,&#32;Paul A.&#32;(1 January 1988).&#32;\"JCAMP-DX: A Standard Form for Exchange of Infrared Spectra in Computer Readable Form\"&#32;(in en).&#32;Applied Spectroscopy&#32;42&#32;(1): 151\u2013162.&#32;doi:10.1366\/0003702884428734.&#32;ISSN&#160;0003-7028.&#32;http:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1366\/0003702884428734 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Welcome to GAML.org\".&#32;GAML.org.&#32;22 June 2007.&#32;http:\/\/www.gaml.org\/default.asp .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 CNN Business&#32;(17 April 2015).&#32;\"Micro robots drive Bayer's high-tech vision\".&#32;YouTube.&#32;https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=_PuTKH7143c .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Oxer, M.; Stroud, T.&#32;(2017).&#32;\"The Essential Guide to Managing Laboratory Samples\".&#32;Titian Software Ltd.&#32;https:\/\/www.titian.co.uk\/the-essential-guide-to-managing-laboratory-samples-web .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 19.0 19.1 Redrup,&#32;Michael J.&#59;&#32;Igarashi,&#32;Harue&#59;&#32;Schaefgen,&#32;Jay&#59;&#32;Lin,&#32;Jenny&#59;&#32;Geisler,&#32;Lisa&#59;&#32;Ben M\u2019Barek,&#32;Mohamed&#59;&#32;Ramachandran,&#32;Subramanian&#59;&#32;Cardoso,&#32;Thales&#32;et al.&#32;(1 March 2016).&#32;\"Sample Management: Recommendation for Best Practices and Harmonization from the Global Bioanalysis Consortium Harmonization Team\"&#32;(in en).&#32;The AAPS Journal&#32;18&#32;(2): 290\u2013293.&#32;doi:10.1208\/s12248-016-9869-2.&#32;ISSN&#160;1550-7416.&#32;PMC&#160;PMC4779093.&#32;PMID&#160;26821803.&#32;http:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1208\/s12248-016-9869-2 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective<\/a>\nCategory: LII:Guides, white papers, and other publicationsNavigation menuPage actionsLIIDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsLIIDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 9 February 2022, at 19:44.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 3,722 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","87d7f050e0c47d7762a90382989592a1_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-202 ns-subject page-LII_Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems_One_Person_s_Perspective rootpage-LII_Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems_One_Person_s_Perspective skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">LII:Directions in Laboratory Systems: One Person's Perspective<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p><b>Title<\/b>: <i>Directions in Laboratory Systems: One Person's Perspective<\/i>\n<\/p><p><b>Author for citation<\/b>: Joe Liscouski, with editorial modifications by Shawn Douglas\n<\/p><p><b>License for content<\/b>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International<\/a>\n<\/p><p><b>Publication date<\/b>: November 2021\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Introduction\">Introduction<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The purpose of this work is to provide one person's perspective on planning for the use of computer systems in the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33\">laboratory<\/a>, and with it a means of developing a direction for the future. Rather than concentrating on \u201cscience first, support systems second,\u201d it reverses that order, recommending the construction of a solid support structure before populating the lab with systems and processes that produce knowledge, information, and data (K\/I\/D).\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Intended_audience\">Intended audience<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This material is intended for those working in laboratories of all types. The biggest benefit will come to those working in startup labs since they have a clean slate to work with, as well as those freshly entering into scientific work as it will help them understand the roles of various systems. Those working in existing labs will also benefit by seeing a different perspective than they may be used to, giving them an alternative path for evaluating their current structure and how they might adjust it to improve operations. \n<\/p><p>However, all labs in a given industry can benefit from this guide since one of its key points is the development of industry-wide guidelines to solving technology management and planning issues, improving personnel development, and more effectively addressing common projects in automation, instrument communications, and vendor relationships (resulting in lower costs and higher success rates). This would also provide a basis for evaluating new technologies (reducing risks to early adopters) and fostering product development with the necessary product requirements in a particular industry.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"About_the_content\">About the content<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This material follows in the footsteps of more than 15 years of writing and presentation on the topic. That writing and presentation\u2014<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Book:LIMSjournal_-_Laboratory_Technology_Special_Edition\" title=\"Book:LIMSjournal - Laboratory Technology Special Edition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca03292ab5af765e5a5a97438216ed5c\">compiled here<\/a>\u2014includes:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Are_You_a_Laboratory_Automation_Engineer%3F\" title=\"LII:Are You a Laboratory Automation Engineer?\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"67df76407d0807e78d9cde61bb3f82c9\"><i>Are You a Laboratory Automation Engineer?<\/i> (2006)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Elements_of_Laboratory_Technology_Management\" title=\"LII:Elements of Laboratory Technology Management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2000eea677bcd5ee1fcecdab32743800\"><i>Elements of Laboratory Technology Management<\/i> (2014)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:A_Guide_for_Management:_Successfully_Applying_Laboratory_Systems_to_Your_Organization%27s_Work\" title=\"LII:A Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization&#39;s Work\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00b300565027cb0518bcb0410d6df360\"><i>A Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization's Work<\/i> (2018)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Laboratory_Technology_Management_%26_Planning\" title=\"LII:Laboratory Technology Management &amp; Planning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2016524e3c4b551c982fcfc23e33220d\"><i>Laboratory Technology Management &amp; Planning<\/i> (2019)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Notes_on_Instrument_Data_Systems\" title=\"LII:Notes on Instrument Data Systems\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b7330228fd59158aab6fab82ad0e7cc\"><i>Notes on Instrument Data Systems<\/i> (2020)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Laboratory_Technology_Planning_and_Management:_The_Practice_of_Laboratory_Systems_Engineering\" title=\"LII:Laboratory Technology Planning and Management: The Practice of Laboratory Systems Engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"655f7d48a642e9b45533745af73f0d59\"><i>Laboratory Technology Planning and Management: The Practice of Laboratory Systems Engineering<\/i> (2020)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Considerations_in_the_Automation_of_Laboratory_Procedures\" title=\"LII:Considerations in the Automation of Laboratory Procedures\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0147011cc1eb892e1a35e821657a6d9\"><i>Considerations in the Automation of Laboratory Procedures<\/i> (2021)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:The_Application_of_Informatics_to_Scientific_Work:_Laboratory_Informatics_for_Newbies\" title=\"LII:The Application of Informatics to Scientific Work: Laboratory Informatics for Newbies\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8b467af534a70312a21f63b61be26cd\"><i>The Application of Informatics to Scientific Work: Laboratory Informatics for Newbies<\/i> (2021)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>While that material covers some of the \u201cwhere do we go from here\u201d discussions, I want to bring a lot of it together in one spot so that we can see what the entire picture looks like, while still leaving some of the details to the titles above. Admittedly, there have been some changes in thinking over time from what was presented in those pieces. For example, the concept of \"laboratory automation engineering\" has morphed into \"laboratory systems engineering,\" given that in the past 15 years the scope of laboratory automation and computing has broadened significantly. Additionally, references to \"scientific manufacturing\" are now replaced with \"scientific production,\" since laboratories tend to produce ideas, knowledge, results, information, and data, not tangible widgets. And as the state of laboratories continues to dynamically evolve, there will likely come more changes.\n<\/p><p>Of special note is 2019's <i>Laboratory Technology Management &amp; Planning<\/i> webinars. They provide additional useful background towards what is covered in this guide.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Looking_forward_and_back:_Where_do_we_begin?\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Looking_forward_and_back:_Where_do_we_begin.3F\">Looking forward and back: Where do we begin?<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-The_&quot;laboratory_of_the_future&quot;_and_laboratory_systems_engineering\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"The_.22laboratory_of_the_future.22_and_laboratory_systems_engineering\">The \"laboratory of the future\" and laboratory systems engineering<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The \u201claboratory of the future\u201d (LOF) makes for an interesting playground of concepts. People's view of the LOF is often colored by their commercial and research interests. Does the future mean tomorrow, next month, six years, or twenty years from now? In reality, it means all of those time spans coupled with the length of a person's tenure in the lab, and the legacy they want to leave behind.\n<\/p><p>However, with those varied time spans we\u2019ll need flexibility and adaptability for <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_management\" title=\"Information management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f8672d270c0750a858ed940158ca0a73\">managing data<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d\">information<\/a> while also preserving access and utility for the products of lab work, and that requires organization and planning. Laboratory equipment will change and storage media and data formats will evolve. The instrumentation used to collect data and information will change, and so will the computers and software applications that manage that data and information. Every resource that has been expended in executing lab work has been to develop knowledge, information, and data (K\/I\/D). How are you going to meet that management challenge and retain the expected return on investment (ROI)? Answering it will be one of the hallmarks of the LOF. It will require a deliberate plan that touches on every aspect of lab work: people, equipment and systems choices, and relationships with vendors and information technology support groups. Some points reside within the lab while others require coordination with corporate groups, particularly when we address long-term storage, ease of access, and security (both physical and electronic).\n<\/p><p>During discussions of the LOF, some people focus on the technology behind the instruments and techniques used in lab work, and they will continue to impress us with their sophistication. However, the bottom line of those conversations is their ability to produce results: K\/I\/D.\n<\/p><p>Modern laboratory work is a merger of science and information technology. Some of the information technology is built into instruments and equipment, the remainder supports those devices or helps manage operations. That technology needs to be understood, planned, and engineered into smoothly functioning systems if labs are to function at a high level of performance.\n<\/p><p>Given all that, how do we prepare for the LOF, whatever that future turns out to be? One step is the development of \u201claboratory systems engineering\u201d as a means of bringing structure and discipline to the use of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Informatics_(academic_field)\" title=\"Informatics (academic field)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0391318826a5d9f9a1a1bcc88394739f\">informatics<\/a>, robotics, and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_automation\" title=\"Laboratory automation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0061880849aeaca05f8aa27ae171f331\">automation<\/a> to lab systems.\n<\/p><p>But who is the laboratory systems engineer (LSE)? The LSE is someone able to understand and be conversant in both the laboratory science and IT worlds, relating them to each other to the benefit of lab operation effectiveness while guiding IT in performing their roles. A fully dedicated LSE will understand a number of important principles:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>Knowledge, information, and data should always be protected, available, and usable.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_integrity\" title=\"Data integrity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"382a9bb77ee3e36bb3b37c79ed813167\">Data integrity<\/a> is paramount.<\/li>\n<li>Systems and their underlying components should be supportable, meaning they are proven to meet users' needs (validated), capable of being modified without causing conflicts with results produced by previous versions, documented, upgradable (without major disruption to lab operations), and able to survive upgrades in connected systems.<\/li>\n<li>Systems should be integrated into lab operations and not exist as isolated entities, unless there are overriding concerns.<\/li>\n<li>Systems should be portable, meaning they are able to be relocated and installed where appropriate, and not restricted to a specific combination of hardware and\/or software that can\u2019t be duplicated.<\/li>\n<li>There should be a smooth, reproducible (bi-directional, if appropriate), error-free (including error detection and correction) flow of results, from data generation to the point of use or need.<\/li><\/ol>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-But_how_did_we_get_here?\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"But_how_did_we_get_here.3F\">But how did we get here?<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The primary purpose of laboratory work is developing and carrying out scientific methods and experiments, which are used to answer questions. We don\u2019t want to lose sight of that, or the skill needed to do that work. Initially the work was done manually, which inevitably limited the amount of data and information that could be produced, and in turn the rate at which new knowledge could be developed and distributed.\n<\/p><p>However, the introduction of electronic instruments changed that, and the problem shifted from data and information production to data and information utilization (including the development of new knowledge), distribution, and management. That\u2019s where we are today.\n<\/p><p>Science plays a role in the production of data and information, as well as the development of knowledge. In between we have the tools used in data and information collection, storage, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_analysis\" title=\"Data analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"545c95e40ca67c9e63cd0a16042a5bd1\">analysis<\/a>, etc. That\u2019s what we\u2019ll be talking about in this document. The equipment and concepts we\u2019re concerned with here are the tools used to assist in conducting that work and working with the results. They are enablers and amplifiers of lab processes. As in almost any application, the right tools used well are an asset.\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig1_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"518c9d8873fabfb9564ead7d65137cd7\"><img alt=\"Fig1 Liscouski DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/d\/dc\/Fig1_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 1.<\/b> Databases for knowledge, information, and data (K\/I\/D) are represented as ovals, and the processes acting on them as arrows.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>One problem with the distinction between science and informatics tools is that lab personnel understand the science, but they largely don't understand the intricacies of information and computing technologies that comprise the tools they use to facilitate their work. Laboratory personnel are educated in a variety of scientific disciplines, each having its own body of knowledge and practices, each requiring specialization. Shouldn't the same apply to the expertise needed to address the \u201ctools\u201d? On one hand we have <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chromatography\" title=\"Chromatography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2615535d1f14c6cffdfad7285999ad9d\">chromatographers<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Spectroscopy\" title=\"Spectroscopy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2babfd09e1f6d00d86ad7032cbb60d91\">spectroscopists<\/a>, physical chemists, toxicologists, etc., and on the other roboticists, database experts, network specialists, and so on. In today's reality these are not IT specialists but rather LSEs who understand how to apply the IT tools to lab work with all the nuances and details needed to be successful.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Moving_forward\">Moving forward<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>If we are going to advance laboratory science and its practice, we need the right complement of experienced people. Moving forward to address laboratory- and organization-wide productivity needs a different perspective; rather than ask how we improve things at the bench, ask how we improve the processes and organization.\n<\/p><p>This guide is about long-term planning for lab automation and K\/I\/D management. The material in this guide is structured in sections, and each section starts with a summary, so you can read the summary and decide if you want more detail. However, before you toss it on the \u201clater\u201d pile, read the next few bits and then decide what to do.\n<\/p><p>Long-term planning is essential to organizational success. The longer you put it off, the more expensive it will be, the longer it will take to do it, and the more entrenched behaviors you'll have to overcome. Additionally, you won\u2019t be in a position to take advantage of the developing results.\n<\/p><p>It\u2019s time to get past the politics and the inertia and move forward. Someone has to take the lead on this, full-time or part-time, depending on the size of your organization (i.e., if there's more than one lab, know that it affects all of them). Leadership should be from the lab side, not the IT side, as IT people may not have the backgrounds needed and may view everything through their organizations priorities. (However, their support will be necessary for a successful outcome.)\n<\/p><p>The work conducted on the lab bench produces data and information. That is the start of realizing the benefits from research and testing work. The rest depends upon your ability to work with that data and information, which in turn depends on how well your data systems are organized and managed. This culminates in maximizing benefit at the least cost, i.e., ROI. It\u2019s important to you, and it\u2019s important to your organization.\n<\/p><p>Planning has to be done at least four levels:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>Industry-wide (e.g., biotech, mining, electronics, cosmetics, food and beverage, plastics, etc.)<\/li>\n<li>Within your organization<\/li>\n<li>Within your lab<\/li>\n<li>Within your lab processes<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>One important aspect of this planning process\u2014particularly at the top, industry-wide level\u2014is the specification of a framework to coordinate product, process (methods), or standards research and development at the lower levels. This industry-wide framework is ideally not a \u201cthis is what you must do\u201d but rather a common structure that can be adapted to make the work easier and, as a basis for approaching vendors for products and product modifications that will benefit those in your industry, give them confidence that the requests have a broader market appeal. If an industry-wide approach isn\u2019t feasible, then larger companies may group together to provide the needed leadership. Note, however, that this should not be perceived as an industry\/company vs. vendor effort; rather, this is an industry\/company working with vendors. The idea of a large group effort is to demonstrate a consensus viewpoint and that vendors' development efforts won\u2019t be in vain.\n<\/p><p>The development of this framework, among other things, should cover:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Informatics<\/li>\n<li>Communications (networking, instrument control and data, informatics control and data, etc.)<\/li>\n<li>Physical security (including power)<\/li>\n<li>Data integrity and security<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cybersecurity\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cybersecurity\" data-key=\"ba653dc2a1384e5f9f6ac9dc1a740109\">Cybersecurity<\/a><\/li>\n<li>The FAIR principles (the findability, accessibility, interoperability, and reusability of data<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WilkinsonTheFAIR16_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WilkinsonTheFAIR16-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup>)<\/li>\n<li>The application of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cloud_computing\" title=\"Cloud computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fcfe5882eaa018d920cedb88398b604f\">cloud<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Virtualization\" title=\"Virtualization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e6ef1e0497ceb6545c0948d436eba29c\">virtualization<\/a> technologies<\/li>\n<li>Long-term usable access to lab information in databases without vendor controls (i.e., the impact of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_as_a_service\" title=\"Software as a service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd\">software as a service<\/a> and other software subscription models)<\/li>\n<li>Bi-directional <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_exchange\" title=\"Data exchange\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f41f95d4835a37b958fa9e870357f66\">data interchange<\/a> between archived instrument data in standardized formats and vendor software, requiring tamper-proof formats<\/li>\n<li>Instrument design for automation<\/li>\n<li>Sample storage management<\/li>\n<li>Guidance for automation<\/li>\n<li>Education for lab management and lab personnel<\/li>\n<li>The conversion of manual methods to semi- or fully automated systems<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>These topics affect both a lab's science personnel and its LSEs. While some topics will be of more interest to the engineers than the scientists, both groups have a stake in the results, as do any IT groups.\n<\/p><p>As digital systems become more entrenched in scientific work, we may need to restructure our thinking from \u201clab bench\u201d and \u201cinformatics\u201d to \u201cdata and information sources\u201d and \u201cdigital tools for working, organizing, and managing those elements.\" Data and information sources can extend to third-party labs and other published material. We have to move from digital systems causing incremental improvements (today\u2019s approach), to a true revolutionary restructuring of how science is conducted.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Laboratory_computing\">Laboratory computing<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><b>Key point<\/b>: <i>Laboratory systems are planned, designed, and engineered. They are not simply a collection of components. Laboratory computing is a transformational technology, one which has yet to fully emerge in large part because those who work in laboratories with computing aren\u2019t fully educated about it to take advantage of it.<\/i>\n<\/p><p>Laboratory computing has always been viewed as an \"add-on\" to traditional laboratory work. These add-ons have the potential to improve our work, make it faster, and make it more productive (see Appendix 1 for more details).\n<\/p><p>The common point-of-view in the discussion of lab computing has been focused on the laboratory scientist or manager, with IT providing a supporting role. That isn\u2019t the only viewpoint available to us, however. Another viewpoint is from that of the laboratory systems engineer (LSE), who focuses on data and information flow. This latter viewpoint should compel us to reconsider the role of computing in the laboratory and the higher level needs of laboratory operations.\n<\/p><p>Why is this important? Data and information generation may represent the end of the lab bench process, but it\u2019s just the beginning of its use in broader scientific work. The ability to take advantage of those elements in the scope of manufacturing and corporate research and development (R&amp;D) is where the real value is realized. That requires planning for storage, access, and utilization over the long term.\n<\/p><p>The problem with the traditional point-of-view (i.e., instrumentation first, with computing in a supporting role) is that the data and information landscape is built supporting the portion of lab work that is the most likely to change (Figure 2). You wind up building an information architecture to meet the requirements of diverse data structures instead of making that architecture part of the product purchase criteria. Systems are installed as needs develop, not as part of a pre-planned information architecture.\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig2_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"55245fa5ec8c8de01e309fff006f043f\"><img alt=\"Fig2 Liscouski DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/7\/70\/Fig2_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 2.<\/b> Hierarchy of lab systems, noting frequency of change<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>Designing an informatics architecture has some things in common with building a house. You create the foundation first, a supporting structure that everything sits on. Adding the framework sets up the primary living space, which can be modified as needed without disturbing the foundation (Figure 3). If you built the living space first and then wanted to install a foundation, you\u2019d have a mess to deal with.\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig3_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"8fa3e98d742ed53067982cbcabdfb29a\"><img alt=\"Fig3 Liscouski DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/3\/3e\/Fig3_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 3.<\/b> Comparison of foundation and living\/working space levels in an organization<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>The same holds true with <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">laboratory informatics<\/a>. Set the foundation\u2014the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00\">laboratory information management system<\/a> (LIMS), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Electronic laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f\">electronic laboratory notebook<\/a> (ELN), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Scientific_data_management_system\" title=\"Scientific data management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f38d322b743f578fef487b6f3d7c253\">scientific data management system<\/a> (SDMS), etc.\u2014first, then add the data and information generation systems. That gives you a common set of requirements for making connections and can clarify some issues in product selection and systems integration. It may seem backwards if your focus is on data and information production, but as soon as you realize that you have to organize and manage those products, the benefits will be clear.\n<\/p><p>You might wonder how you go about setting up a LIMS, ELN, etc. before the instrumentation is set. However it isn\u2019t that much of a problem. You know why your lab is there and what kind of work you plan to do. That will guide you in setting up the foundation. The details of tests can be added as need. Most of that depends on having your people educated in what the systems are and how to use them.\n<\/p><p>Our comparison between a building and information systems does bring up some additional points. A building's access to utilities runs through control points; water and electricity don\u2019t come in from the public supply to each room but run through central control points that include a distribution system with safety and management features. We need the same thing in labs when it comes to network access. In our current society, access to private information for profit is a fact of life. While there are desirable features of lab systems available through network access (remote checking, access to libraries, updates, etc.), they should be controlled so that those with malicious intent are prevented access, and data and information are protected. Should instrument systems and office computers have access to corporate and external networks? That\u2019s your decision and revolves around how you want your lab run, as well as other applicable corporate policies.\n<\/p><p>The connections layer in Figure 3 is where devices connect to each other and the major informatics layer. This layer includes two functions: basic networking capability and application-to-application transfer. Take for example moving pH measurements to a LIMS or ELN; this is where things can get very messy. You need to define what that is and what the standards are to ensure a well-managed system (more on that when we look at industry-wide guidelines).\n<\/p><p>To complete the analogy, people do move the living space of a house from one foundation to another, often making for an interesting experience. Similarly, it\u2019s also possible to change the informatics foundation from one product set to another. It means exporting the contents of the database(s) to a product-independent format and then importing into the new system. If you think this is something that might be in your future, make the ability to engage in that process part of the product selection criteria. Like moving a house, it isn\u2019t going to be fun.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FishOvercoming05_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FishOvercoming05-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FishOvercoming13_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FishOvercoming13-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FreeLIMSWhat18_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FreeLIMSWhat18-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The same holds true for ELN and SDMS.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-How_automation_affects_people's_work_in_the_lab\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"How_automation_affects_people.27s_work_in_the_lab\">How automation affects people's work in the lab<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><b>Key point<\/b>: <i>There are two basic ways lab personnel can approach computing: it\u2019s a black box that they don\u2019t understand but is used as part of their work, or they are fully aware of the equipment's capabilities and limitations and know how to use it to its fullest benefit.<\/i>\n<\/p><p>While lab personnel may be fully educated in the science behind their work, the role of computing\u2014from pH meters to multi-instrument data systems\u2014may be viewed with a lack of understanding. That is a significant problem because they are responsible for the results that those systems produce, and they may not be aware of what happens to the signals from the instruments, where the limitations lie, and what can turn a well-executed procedure to junk because an instrument or computer setting wasn\u2019t properly evaluated and used. \n<\/p><p>In reality, automation has both a technical impact on their work and an impact on themselves. These are outlined below.\n<\/p><p>Technical impact on work:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>It can make routine work easier and more productive, reducing costs and improving ROI (more on that below).<\/li>\n<li>It can allow work to be performed that might otherwise be too expensive to entertain. There are techniques such as high-throughput screening and statistical experimental design that are useful in laboratory work but might be avoided because the effort of generating the needed data is too labor-intensive and time-consuming. Automated systems can relieve that problem and produce the volumes of data those techniques require.<\/li>\n<li>It can improve accuracy and reproducibility. Automated systems, properly designed and implemented, are inherently more reproducible than a corresponding manual system.<\/li>\n<li>It can increase safety by limiting people's exposure to hazardous situations and materials.<\/li>\n<li>It can also be a financial hole if proper planning and engineering aren\u2019t properly applied to a project. \u201cScope creep,\u201d changes in direction, and changes in project requirements and personnel are key reasons that projects are delayed or fail.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Impact on the personnel themselves:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>It can increase technical specialization, potentially improving work opportunities and people's job satisfaction. Having people move into a new technology area gives them an opportunity to grow both personally and professionally.<\/li>\n<li>Full automation of a process can cause some jobs to end, or at least change them significantly (more on that below).<\/li>\n<li>It can elevate routine work to more significant supervisory roles.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Most of these impacts are straightforward to understand, but several require further elaboration.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-It_can_make_routine_work_easier_and_more_productive,_reducing_costs_and_improving_ROI\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"It_can_make_routine_work_easier_and_more_productive.2C_reducing_costs_and_improving_ROI\">It can make routine work easier and more productive, reducing costs and improving ROI<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This sounds like a standard marketing pitch; is there any evidence to support it? In the 1980s, clinical chemistry labs were faced with a problem: the cost for their services was set on an annual basis without any adjustments permitted for rising costs during that period. If costs rose, income dropped; the more testing they did the worse the problem became. They addressed this problem as a community, and that was a key factor in their success. Clinical chemistry labs do testing on materials taken from people and animals and run standardized tests. This is the kind of environment that automation was created for, and they, as a community, embarked on a total laboratory automation (TLA) program. That program had a number of factors: education, standardization of equipment (the tests were standardized so the vendors knew exactly what they needed in equipment capabilities), and the development of instrument and computer communications protocols that enabled the transfer of data and information between devices (application to application).\n<\/p><p>Organizations such as the American Society for Clinical Laboratory Science (ASCLS) and the American Association for Clinical Chemistry (AACC), as well as many others, provide members with education and industry-wide support organization. Other examples include the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI), a non-profit organization that develops standards for laboratory automation and informatics (e.g., AUTO03-A2 on laboratory automation<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CLSIAUTO03_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CLSIAUTO03-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup>), and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Level_7\" title=\"Health Level 7\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0bf845fb58d2bae05a846b47629e86f\">Health Level Seven, Inc.<\/a>, a non-profit organization that provide software standards for <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_integration\" title=\"Data integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd01c635859e1d5b9583e43e31ef6718\">data interoperability<\/a>. \n<\/p><p>Given that broad, industry-wide effort to address automation issues, the initial response was as follows<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SarkoziTheEff03_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SarkoziTheEff03-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Between 1965 and 2000, the Consumer Price Index increased by a factor of 5.5 in the United States.<\/li>\n<li>During the same 36 years, at Mount Sinai Medical Center's chemistry department, the productivity (indicated as the number of reported test results\/employee\/year) increased from 10,600 to 104,558 (9.3-fold).<\/li>\n<li>When expressed in constant 1965 dollars, the total cost per test decreased from $0.79 to $0.15.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>In addition, the following data (Table 1 and 2) from Dr. Michael Bissell of Ohio State University provides further insight into the resulting potential increase in labor productivity by implementing TLA in the lab<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BissellTotal14_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BissellTotal14-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table class=\"wikitable\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td colspan=\"4\" style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><b>Table 1.<\/b> Overall productivity of labor<br \/>&#160;<br \/>FTE = Full-time equivalent; TLA = Total laboratory automation\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">Ratio\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">Pre-TLA\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">Post-Phase 1\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">Change\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">Test\/FTE\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">50,813\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">64,039\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">+27%\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">Tests\/Tech FTE\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">80,058\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">89,120\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">+11%\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">Tests\/Paid hour\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">20.8\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">52.9\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">+24%\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">Tests\/Worked hour\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">24.4\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">30.8\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">+26%\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table class=\"wikitable\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td colspan=\"4\" style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><b>Table 2.<\/b> Productivity of labor-processing area<br \/>&#160;<br \/>FTE = Full-time equivalent; TLA = Total laboratory automation\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">Ratio\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">Pre-TLA\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">Post-Phase 1\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">Change\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">Specimens\/Processing FTE\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">39,899\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">68,708\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">+72%\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">Specimens\/Processing paid hour\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">19.1\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">33.0\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">+73%\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">Requests\/Processing paid hour\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">12.7\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">21.5\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">+69%\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>Through TLA, improvements can be seen in:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Improved sample throughput<\/li>\n<li>Cost reduction<\/li>\n<li>Less variability in the data<\/li>\n<li>Reduced and more predictable consumption of materials<\/li>\n<li>Improved use of people's talents<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>While this data is almost 20 years old, it illustrates the impact in a change from a manual system to an automated lab environment. It also gives us an idea of what might be expected if industry- ir community-wide automation programs were developed.\n<\/p><p>Clinical laboratories are not unique in the potential to organize industry-wide standardized aspects of technology and work, and provide education. The same can be done anywhere as long as the ability to perform a particular test procedure isn\u2019t viewed as a unique competitive advantage. The emerging <i><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cannabis\" title=\"Cannabis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"af797c56ff03f240199d1fdff0690555\">Cannabis<\/a><\/i> testing industry represents one such opportunity, among others.\n<\/p><p>The clinical industry has provided a template for the development of laboratory systems and automation. The list of instruments that meet the clinical communications standard continues to grow (e.g., Waters' MassLynx LIMS Interface<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WatersMassLynx16_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WatersMassLynx16-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup>). There is nothing unique about the communications standards that prevent them from being used as a basis for development in other industries, aside from the data dictionary. As such, we need to move from an every-lab-for-itself approach to lab systems development toward a more cooperative and synergistic model.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Automation_can_cause_some_jobs_to_end,_or_at_least_change_them_significantly\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Automation_can_cause_some_jobs_to_end.2C_or_at_least_change_them_significantly\">Automation can cause some jobs to end, or at least change them significantly<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>One of the problems that managers and the people under them get concerned about is change. No matter how beneficial the change is for the organization, it raises people\u2019s anxiety levels and can affect their job performance unless they are prepared for it. In that context, questions and concerns staff may have in relation to automating aspects of a job include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>How are these changes going to affect my job and my income? Will it cause me to lose my job? That\u2019s about as basic as it gets, and it can impact people at any organizational level.<\/li>\n<li>Bringing in new technologies and products means learning new things, and that opens up the possibility that people may fail or not be as effective as they are currently. It can reshuffle the pecking order.<\/li>\n<li>The process of introducing new equipment, procedures, etc. is going to disrupt the lab's <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow\" title=\"Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8\">workflow<\/a>. The changes may be procedural structural, or both; how are you going to deal with those issues?<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Two past examples will highlight different approaches. In the first, a multi-instrument automation system was being introduced. Management told the lab personnel what was going to happen and why, and that they would be part of the final acceptance process. If they weren\u2019t happy, the system would be modified to meet their needs. The system was installed, software written to meet their needs, instruments connected, and the system was tested. Everyone was satisfied except one technician, and that proved to be a major roadblock to putting the system into service. The matter was discussed with the lab manager, who didn\u2019t see the problem; as soon as the system was up and running, that technician would be given a new set of responsibilities, something she was interested in. But no one told her that. As she saw it, once the system came on line she was out of a job. (One of the primary methods used in that lab's work was chromatography, with the instrument output recorded on chart paper. Most measurements were done using peak height, but peak area was used for some critical analyses. Those exacting measurements, made with a planimeter, were her responsibility and her unique\u2014as she saw it\u2014contribution to the lab's work. The instrument system replaced the need for this work. The other technicians and chemists had no problem adapting to the data system.) However, a short discussion between she and the lab manager alleviated the concerns.\n<\/p><p>The second example was handled a lot differently, and was concerned with the implementation of a lab\u2019s first LIMS. The people in the lab knew something was going on but not the details. Individual meetings were held with each member of the lab team to discuss what was being considered and to learn of their impressions and concerns (these sessions were held with an outside consultant, and the results were reported to management in summary form). Once that was completed, the project started, with the lab manager holding a meeting of all lab personnel and IT, describing what was going to be done, why, how the project was going to proceed, and the role of those working in the lab in determining product requirement and product selection. The concerns raised in the individual sessions were addressed up-front, and staff all understood that no one was going to lose their job, or suffer a pay cut. Yes, some jobs would change, and where appropriate that was discussed with each individual. There was an educational course about what a LIMS was, its role in the lab's work, and how it would improve the lab\u2019s operations. When those sessions were completed, the lab\u2019s personnel looked forward to the project. They were part of the project and the process, rather than having it done without their participation. In short, instead of it happening to them, it happened with them as willing participants.\n<\/p><p>People's attitudes about automation systems and being willing participants in their development can make a big difference in a project's success or failure. You don\u2019t want people to feel that the incoming system and the questions surrounding it are threatening, or seen as something that is potentially going to end their employment. They may not freely participate or they may leave when you need them the most.\n<\/p><p>All of this may seem daunting for a lab to take on by itself. Large companies may have the resources to handle it, but we need more than a large company to do this right; we need an industry-wide effort.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Development_of_industry-wide_guidelines\">Development of industry-wide guidelines<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><b>Key point<\/b>: <i>The discussion above about clinical labs illustrates what can be accomplished when an industry group focuses on a technology problem. We need to extend that thinking\u2014and action\u2014to a broader range of industries individually. The benefits of an industry-wide approach to addressing technology and education issues include:<\/i>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><i>providing a wider range of inputs to solving problems;<\/i><\/li>\n<li><i>providing a critical marketing mass to lobby vendors to create products that fit customers\u2019 needs in a particular industry;<\/i><\/li>\n<li><i>developing an organized educational program with emphasis on that industry's requirements;<\/i><\/li>\n<li><i>giving labs (startup and existing) a well-structured reference point to guide them (not dictate) in making technology decisions;<\/i><\/li>\n<li><i>reducing the cost of automation, with improved support; and<\/i><\/li>\n<li><i>where competitive issues aren\u2019t a factor, enabling industry-funded R&amp;D technology development and implementation for production or manufacturing quality, process control (integration of online quality information), and process management.<\/i><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>The proposal: each industry group should define a set of guidelines to assist labs in setting up an information infrastructure. For the most part, large sections would end up similar across multiple industries, as there isn\u2019t that much behavioral distinction between some industry sets. The real separation would come in two places: the data dictionaries (data descriptions) and the nature of the testing and automation to implement that testing. Where there is a clear competitive edge to a test or its execution, each company may choose to go it alone, but that still leaves a lot of room for cooperation in method development, addressing both the basic science and its automated implementations, particularly where ASTM, USP, etc. methods are employed.\n<\/p><p>The benefits of this proposal are noted in the key point above. However, the three most significant ones are arguably:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>the development of an organized education program with an emphasis on industry requirements;<\/li>\n<li>the development of a robust communications protocol for application-to-application transfers; and,<\/li>\n<li>the ability to lobby vendors from an industry-wide basis for product development, modification, and support.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>In the \"Looking forward and back\" section earlier in this guide, we showed a bulleted list of considerations for the development of such a guideline-based framework. What follows is a more organized version of those points, separated into three sections, which all need to be addressed in any industry-based framework. For the purposes of this guide, we'll focus primarily on Section C: \"Issues that need concerted attention.\" Section A on background and IT support, and Section B on lab-specific background information, aren't discussed as they are addressed elsewhere, particularly in the previous works referenced in the Introduction. \n<\/p>\n<dl><dd><b>A.<\/b> General background and routine IT support\n<dl><dd>1. Physical security (including power)<\/dd>\n<dd>2. Cybersecurity<\/dd>\n<dd>3. Cloud and virtualization technologies<\/dd><\/dl><\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dd><b>B.<\/b> Lab-specific background information\n<dl><dd>1. Informatics (could be an industry-specific version of <i>ASTM E1578 - 18 Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics<\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASTME1578_18_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASTME1578_18-10\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup>)<\/dd>\n<dd>2. Sample storage management and organization (see Appendix 1, section 1.4 of this guide)<\/dd>\n<dd>3. Guidance for automation<\/dd>\n<dd>4: Data integrity and security (see S. Schmitt's <i>Assuring Data Integrity for Life Sciences<\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, which has broader application outside the life sciences)<\/dd>\n<dd>5. The FAIR principles (the findability, accessibility, interoperability, and reusability of data; see Wilkinson <i>et al.<\/i> 2016<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WilkinsonTheFAIR16_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WilkinsonTheFAIR16-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup>)<\/dd><\/dl><\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dd><i>C.<\/i> Issues that need concerted attention:\n<dl><dd>1. Education for lab management and lab personnel<\/dd>\n<dd>2. The conversion of manual methods to semi- or full-automated methods (see <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Considerations_in_the_Automation_of_Laboratory_Procedures\" title=\"LII:Considerations in the Automation of Laboratory Procedures\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0147011cc1eb892e1a35e821657a6d9\"><i>Considerations in the Automation of Laboratory Procedures<\/i><\/a> for more)<\/dd>\n<dd>3. Long-term usable access to lab information in databases without vendor controls (i.e., the impact of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_as_a_service\" title=\"Software as a service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd\">software as a service<\/a> and other software subscription models)<\/dd>\n<dd>4. Archived instrument data in standardized formats and standardized vendor software (requires tamper-proof formats)<\/dd>\n<dd>5. Instrument design for automation (Most instruments and their support software are dual-use, i.e., they work as stand-alone devices via front panels, or through software controls. While this is a useful selling tool\u2014whether by manual or automated use\u2014it means the device is larger, more complex, and expensive than a automation-only device that uses software [e.g., a smartphone or computer] for everything. Instruments and devices designed for automation should be more compact and permit more efficient automation systems.)<\/dd>\n<dd>6. Communications (networking, instrument control and data, informatics control and data, etc.)<\/dd><\/dl><\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>We'll now go on to expand upon items C-1, C-3, C-4, and C-6.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"C-1._Education_for_lab_management_and_lab_personnel\">C-1. Education for lab management and lab personnel<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Laboratory work has become a merger of two disciplines: science and information technology (including robotics). Without the first, nothing happens; without the second, work will proceed but at a slower more costly pace. There are different levels of education requirements. For those working at the lab bench, not only do they need to understand the science, but also how the instrumentation and supporting computers systems (if any, including those embedded in the instrument) make and transform measurements into results. \u201cThe computer did it\u201d is not a satisfactory answer to \u201chow did you get that result,\u201d nor is \u201cmagic,\" or maintaining willful ignorance of exactly how the instrument measurements are taken. Laboratorians are responsible and accountable for the results, and they should be able to explain the process of how they were derived, including how settings on the instrument and computer software affect that work. Lab managers should understand the technologies at the functional level and how the systems interact with each other. They are accountable for the overall integrity of the systems and the data and information they contain. IT personnel should understand how lab systems differ from office applications and why business-as-usual for managing office applications doesn\u2019t work in the lab environment. The computer systems are there to support the instruments, and any changes that may affect that relationship should be initiated with care; the instrument vendor\u2019s support for computer systems upgrades is essential.\n<\/p><p>As such, we need a new personnel position, that of the laboratory systems engineer or LSE, to provide support for the informatics architecture. This isn\u2019t simply an IT person; it should be someone who is fluent in both the science and the information technology applied to lab work. (See <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Laboratory_Technology_Planning_and_Management:_The_Practice_of_Laboratory_Systems_Engineering\" title=\"LII:Laboratory Technology Planning and Management: The Practice of Laboratory Systems Engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"655f7d48a642e9b45533745af73f0d59\"><i>Laboratory Technology Planning and Management: The Practice of Laboratory Systems Engineering<\/i><\/a> for more on this topic.)\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"C-3._Long-term_usable_access_to_lab_information_in_databases_without_vendor_controls\">C-3. Long-term usable access to lab information in databases without vendor controls<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The data and information your lab produces, with the assistance of instrumentation and instrument data systems, is yours, and no one should put limits on your ability to work with it. There is a problem with modern software design: most lab data and information can only be viewed through applications software. In some cases, the files may be used with several applications, but often it is the vendor's proprietary formats that limit access. In those instances, you have to maintain licenses for that software for as long as you need access to the data and information, even if the original application has been replaced by something else. This can happen for a variety of reasons:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Better technology is available from another vendor<\/li>\n<li>A vendor sold part of its operations to another organization<\/li>\n<li>Organizations merge<\/li>\n<li>Completion of a consulting or research contract requires all data to be sent to the contracting organization<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>All of these, and others, are reasons for maintaining multiple versions of similar datasets that people need access to yet don\u2019t want to maintain licenses for into the future, even though they still must consider meeting regulatory (FDA, EPA, ISO, etc.) requirements.\n<\/p><p>All of this revolves around your ability to gain value from your data and information without having to pay for its access. The vendors don\u2019t want to give their software away for free either. What we need is something like the relationship between Adobe Acrobat Reader and the Adobe Acrobat application software. The latter gives you the ability to create, modify, comment, etc. documents, while the former allows you to view them. The Reader gives anyone the ability to view the contents, just not alter it. We need a \u201creader\u201d application for instrument data collected and processed by an instrument data system. We need to be able to view the reports, raw data, etc. and export the data in a useful format, everything short of acquiring and processing new data. This gives you the ability to work with your intellectual property and allows it to be viewed by regulatory agencies if that becomes necessary, without incurring unnecessary costs or depriving the vendor of justifiable income.\n<\/p><p>This has become increasingly important as vendors have shifted to a subscription model for software licenses in place of one-time payments with additional charges for voluntary upgrades. One example from another realm illustrates the point. My wife keeps all of her recipes in an application on her iPad. One day she looked for a recipe and received a message that read, roughly, \u201cNo access unless you upgrade the app &lt;not free&gt;.\u201d As it turned out, a Google search recommended re-installing the current app instead. It worked, but she upgraded anyhow, just to be safe. It\u2019s your content, but who \u201cowns\u201d it if the software vendor can impose controls on how it is used?\n<\/p><p>As more of our work depends on software, we find ourselves in a constant upgrade loop of new hardware, new operating systems, and new applications just to maintain the status quo. We need more control over what happens to our data. Industry-wide guidelines backed by the buying power of an industry could create vendor policies that would mitigate that. Earlier in this document we noted that the future is going to extend industry change for a long time, with hardware and software evolving in ways we can\u2019t imagine. Hardware changes (anyone remember floppy disks?) inevitably make almost everything obsolete, so how do we protect our access to data and information? Floppy disks were the go-to media 40 years ago, and since then cassette tapes, magnetic tape, Zip drives, CD-ROMs, DVDs, Syquest drives, and other types of storage media have come and gone. Networked systems, at the moment, are the only consistent and reliable means of exchange and storage as datasets increase in size.\n<\/p><p>One point we have to take into account is that versions of applications will only function on certain versions of operating systems and databases. All three elements are going to evolve, and at some point we\u2019ll have to deal with \u201cold\u201d generations while new ones are coming online. One good answer to that is emulation. Some software systems like VMWare Corporation's VMware allow packages of operating systems, databases, and applications to operate on computers regardless of their age, with each collection residing in a \u201ccontainer\u201d; we can have several generations of those containers residing on a computer and execute them at will, as if they were still running on the original hardware. If you are looking for the data for a particular sample, go to the container that covers its time period and access it. Emulation packages are powerful tools; using them you can even run Atari 2600 games on a Windows or OS X system.\n<\/p><p>Addressing this issue is generally bigger than what a basic laboratory-based organization can handle, involving policy making and support from information technology support groups and corporate legal and financial management. The policies have to take into account physical locations of servers, support, financing, regulatory support groups, and international laws, even if your company isn\u2019t a multinational (third-party contracting organizations may be). Given this complexity, and the fact that most companies in a given industry will be affected, industry-wide guidelines would be useful.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"C-4._Archived_instrument_data_in_standardized_formats_and_standardized_vendor_software\">C-4. Archived instrument data in standardized formats and standardized vendor software<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This has been an area of interest for over 25 years, beginning with the Analytical Instrument Association's work that resulted in a set of ASTM Standard Guides:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><i>ASTM E2078 - 00(2016) Standard Guide for Analytical Data Interchange Protocol for Mass Spectrometric Data<\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASTMEE2078_16_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASTMEE2078_16-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><i>ASTM E1948 - 98(2014) Standard Guide for Analytical Data Interchange Protocol for Chromatographic Data<\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASTME1948_14_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASTME1948_14-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Millipore Sigma continues to invest in solutions based on the Analytical Information Markup Language (AnIML) standard (an outgrowth of work done at NIST).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MerckMilli19_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MerckMilli19-14\">&#91;14&#93;<\/a><\/sup> There have also been a variety of standards programs, all of which have a goal of moving instrument data into a neutral data format that is free of proprietary interests, allowing it to be used and analyzed as the analyst needs (e.g., JCAMP-DX<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">&#91;15&#93;<\/a><\/sup> and GAML<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GAML_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GAML-16\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup>).\n<\/p><p>Data interchange standards can help address issues in two aspects of data analysis: qualitative and quantitative work. In qualitative applications, the exported data can imported into other packages that provide facilities not found in the original data acquisition system. Examining an infrared spectra or <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_spectroscopy\" title=\"Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a05c6a4eb8775761248c099371cdb82f\">nuclear magnetic resonance<\/a> (NMR) scan depends upon peak amplitude, shape, and positions to provide useful information, and some software (including user-developed software) may provide facilities that the original data acquisition system didn\u2019t, or it might be a matter of having a file to send to someone for review or inclusion in another project.\n<\/p><p>Quantitative analysis is a different matter. Techniques such as chromatography, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Inductively_coupled_plasma_mass_spectrometry\" title=\"Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"56b77f19f090a156bf0d78c71c76da21\">inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry<\/a> (ICP), and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Atomic_absorption_spectroscopy\" title=\"Atomic absorption spectroscopy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e68cc5571310e82b3cec4ab67ebb68f5\">atomic absorption spectroscopy<\/a>, among others, rely on the measurement of peak characteristics or single wavelength absorbance measurements in comparison with measurements made on standards. A single chromatogram is useless (for quantitative work) unless the standards are available. (However, it may be useful for qualitative work if retention time references to appropriate known materials are available.) If you are going to export the data for any of the techniques noted, and others as well, you need the full collection of standards and samples for the data to be of any value.\n<\/p><p>Yet there is a problem with some, if not all of these programs: they trust the integrity of the analyst to use the data honestly. It is possible for people to use these exported formats in ways that circumvent current data integrity practices and falsify results.\n<\/p><p>There are good reasons to want vendor neutral data formats so that data sets can be examined by user-developed software, to put it into a form where the analysis is not limited by a vendor's product design. It also holds the potential for separating data acquisition from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_analysis\" title=\"Data analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"545c95e40ca67c9e63cd0a16042a5bd1\">data analysis<\/a> as long as all pertinent data and information (e.g., standards and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Sample_(material)\" title=\"Sample (material)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f8cd41a077a88d02370c02a3ba3d9d6\">samples<\/a>) were held together in a package that could not be altered without detection. It may be that something akin to <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Blockchain\" title=\"Blockchain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae8b186c311716aca561aaee91944f8e\">blockchain<\/a> technology could be used to register and manage access to datasets on a company-by-company basis (each company having it\u2019s own registry that would become part of the lab's data architecture).\n<\/p><p>These standards formats are potentially very useful to labs, created by people with a passion for doing something useful and beneficial to the practice of science, sometimes at their own expense. This is another area where a coordinated industry-wide statement of requirements and support would lead to some significant advancements in systems development, and enhanced capability for those practicing instrumental science.\n<\/p><p>If these capabilities are important to you, than addressing that need has to be part of an industry-wide conversation and consensus to provide the marketing support to have the work done.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"C-6._Communications\">C-6. Communications<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Most computers and electronic devices in the laboratory have communications capability built in: RS-232 (or similar), digital I\/O, Ethernet port, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, IEEE-488, etc. What these connection types do is provide the potential for communications, and the realization of that potential depends on message formatting, structure of the contents, and moving beyond proprietary interests to those expressed by an industry-wide community. There are two types of devices that need to be addressed: computer systems that service instruments (instrument data systems), and, devices that don\u2019t require an external computer to function (pH meters, balances, etc.) that may have Ethernet ports, serial ASCII, digital I\/O, or IEEE-488 connections. In either of these cases, the typical situation is one in which the vendor has determined a communications structure and the user has to adapt their systems to it, often using custom programming to parse messages and take action. \n<\/p><p>The user community needs to determine its needs and make them known using community-wide buying power as justification for asking for vendor development efforts. As noted earlier, this is not an adversarial situation, but rather a maturation of industry-wide communities working with vendors; the \u201cbuying power\u201d comments simply give the vendors the confidence that its development efforts won\u2019t be in vain.\n<\/p><p>In both cases we need application-to-application message structures that meet several needs. They should be able to handle test method identifications, so that the receiving application knows what the\nmessage is addressing, as well as whether the content is a list of samples to be processed or samples that have already been processed, with results. Additionally, the worklist message should ideally contain, in attribute-value pairs, the number of samples, with a list of sample IDs to be processed. As for the completed work message, the attribute-value pairs would also ideally contain the number of samples processed, the sample IDs, and the results of the analysis (which could be one or more elements depending on the procedure). Of course, there may be other elements required of these message structures; these were just examples. Ultimately, the final framework could be implemented in a format similar to that used in HTML files: plain-text that is easily read and machine- and operating-system-independent.\n<\/p><p>Mapping the message content to database system structure (LIMS or ELN) could be done using a simple built-in application (within the LIMS or ELN) that would graphically display the received message content on one side of a window, with the database\u2019s available fields on the other side. The two sides would then graphically be mapped to one another, as shown in the Figure 4 below. (Note: Since the format of the messages are standardized, we wouldn\u2019t need a separate mapping function to accommodate different vendors).\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig4_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"5e23312fb3d39315bd902b3f62450a52\"><img alt=\"Fig4 Liscouski DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/b\/b2\/Fig4_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 4.<\/b> Mapping IDS message contents to database system<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>The second case\u2014devices like pH meters, etc.\u2014is a little more interesting since the devices don\u2019t have the same facilities available as a computer system provides. However, in the consumer marketplace, this is well-trod ground, using both a smartphone or tablet as an interface, and translation mechanisms between small, fixed function devices and more extensive applications platforms. The only non-standard element is a single-point Bluetooth connection, as shown in Figure 5.\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig5_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"7597192728a3c14de36813edad03a6d1\"><img alt=\"Fig5 Liscouski DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/c\/cc\/Fig5_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 5.<\/b> Using a smartphone or tablet as an interface to a LIMS or ELN. The procedure takes a series of pH measurements for a series of samples.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>A single-point Bluetooth connection is used to exchange information between the measuring device and the smartphone or tablet. There are multi-point connection devices (the smartphone, for example) but we want to restrict the device to avoid confusion about who is in control of the measuring unit. A setup screen (not shown) would set up the worklist and populate the sample IDs. The \u201cTake Reading\u201d button would read the device and enter the value into the corresponding sample position\u2014taking them in order\u2014and enable the next reading until all samples had been read. \u201cSend\u201d would transmit the formatted message to the LIMS or ELN. Depending on the nature of the device and the procedure being used, the application can take any form, this is just a simple example taking pH measurement for a series of samples. In essence, the device-smartphone combination becomes an instrument data system, and the database setup would be the same as described above.\n<\/p><p>The bottom line is this: standardized message formats can greatly simplify the interfacing of instrument data systems, LIMS, ELNs, and other laboratory informatics applications. The clinical chemistry community created communications standards that would permit meaningful messages to be sent between an instrument data system and database system structured so that either end of the link would recognize the message and be able to extract and use the message content without the custom programming common to most labs today. There is no reason why the same thing can\u2019t be done in any other industry; it may even be possible to adapt the clinical chemistry protocols. The data dictionary (list of test names and attributes) would have to be adjusted, but that is a minor point that can be handled on an industry-by-industry basis and be incorporated as part of a system installation. \n<\/p><p>What is needed is people coming together as a group and organizing and defining the effort. How important is it to you to streamline the effort in getting systems up and running without custom programming, to work toward a plug-and-play capability that we encounter in consumer systems (an environment where vendors know easy integration is a must or their products won\u2019t sell)?\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Additional_note_on_Bluetooth-enabled_instruments\">Additional note on Bluetooth-enabled instruments<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The addition of Bluetooth to a device can result in much more compact systems, making the footprint smaller and reducing the cost of the unit. By using a smartphone to replace the front panel controls, the programming can become much more sophisticated. Imagine a Bluetooth-enabled pH meter and a separate Bluetooth, electronically controlled titrator. That combination would permit optimized<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">&#91;a&#93;<\/a><\/sup> delivery of titrant making the process faster and more accurate, while also providing a graphical display of the resulting titration curve, putting the full data processing capability of the smartphone and it\u2019s communications at the service of the experiment. Think about what the addition of a simple clock did for thermostats: it opened the door to programmable thermostats and better controls. What would smartphones controlling simple devices like balances, pH meters, titrators, etc. facilitate?\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Laboratory_work_and_scientific_production\">Laboratory work and scientific production<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><b>Key point<\/b>: <i>Laboratory work is a collection of processes and procedures that have to be carried out for research to progress, or, to support product manufacturing and production processes. In order to meet \u201cproductivity\u201d goals, get enough work done to make progress, or provide a good ROI, we need labs to transition manual to automated (partial or full) execution as much as possible. We also need to ensure and demonstrate process stability, so that lab work itself doesn\u2019t create variability and unreliable results.<\/i>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Different_kinds_of_laboratory_work\">Different kinds of laboratory work<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>There are different kinds of laboratory work. Some consist of a series of experiments or observations that may not be repeated, or are repeated with expected or unplanned variations. Other experiments may be repeated over and over either without variation or with controlled variations based on gained experience. It is that second set that concerns this writing, because repetition provides a basis and a reason for automation.\n<\/p><p>Today we are used to automation in lab work, enacted in the form of computers and robotics ranging from mechanical arms to auto-samplers, auto-titration systems, and more. Some of the technology development we've discussed began many decades before, and there's utility in looking back that far to note how technologies have developed. However, while there are definitely forms of automation and robotics available today, they are not always interconnected, integrated, or compatible with each other; they were produced as products either without an underlying integration framework, or with one that was limited to a few cooperating vendors. This can be problematic.\n<\/p><p>There are two major elements to repetitive laboratory methods: the underlying science and how the procedures are executed. At these methods\u2019 core, however is the underlying scientific method, be it a chemical, biological, or physical sequence. We automate processes not things. We don\u2019t, for example, automate an instrument, but rather the process of using it to accomplish something. If you are automating the use of a telescope to obtain the spectra of a series of stars, you build a control algorithm to look at each star in a list, have the instrument position itself properly, record the data using sensors, process it, and then move on the next star on the list. (You would also build in error detection with messages like \"there isn\u2019t any star there,\" \"cover on telescope,\" and \"it isn\u2019t dark yet,\" along with relevant correction routines). The control algorithm is the automation, while the telescope and sensors are just tools being used.\n<\/p><p>When building a repetitive laboratory method, the method should be completely described and include aspects such as:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>the underlying science<\/li>\n<li>a complete list of equipment and materials when implemented as a manual process<\/li>\n<li>possible interferences<\/li>\n<li>critical facets of the method<\/li>\n<li>variables that have to be controlled and their operating ranges (e.g., temperature, pH of solutions, etc.)<\/li>\n<li>special characteristics of instrumentation<\/li>\n<li>safety considerations<\/li>\n<li>recommended sources of equipment and sources to be avoided<\/li>\n<li>software considerations such as possible products, desirable characteristics, and things to be avoided<\/li>\n<li>potentially dangerous, hazardous situations<\/li>\n<li>an end-to-end walkthrough of the methods used<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Of course, the method has to be validated. You need to have complete confidence in its ability to produce the results necessary given the input into the process. At this point, the scientific aspects of the work are complete and finished. They may be revisited if problems arise during process automation, but no further changes should be entertained unless you are willing to absorb additional costs and alterations to the schedule. This is a serious matter; one of the leading causes of project failures is \u201cscope creep,\u201d which occurs when incremental changes are made to a process while it is under development. This results in the project becoming a moving target, with seemingly minor changes able to cause a major disruption in the project's design.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Scientific_production\">Scientific production<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>At this point, we have a proven procedure that we need to execute repeatedly on a set of inputs (samples). We aren\u2019t carrying out \"experiments\"; that word suggests that something may be changing in the nature of the procedure, and at this point it shouldn\u2019t. Changes to the underlying process invite a host of problems and may forfeit any chance at a successful automation effort.\n<\/p><p>However, somewhere in the (distant) future something in the process is likely to change. A new piece of technology may be introduced, equipment (including software) may need to be upgraded, or the timing of a step may need to be adjusted. That\u2019s life. How that change is made is very important. Before it is implemented, the process has to be in place long enough to establish that it works reliably, that it produces useful results, and that there is a history of running the same reference sample(s) over and over again in the mix of samples to show that the process is under control with acceptable variability in results (i.e., statistical process control). In manufacturing and production language, this is referred to as \"evolutionary operations\" (EVOP). But we can pull it all together under the heading \u201cscientific production.\u201d<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">&#91;b&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>If your reaction to the previous paragraph is \u201cthis is a science lab not a commercial production operation,\u201d you\u2019re getting close to the point. This is a production operation (commercial or not, it depends on the type of lab, contract testing, and other factors) going on within a science lab. It\u2019s just a matter of scale.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Demonstrating_process_stability:_The_standard_sample_program\">Demonstrating process stability: The standard sample program<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>One of the characteristics of a successfully implemented stable process is consistency of the results with the same set of inputs. Basically, if everything is working properly, the same set of samples introduced at the beginning should yield the same results time after time, regardless of whether the implementation is manual or automated. A standard sample program (Std.SP) is a means of demonstrating the stability and operational integrity of a process; it can also tell you if a process is getting out of control. Introduced early in my career, the Std.SP was used to show the consistency of results between analysts in a lab, and to compare the performance of our lab and the quality control labs in the production facilities. The samples were submitted and marked like any similar sample and became part of the workflow. The lab managers maintained control charts of the labs and and individual's performance on the samples. The combined results would show whether the lab and those working there had things under control or if problems were developing. Those problems might be with an individual, a change in equipment performance, or a change in incoming raw materials used in the analysis.\n<\/p><p>The Std.SP was the answer to the typical \u201chow do you know you can trust these results?\u201d question, which often came up when a research program or production line was having issues. This becomes more important when automation is used and the sampling and testing throughput increases. If an automated system is having issues, you are just producing bad data faster. The Std.SP is a high-level test of the system's performance. A deviation of the results trend line or a widening of the variability are indications that something is wrong, which should lead to a detailed evaluation of the system to account for the deviations. A troubleshooting guide should be part of the original method description (containing aspects such as \u201cif something starts going wrong, here\u2019s where to look for problems\u201d or \u201cthe test method is particularly sensitive to \u2026\u201d, etc.) and notes made during the implementation process.\n<\/p><p>Reference samples are another matter, however. They have to be stable over a long enough period of use to establish a meaningful trend. If the reference samples are stable over a long period of time, you may only need two or three so that the method can be evaluated over different ranges (you may have a higher variability at a lower range than a higher one). If the reference samples are not stable, then their useful lifetime needs to be established and older ones swapped out periodically. There should be some overlap between samples near the end of their useful life and the introduction of new ones so that laboratorians can differentiate between system variation and changes in reference samples. You may need to use more reference samples in these situations.\n<\/p><p>This inevitably becomes a lot of work, and if your lab utilizes many procedures, it can be time-consuming to manage an Std.SP. But before you decide it is too much work, ask yourself how valuable it is to have a solid, documented answer to the \u201chow do you know you can trust these results?\u201d question. Having a validated process or method is a start, but that only holds at the start of a method\u2019s implementation. If all of this is new to you, find someone who understands process engineering and statistical process control and learn more from them.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Where_is_the_future_of_lab_automation_going_to_take_us?\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Where_is_the_future_of_lab_automation_going_to_take_us.3F\">Where is the future of lab automation going to take us?<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><b>Key point<\/b>: <i>There is no single \u201cfuture\u201d for laboratories; each lab charts it own path. However there are things they can all do to be better prepared to meet the next day, month, or decade. Plan for flexibility and adaptability. Keep your data and information accessible, educate your personnel to recognize and take advantage of opportunities, and don\u2019t be afraid of taking risks.<\/i>\n<\/p><p>Where is the future of lab automation going to take us? The simple answer is that the future is in your hands. Lab personnel are going to be making their own choices, and that is both a reflection of reality and part of the problem. Aside from a few industries, labs have approached the subject of automation individually, making their own plans and charting their own course of action. The problems that approach engenders are that it is both inefficient and it wastes resources (e.g., funding, time, effort).\n<\/p><p>Earlier we saw how the clinical chemistry industry handled the problem of containing costs through automation: it made the automation work better. Within any given industry, it\u2019s unlikely that the same type of testing is going to differ markedly; there will be unique demands and opportunities, but they will be the exception. Why not pool resources and solve common problems? It would benefit the end-user in the lab as well as the vendor, encouraging those vendors to build products for a specific market rather than meeting the needs of a single customer. Among the biggest issues in automation and lab computing is communications between devices; the clinical chemistry industry has solved that. Their solution has elements that are specific to their work but they should be easily adjusted to meet the needs of other groups.\n<\/p><p>We\u2019re in a phase where we have many technologies that work well independently for their intended purpose, but they don't work well together. We\u2019ve been there before, with two examples to be found in computer networking and computer graphics. \n<\/p><p>Computer networks began to emerge commercially in the early 1970s. Each computer vendor had their own approach to networking (similar hardware but different communications protocols). Within each vendor's ecosystem things worked well, yet bridging across ecosystems was interesting. When network installations occurred at customer sites, the best hardware and software people were involved in planning, laying out the systems, installing software, and getting things to work. Installation time was measured in weeks. Today, a reasonably sophisticated home or business network can be install in an hour or two, maybe longer depending on the number of machines and components involved, and when you turn it on, you\u2019d be surprised if it didn\u2019t work. What made the difference? Standards were developed for communications protocols. Instead of each vendor having their own protocol, the world adopted TCP\/IP and everything changed.\n<\/p><p>The path of computer graphics development provides further insight. In the 1970s and 80s, when computer graphics hardware began seeing widespread use, every vendor in the market had their own graphics display hardware and software. If you liked one vendor's graphics library, you had to buy their hardware. If you liked their hardware you had to live with their software. We saw this play out in the early days of the PC, when there were multiple graphics processor card adapters (e.g., enhanced graphics adapter [EGA], color graphics adapter [CGA], video graphics adapter [VGA], Hercules, etc.), and if you had the wrong card installed, the software wouldn\u2019t work (although combination cards allowed the user to switch modes and reduce the number of boards used in the computer). This continued to frustrate users and developers, until a standardized graphics architecture was developed that was device-independent. Problem solved.\n<\/p><p>This is a common theme that comes up over and over. A new technology develops, vendors build products with unique features and those products don\u2019t play well with each other (i.e., they attempt to achieve a strong market positions). Customers get frustrated and standards are developed that convert \u201cdon\u2019t play well\u201d to \"easy integration,\" and the market takes off.\n<\/p><p>How the future of lab automation is going to play out for you is in your hands, but there are things we can do to make it easier. As we noted earlier, few if any of the developments in lab automation were initially done according to a plan, though we\u2019ve also seen what planning can actually do in at least one setting, the field of clinical chemistry. This highlights the fact that not only do you need a plan for your laboratory, but also a plan for automation in your industry would be worthwhile; it would avoid spending resources individually where pooling is a better approach, and it would give you a stronger voice to work with vendors to create products that meet your industry's needs. A set of industry-wide strategies (e.g., for mining, viniculture, cosmetics, materials research, healthcare, biotech, electronics, etc.) would give you a solid starting point for the use of computing and automation technologies in your lab. There still would be plenty of room for unique applications.\n<\/p><p>Industry working groups are one need, while getting people educated is another. Determining how much you are willing to rely on automation is an additional point, which we\u2019ll illustrate with a discussion of quality control labs, in the next section.\n<\/p><p>Before we move on to the next section, however, there are two terms that haven\u2019t been mentioned yet that need to be noted: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c45a597361ca47e1cd8112af676276e\">artificial intelligence<\/a> (AI) and big data. I\u2019m not sure I know what AI is (the definition and examples change frequently), or that I\u2019d trust what is available today for serious work. For every article that talks about the wonders it will have, there is one that talks about the pitfalls of design, built in bias, and concerns about misapplication. In science, aside from using it as a \u201cdid you know about this?\u201d advisory tool, I\u2019d be concerned about using it. If you don\u2019t know how the AI arrived at its answer (one of AI\u2019s characteristics) why would you trust it? Big data, on the hand, is on a more solid technical footing and should prove useful, though only if your data and information is structured to take advantage of it. You can\u2019t just say \u201chere are all my datasets\u201d; you have to organize them to be usable.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Applying_automation_to_lab_work\">Applying automation to lab work<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><b>Key point<\/b>: <i>Today, people\u2019s attitudes about work have changed, and with it the world has changed; the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/COVID-19\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"COVID-19\" data-key=\"da9bd20c492b2a17074ad66c2fe25652\">COVID-19<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Pandemic\" title=\"Pandemic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd9a48e6c6e41b6d603ee703836b01f1\">pandemic<\/a> has forced us to re-evaluate models of work. If nothing else, even though we\u2019re talking about science, the use of technology to conduct scientific work is going to take on a new importance. This won\u2019t be solved one lab at a time, but on an industry-by-industry basis. We need to think about key concepts and their implementation as a community if truly effective solutions are to be found and put into practice.<\/i>\n<\/p><p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Considerations_in_the_Automation_of_Laboratory_Procedures\" title=\"LII:Considerations in the Automation of Laboratory Procedures\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0147011cc1eb892e1a35e821657a6d9\"><i>Considerations in the Automation of Laboratory Procedures<\/i><\/a>, the criteria for \"automation readiness\" were described. Two significant points were that a laboratory procedure must both be stable and have a duration of use sufficiently long enough to justify the cost of automation. Beyond that, additional concerns such as safety may come into play, but those two points were the most critical. From those points we can roughly derive the automation needs of research, testing, quality control, and contract laboratories.\n<\/p><p><b>Research laboratory<\/b>: Automation in research is going to be predominately at the task level, i.e., portions of a process being done by automated instruments and devices rather than end-to-end automation. This is due to the two key points noted above: research labs often change procedures, with some being very short-lived, and the cost of full-automation (including validation) may not be worth it unless the equipment is designed to be modular, interconnected, and easily programmed. One exception can be seen with Bayer.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CNNMicro15_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CNNMicro15-19\">&#91;17&#93;<\/a><\/sup> They are using robotics and microplate technology to automate a high-throughput screen system that couldn\u2019t\u2014in their words\u2014be done practically by people; it's too slow and too expensive. Could something like this become more commonplace?\n<\/p><p><b>Testing laboratory<\/b>: Non-routine testing laboratories are going to have a mix of task-level and end-to-end automation. It will depend on the stability of the test process and if there is sufficient work to justify the cost of automation, plus what level of control over the form of the incoming samples is available (see Appendix 1, section 1.3 of this guide). Often samples are submitted for multiple tests, which raised an additional concern: is the last step in a procedure destructive to the sample? Samples may be prepared so that they can be used in more than one test procedure. If the test process is destructive, then the initial preparation has to be divided so there is enough material for all testing; this can complicate the automation process.\n<\/p><p><b>Quality control laboratory<\/b>: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Quality_control\" title=\"Quality control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1e0e0c2eb3e45aff02f5d61799821f0f\">Quality control<\/a> (QC) labs should be the ideal place for automation to take hold. The procedures are well defined, stable, and entrenched. The benefits in faster throughput and cost reduction should be clear. The biggest place for problems is in sample preparation and getting material ready for analysis. Given that the form of the samples is known and predictable, it is worthwhile to spend time in analyzing and designing a means of working with samples. There are going to be some preparation steps that may be too difficult to justify automation; this can be seen with tensile testing of polymers and fibers. The sample or parts fabrication and need to wait for the material to stabilize may make parts of the process difficult to deal with, or not financially justifiable. Insertion into the test apparatus may also be an issue. Testing that can be done by spectroscopic, chromatographic, or other easily automated instrumentation may be migrated from the laboratory to in-line testing, raising questions about the nature of the QC process.\n<\/p><p><b>Contract or independent laboratory<\/b>: The ability to apply automation beyond the task level depends on the kind of work being done; is it specialized or highly flexible? The greater the flexibility (e.g., a number of different procedures with a small number of samples submitted at a time) the more task level automation will apply. However, the justification for automation may not be there. Specialized labs (e.g., clinical chemistry labs) or a lab that specializes in a technique with a high demand and throughput should benefit from a move to end-to-end automation since it reduces costs and improves accuracy and turn-around times (TATs).\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"More_on_the_quality_control_lab_and_its_process_management\">More on the quality control lab and its process management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The evolution of QC labs may change our perspective of how QC testing is accomplished, as well as the nature of QC lab operations. Our current view, and that of the last few decades, may change significantly.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Early_QC_testing\">Early QC testing<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Some form of quality testing was done during the production process in prior decades. For example, I\u2019ve seen production station operators bite plastic materials to get an idea of how well the production process, and the expansion of polystyrene beads, was going in the production of Styrofoam cups (though this was not encouraged by management as butane and pentane, used as expansion agents, could cause health problems). If the cup was too stiff or soft, it would indicate a problem in the molding process. There were other \u201cquick and dirty\u201d production floor tests that were run because the TAT in the lab was producing an unacceptable delay (if you\u2019re making adjustments, you need measurements quickly). People may also have wanted to avoid having a record of production problems and changes.\n<\/p><p>In another application (anecdotal reporting from a course on plastics manufacturing)\u2014calendering<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">&#91;c&#93;<\/a><\/sup> of plastic coated paper\u2014the production operator would strike the laminated paper with a slender bamboo rod and listen to the sound it made to determine the product quality. According to the course instructor, he was adept at this, and no other test could replace this in-process procedure.\n<\/p><p>As such, it's clear not all \"quality\" testing went on in the laboratory.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Normal_QC_testing\">Normal QC testing<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Traditionally, QC lab operations became separate from production, partly because of the physical conditions needed to conduct the work, and partly to avoid bias in the results. The conclusion: it was important that the reporting lines of communication be separate and independent from production. QC labs would, and do, perform testing on incoming materials to certify them suitable for use and produced products to see if they met product specifications, as well as perform in-process testing. They would also certify products as qualified for shipment, acting as an unbiased evaluator of product quality.\n<\/p><p>Quality tests were manually implemented until the early 1960s. Then we saw the advent of in-process instrumentation and process chromatographs by Fisher Controls and Mine Safety Apparatus, for example. While the instruments themselves were on the production floor, their management and analysis was under the control of the QC lab, at least in the facility I worked in. The instruments' maintenance, calibration, peak measurements, and sample calculations were all done by lab personnel. Since that time, we\u2019ve seen a continued growth in in-line testing for production processes. That said, what\u2019s the logical conclusion of increasing automation?\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"A_thought_experiment\">A thought experiment<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Lets posit that we have a production process whose raw materials are fluids and the end product is a fluid. We\u2019d be concerned with certifying in-coming raw materials as suitable for use, while monitoring the production process for product composition and potential contaminants. The end product would have to be certified for shipment.\n<\/p><p>If all the testing were chromatographic with in-process instruments and a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chromatography_data_system\" title=\"Chromatography data system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a424bb889d8507b7e8912f2faf2570c6\">chromatography data system<\/a> (CDS), and\/or in-line spectrophotometric and other in-line or in-process tests, with the results becoming part of the process control system (sample IDs would be a hash of sensor type-location-timestamp), what would the role of the QC lab become? Assuring that the equipment was running properly and regularly calibrated, with periodic verification of test results (off-line testing) is one set of possibilities. Is this a desirable developmental direction? We need to look at the benefits and issues that result from this design.\n<\/p><p><b>Benefits<\/b>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>It provides an integrated system where all process sensor and test result data are immediately available to management. This allows them to detect issues faster and provide a more timely response (better process control), reducing down time and off-spec product. If we want to enter the world of science fiction, we can even imagine a combination AI-<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"79aab39cfa124c958cd1dbcab3dde122\">machine learning<\/a> solution providing closed loop process monitoring and control.<\/li>\n<li>It signifies a potential cost reduction resulting from smaller labs and lower personnel costs.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p><b>Issues<\/b>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>There's a loss of independent product evaluation. Basically, you are trusting the system to honestly monitor, report, and reject off-spec, incoming, and outgoing material. In the movie version, this is where the sound track becomes ominous. This loss of independent checking may reduce customer confidence in product quality.<\/li>\n<li>The veracity of statistical process control and correction may suffer.<\/li>\n<li>System validation could be challenging as the production process has to be validated, each sensor and instrument data system has to be validated, and the integrated system has to be validated, including the statistical process control.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Assuming a system were built, how far are we willing to trust automated systems to function without external oversight? The control room would still be populated with people managing the process and exerting a higher level of scrutiny, but you are still trusting the designers of the system to do very sophisticated work, not only in process design but also integrating testing as part of the effort. Ideally you\u2019d want the CDS and other instrument data processing equipment in the control room, where it is more easily used and maintained, than on the process floor. The role of the QC lab would then change to that of an overarching quality manager of the entire system, ensuring that equipment functioned properly, testing was accurate, the process and testing were operating within control limits, and the data logs were correct.\n<\/p><p>Some organizations may be past this point, while for others this may be interesting, bordering on science fiction. The point of this thought experiment is to see what could happen and where your comfort level is with it. How much control do you want to give an automated system and how much do you want to retain? What are the consequences of not providing sufficient oversight? How much bad product could be made?\n<\/p><p>Also note that this isn\u2019t an all-or-nothing proposition; give it some room to work, see what happens, and if everything is good, give it more. Just build in a big red button that allows you to reboot and revert to manual operations; in other words, don't self-destruct, just remove some critical controls. A lot depends on the nature of the finished product. If the end product is something critical (e.g., a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Medical_device\" title=\"Medical device\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8e821122daa731f0fa8782fae57831fa\">medical device<\/a> or therapeutic), you\u2019ll want to be cautious about phasing in automated control systems.\n<\/p><p>All that said, two additional points should be made. First, be willing to play with the ideas. Turn it into a science fiction project (\u201csci fi\u201d is just a playground for \"what ifs\"), remove it from reality enough that people can look at it from different perspectives and see what might work and what might not. Then let people play with those ideas; you might learn something. What are all the things that could go right, and what could go wrong (and what can you do about it)? You probably won't have to worry about alien robots, but malware interference is certainly a factor, as is a network air-gap. There is always the possibility of someone causing a problem; the question of course is how do you detect it and correct it. Second, be willing to model the system. There are a number of modeling packages ideal for this purpose. You can model the behavior and see how different control methods react.\n<\/p><p>(While this thought experiment used a process involving fluids only, as they are relatively easy to work with, its worth noting that solid materials become more of an issue, complicating the automation process [see Appendix 1, section 1.4 of this guide]. In some cases sample preparation for testing may be too cumbersome for automation. This would shift the automated-manual testing balance more toward the latter in those cases, introducing delays and disrupting the timing of results to process control.)\n<\/p>\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-The_creation_of_a_&quot;center_for_laboratory_systems_engineering&quot;\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"The_creation_of_a_.22center_for_laboratory_systems_engineering.22\">The creation of a \"center for laboratory systems engineering\"<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><b>Key point<\/b>: <i>Throughout this piece, the need for education has been a consistent theme. Developing and using the technologies in lab work, both scientific and informatics-related, will require people who know what they are doing, specifically educated to carry out the work noted above. We also need a means of pulling things together so that there is a centralized resource to start a learning process and continue development from there.<\/i>\n<\/p><p>Let's propose a \"center for laboratory system engineering.\" This center would firstly prepare people to be effective planners, designers, implementers, supporters, and users of laboratory informatics and automation systems in scientific applications. Additionally, the center would ideally drive innovation and provide assistance to scientific personnel and IT groups seeking to apply and manage such laboratory technologies.\n<\/p><p>Those goals would be accomplished by:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Developing and delivering courses for LSEs, lab personnel, and IT support (These courses would cover technical science topics as well as skills in working with people, conflict resolution, and communications. They would be presented both in-person and online or on-demand to reach a broad audience; an intensive summer course with hands-on experience should also be considered.)<\/li>\n<li>Creating an LSE certification program<\/li>\n<li>Carrying out research on the application of informatics, robotics, and computer-assisted data collection and processing<\/li>\n<li>Documenting the best practices for an LSE<\/li>\n<li>Aggregating and publishing material on the roles and requirements of the LSE<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Ideally, this center would be part of a university setting so that it could interact with both science and computer science departments, contribute to their programs, and in turn gain from that association.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Appendix_1:_A_very_brief_historical_note\">Appendix 1: A very brief historical note<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>It would be useful to understand how we arrived at our current state in regards to informatics and automation in science. That will make it easier to understand what we need to do to make advancements. There is one key point to take away from this: in the history of lab automation, products weren\u2019t developed according to a grand plan<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">&#91;d&#93;<\/a><\/sup> but rather to meet perceived needs and opportunities. Thought processes in this vein have likely included:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>\u201cHere\u2019s a problem that needs to be solved.\u201d<\/li>\n<li>\u201cIf I can figure out how to do X, then I can accomplish Y.\u201d<\/li>\n<li>\u201cThere\u2019s a business opportunity in building product concept X, which will help people do Y and Z.\"<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Sometimes these ideas were voiced by lab personnel, but most of the time they were the result of someone seeing a problem or opportunity and taking the initiative to address it.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.1_Collecting_data_from_instruments\">1.1 Collecting data from instruments<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In the late 1960s and early 1970s, instrument companies recognized that connecting a computer to the analog output of an instrument would help lab personnel capture and process data. The form that this product development took depended on how the developer saw the problem. We\u2019re going to look at chromatography<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">&#91;e&#93;<\/a><\/sup> as an example for several reasons: it received the most attention for automation, it\u2019s a data rich technique that took considerable manual effort to analyze, and it was and still is one of the most popular instrumental techniques in chemical labs. The product solutions provided by the vendor reflected the technology available and their view of the problem that needed to be solved.\n<\/p><p>The analysis (Figure A1) depends on recognizing and quantifying a series of peaks, each of which represents the amount of a component in a mixture of materials. The size of the peak (measured by area \"better\" or height with respect to a baseline) helps quantify the amount, and the time it takes the peak to appear can be used to help identify the component.\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:FigA1_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"9398087969f28a1dd4d6f0e6b8182414\"><img alt=\"FigA1 Liscouski DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/0\/05\/FigA1_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure A1.<\/b> Illustration of peaks from chromatograph. Source: public domain<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>Reference standards are prepared and run along with the samples. The peak response of the standards and their corresponding concentrations are used to draw a calibration curve, and the samples are quantified by comparing peak sizes against that curve (Figure A2).\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:FigA2_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b9878402119e7fc21a56039292a6ba8\"><img alt=\"FigA2 Liscouski DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/c\/c8\/FigA2_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure A2.<\/b> Samples are quantified by comparison to a calibration curve<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>The solutions reflected both the user\u2019s input and the vendor's observations, plus being too close to the problem and not seeing the whole picture. In that same timeframe, computing was expensive and you had to have a lot of processing done to justify the costs. Otherwise you dropped down to microprocessors and scaled back the size of the problem you could tackle. The microprocessor of choice was the Intel 4004, which was superseded by the Intel 8008 in 1972.\n<\/p><p>With computing, the chromatographer could detect peaks and quantify the peak height and area, later printing the results on a strip of paper. This was a big help to the chromatographer since determining peak size, and area in particular, was a major hassle. Prior to computerized methods, chromatographers were using:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>mechanical integrators built into the strip chart recorder (that recorded the chromatograph output), which were hard to read and didn\u2019t provide for baseline corrections (critical for accurate results);<\/li>\n<li>a planimeter, which was time-comsuming and demanded careful attention;<\/li>\n<li>a cut-and-weigh method, where the chromatographer literally cut our a copy of the peak and weighed it on a balance, cutting out a reference area, and comparing it to a calibration chart constructed from a similar procedure; and<\/li>\n<li>a method that had the chromatographer counting the boxes the peak enclosed on the chart paper, which was not very accurate, though better than peak height in some cases.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Having the quantified peaks printed on a piece of paper meant that the analyst could move quickly to drawing the calibration curve and evaluating the results. However, from the standpoint of being a laborious, time-consuming task, this is only a piece of the problem (a major one, but only a part). Some users connected the output of the integrators (RS-232 serial ASCII) to minicomputers, transferred the integrator information, and completed the analytical process in the larger machines. Several integrators could be connected to a mini-computer so the cost per instrument was reduced. This was a step toward a better solution, but only a step.\n<\/p><p>Computer vendors wanted to participate in the same market, but the cost of minicomputers put them at a disadvantage unless they could come at it from a different perspective. They looked at the entire data processing problem, including the points mentioned above, plus getting the computer to compute the calibration curve, complete the analysis, print out a report, and store the report and the data for later retrieval (integrators didn\u2019t have that capability). They could also store the raw digitized instrument output for later analysis and display. The cost per instrument dropped when computer vendors began connecting multiple instruments to one system, some from different labs. Nelson Analytical used a local-to-the-instrument box for data collection and control and then forwarded those information packets to a central system for processing. This bigger-picture view of the problem greatly reduced the workload on the analyst. As computing costs dropped and the power of microchips increased, several different approaches emerged from different vendors that had varied perspectives on computing. Most took the big-picture view but worked on a one-instrument-one-computer-station approach, which benefited small labs since they didn\u2019t have to invest in a minicomputer.\n<\/p><p>The low-cost of microprocessors more readily allowed digital systems to join the lab, to the point where almost every lab device had a computer chip in it (\u201cdigital\u201d was a strong marketing point). Now that we had lots of digital data sources, what was the lab going to do with them?\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.2_The_beginning_of_laboratory_informatics_systems\">1.2 The beginning of laboratory informatics systems<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In the early 1970s, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/PerkinElmer_Inc.\" title=\"PerkinElmer Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dabda40785b60866d056709e611512f8\">PerkinElmer<\/a> described its instrument supporting computers as \u201cdata stations.\u201d Then they announced the \u201claboratory information management system\u201d or \"LIMS,\" and the next level of informatics hit the lab market. However, \u201claboratory information management system\u201d was a problematic name for a product that did sample and test tracking. The customers thought it would take into account all of a lab's information, including personnel records, scheduling, budgets, documents, anything that \u201cinformation\u201d could be attached to, ultimately promising more than it could deliver. It took some time, but eventually something like that happened. From a marketing standpoint, it got people\u2019s attention.\n<\/p><p>Several other vendors, consulting companies, startups, and computer vendors began LIMS development projects (computer vendors felt that database systems were their turf). This was viewed as a strategic offering: the testing lab's operations would revolve around the LIMS, and that gave the LIMS vendor whose product was chosen a strong marketing position in that company.\n<\/p><p>The introduction of the LIMS eventually opened the door to other informatics applications. The major classes and functions of said applications are show in Figure A3.\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:FigA3_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"45606351182bb832ffb420441f14f9a9\"><img alt=\"FigA3 Liscouski DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/1\/1c\/FigA3_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure A3.<\/b> The starting point for major classes of lab informatics systems and the lab functions they addressed<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>Missing from the chart are user-developer tools like LabView from National Instruments that enabled users to develop data acquisition and control applications via a graphical user interface.\n<\/p><p>The term \u201celectronic laboratory notebook\u201d or \"ELN\" has had an interesting history. It\u2019s been applied to at least three types of software before its most current iteration. Laboratory Technologies, Inc. first created LABTECH Notebook, a PC-based software package designed to assist users with the communication between a computer and its lab instruments via RS-232 connections. Then there was Wolfram's Mathematica software, an electronic notebook for advanced mathematics. And finally there was Velquest's SmartLAB, an ELN for conducting analyzes and recording information from laboratory procedures, becoming the first <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_execution_system\" title=\"Laboratory execution system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"774bdcab852f4d09565f0486bfafc26a\">laboratory execution system<\/a> (LES).\n<\/p><p>Figure A3 showed a nice clean, somewhat idealized, starting point for the introduction of lab informatics. That didn\u2019t last long. Vendors saw what their competition was doing and the opportunities to expand their products' capabilities (and market acceptance). What were clean, neat, functionality silos became more complex products to attract the attention of scientists and laboratorians (Figure A4).\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:FigA4_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"409e9dd3124c8da588d921b0eada249b\"><img alt=\"FigA4 Liscouski DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/b\/b3\/FigA4_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure A4.<\/b> Lab informatics capability expansion<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>These expanded capabilities meant that a single vendor solution could address more of a lab\u2019s needs, simplifying support, installation, and so on through the use of a singular software package. It did, however, make product and vendor selection more of a challenge; you really had to know what you needed. It also raised questions of cross-product compatibility: what instruments connected easily to what LIMS, ELN, or SDMS? If it wasn\u2019t easy, what did you do? Third-party intermediate systems were eventually developed that translated instrument communications similarly in the way database systems did.\n<\/p><p>While all this was going on in the expanding digital laboratory space, people still had things to do on the lab bench.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.3_Electro-mechanical_robotics\">1.3 Electro-mechanical robotics<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>During the 1970s and 80s, vendors noted the amount of time spent doing repetitive tasks at the lab bench. This resulted in two different approaches to product development:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Dedicated-function robotics: The development of auto-samplers, auto-titrators, and similar devices that were used to carry out a specific task<\/li>\n<li>General-purpose robotics: The development of an elaborate kit the use user had to assemble to robotically complete a task; not too different from a computer programming language: the<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>components are there, you just have to organize them to make something useful happen\n<\/p><p>Although each of these approaches was potentially useful, they each presented the user community with different sets of problems.\n<\/p><p>The dedicated-function robotics device generally worked well; that wasn\u2019t the issue. The problem arose when they had to connect to other components and instruments. The use of an auto-sampler, for example, required the user to adjust their sample preparation so that the material to be analyzed wound up in the appropriate sample vials. This may have required adjusting the procedure to accommodate a different set of mechanics than they were used to, e.g., sealing the vials or choosing the proper vial for an application. Auto-samplers feed samples into instruments so there is a matter of setting up control signals for proper coordination with instruments and instrument data systems.\n<\/p><p>Other devices such as auto-titrators required a reservoir of samples (in the proper vial formats), and the vials had to be organized so that an analysis on sample ID456 was in fact that sample and that the order didn\u2019t get mixed up. The data output could also be a problem. The default for many vendors was a spreadsheet-compatible file, though it was up to the user to make sense of it and integrate it into the workflow. This was probably the best compromise available until more formalized data interchange and communications standards became available. The vendor had no idea how a particular device was going to fit into a procedure's workflow or what was going to happen to the data further downstream, so a CSV file format as a solution was simple, flexible, and easy to work with. It also meant more work on the user's part on the integration front, representing another place where changes may have to be made if a device is replaced in the future.\n<\/p><p>With the dedicated-function device, which could be as simple as a balance (the process of reading a force exerted on a sensor and converted to a weight is an automated process), we have potentially isolated elements of automation that are either interconnected by programming or someone reading data and re-entering it. However, there is no \u201cplug-and-go\u201d capability.\n<\/p><p>As for the general-purpose robotics device, they could be broken down into two categories: those that were successful in the broad marketplace and those that weren't. In the 1980s, three vendors were competing for attention in the laboratory robotics market: Zymark, Hewlett-Packard, and PerkinElmer. Each of their general-purpose systems had a moveable arm that could grip items and be programmed to carry out lab procedures. Yet they faced a daunting task: the process of gripping items was problematic. The robot didn\u2019t work with just one gripper or \"hand\"; it required multiple interchangeable hands that had to be swapped depending on the next sequence of actions and what items had to be grasped. Those items were typically things designed for human use, including flasks, test tubes, and a variety of other equipment. This problem was non-trivial, a result of having the robot work with equipment designed for humans so that the lab didn\u2019t have to buy duplicate components, which would have raised problems of cost, and the ability to carry on work if the robot didn\u2019t function. Another issue with the grippers and their holders was that they took up space. The Zymark system for example had a central robotic arm that could reach items within the shell of a hemispherical volume; grippers took up space that could be used by other devices. Some people were successful in building systems, but not enough to make the products economically viable. In many respects, the core robotics technologies should have been successful, but the peripheral devices were not up to the necessary operational levels; good for humans, lacking for automation.\n<\/p><p>Another problem was education. The vendors would run courses to train people to use their systems. However, successful implementations required engineering, expertise, and experience, not just experimentation. Further robust systems, those capable of running days on end with built-in error detection and correction, were rare but necessary to avoid processing samples into junk. People had the need and the desire to make working systems, but not the process engineering skills to create successful implementations.\n<\/p><p>The life sciences market, and biotechnology in particular, took a different approach to robotics: they standardized the sample carrier format in the form of the microplate. The physical dimensions of the microplate were constant while the number of sample cells could vary. The image on the right of Figure A5, for example, shows plates with 96, 384, and 1,536 wells, with even higher densities available.\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:FigA5_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"46e8551c1035853039fb9360aeae72d7\"><img alt=\"FigA5 Liscouski DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/f\/f1\/FigA5_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure A5.<\/b> A microplate sample holder (<b>left<\/b>); examples of 96, 384, and 1,536 well holders, care of <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Microplates.jpg\" target=\"_blank\">WikiMedia Commons<\/a> (<b>right<\/b>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>What did this mean for robotics? Every device that interacted with a microplate could be reliably designed with a single gripper size and a single aperture size for plates to be inserted. Systems would \u201cknow\u201d where in the sample space the sample wells were. In short, standardization made it easier to build equipment for a marketplace. And a lot of equipment was built and put into successful use.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">&#91;f&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The combination of robotics and microplates also worked well in biotechnology because of the prevalence of liquid samples; this point can not be stressed enough. We are good at working with fluids, including measuring amounts, transferring them, dispensing them, and so on. Solids can be a problem because of cross-contamination if equipment isn\u2019t cleaned, if the solid is tacky, if the particle size isn\u2019t right for the equipment, if it has a tendency to roll, and so on. Solids also have the potential for problems with homogeneity. (You can get layering in liquids, but that can be solved in \u201ctwo shakes.\u201d)\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.3.1_Two_approaches_to_sample_processing_with_robotics\">1.3.1 Two approaches to sample processing with robotics<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Broadly speaking, there are two approaches to sample processing with robotics: batching and sample-at-a-time runs. The microplate is an example of batch processing. Each tray is handled (dilution, sealing, reading, etc.) at a station, and you don\u2019t have an opportunity to evaluate the results until the analysis for a tray is completed and reported. Other methods such as ICP, mass spectrometry, chromatography, etc. that use auto-injectors can behave in a similar fashion, or be evaluated on a sample-at-a-time basis. It depends on how the process is planned and implemented, and at what stage the results are evaluated.\n<\/p><p>The sample-at-a-time procedure offers an interesting alternative pathway for automated analysis. This process can include auto-titrators, in addition to the techniques noted, as well as others. Here each sample is processed in stages either one-at-a-time or in overlapping stages. While one sample is being processed in stage 3 (adding a solvent for example), a sample in stage 4 is being injected into an instrument. This means that the results for one sample can be known before the next one is processed. The benefit is that systematic errors can be caught and corrected before all samples are processed. This would reduce waste and improve overall efficiency.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.4_Sample_storage_organization\">1.4 Sample storage organization<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Before we leave the topic of samples, we need to address the subject of sample storage organization. This is important, as poor organization and management can nullify any gains from automation. There are two aspects to consider: the organization process itself and the physical nature of the samples.\n<\/p><p>In the life sciences, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Biobank\" title=\"Biobank\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4e5f94a2b2036266701220c1fd724bd2\">biobanking<\/a> and refrigerated storage management have been actively discussed topics. For example a white paper commissioned for Titian Software Ltd. titled <i>The Essential Guide to Managing Laboratory Samples<\/i> goes into a fair amount of depth on the subject.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OxerTheEss17_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OxerTheEss17-24\">&#91;18&#93;<\/a><\/sup> And if you Google \u201claboratory sample storage management,\u201d you\u2019ll get a sizeable listing of material, including peer-reviewed work by Redrup <i>et al.<\/i> titled \"Sample Management: Recommendation for Best Practices and Harmonization from the Global Bioanalysis Consortium Harmonization Team.\u201d<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-25\">&#91;19&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The abstract of the work of Redrup <i>et al.<\/i> reads in part<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_25-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-25\">&#91;19&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>The importance of appropriate sample management in regulated bioanalysis is undeniable for clinical and non-clinical study support due to the fact that if the samples are compromised at any stage prior to analysis, the study results may be affected. Health authority regulations do not contain specific guidance on sample management; therefore, as part of the Global Bioanalysis Consortium (GBC), the A5 team was established to discuss sample management requirements and to put forward recommendations.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>In short, you have to have control of your samples and be able to ensure their integrity.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.4.1_The_nature_of_incoming_samples\">1.4.1 The nature of incoming samples<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Considerations about the nature of incoming samples don\u2019t get as much press as they deserve. For example, if you are in quality control, the nature of your incoming samples is going to be consistent and determined by the production process. In fact, sample preparation is likely to be integrated with the test procedure\u2019s automation. If the samples are fluids, the impact on an automation process may be small compared to working with solids. One complicating factor with fluids is the need to remove extraneous material so that downstream problems aren\u2019t created. That removal may be accomplished by filtering, settling, centrifugal separation, batch centrifugation, or other means depending on the amount of material and its composition.\n<\/p><p>Working with solids raises several other issues. First, does the material have to be reduced to a coarse or fine powder before processing? This may be needed to permit precise weighing of amounts or providing a large surface area for solvent extractions. Second, is fabrication of a sample piece required? Some mechanical properties testing of plastics require molding test bars. Other tests may require pressing films for spectral analysis. Other issues exist as well. Some are industry-specific, for example working with hazardous materials (including toxic substances and radioactive samples), and those requiring careful environmental and\/or security controls.\n<\/p><p>In many labs, automation is viewed as something that happens after the samples are logged in. Yet that doesn\u2019t have to be the case. The following paragraphs focus on testing labs because they are the most likely to benefit from automation. They meet the two key criteria for automation implementation: stable procedures and sufficient workload to justify the cost of automation development. That can also happen in research labs, though; in the end it's simply a matter of the nature of the work.\n<\/p><p>Testing labs (e.g., quality control and non-routine internal and contract labs) can take steps to streamline their sample handling operations, though unfortunately at the expense of someone else\u2019s labor (just make it worth their effort). For example, those submitting samples can be required to pre-log their samples. This can be accomplished by giving them access to restricted accounts on a LIMS that lets them log samples in, and little more. Sample containers can also be standardized with barcodes. The barcodes can then be required as part of the logging process and are critical to identifying samples that have reached the lab, as well as tracking their physical location. Additionally, sample container sizes and related container forms can also be standardized. These should match the requirements for sample handling in automated systems, if possible. (Unless you supply them, your submitters may not have the tools for sealing sample vials, etc.) Finally, all this cooperative effort to standardize sample reception can be incentivized with price breaks, which is likely to lead to faster TAT. In other words, give them an incentive to work with you, the lab. They are supplying labor that could potentially impact their productivity, so give them a good reason to work with you.\n<\/p><p>Testing operations can, as a result, see further benefits:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Sample storage management and access is improved.<\/li>\n<li>You\u2019ll be more informed of incoming work.<\/li>\n<li>Automation and scheduling is enhanced when it begins with the requester instead of post-login.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>My first professional lab experience was in polymers in an analytical research group (some routine work, a lot of non-routine work). Samples would arrive in a variety of containers (e.g., bags, jars, test tubes, envelopes, fabricated parts taped to sample request forms). Sample matrices would range from pellets, waxes, and powders to liquids, gas cylinders, rolls of film, and more. Classifying those samples, figuring out where to put them, locating them, and preparing them for work (which often involved grinding them in a Wiley mill) was a major time sink, sufficiently so that the actual analysis was a smaller part of the overall workflow. As such, anything you can do to streamline that process will help productivity and contribute to a successful automation project.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Abbreviations,_acronyms,_and_initialisms\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Abbreviations.2C_acronyms.2C_and_initialisms\">Abbreviations, acronyms, and initialisms<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><b>CDS<\/b>: Chromatography data system\n<\/p><p><b>ELN<\/b>: Electronic laboratory notebook\n<\/p><p><b>EVOP<\/b>: Evolutionary operations\n<\/p><p><b>ICP<\/b>: Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry\n<\/p><p><b>K\/D\/I<\/b>: Knowledge, data, and information\n<\/p><p><b>LIMS<\/b>: Laboratory information management system\n<\/p><p><b>LOF<\/b>: Laboratory of the future\n<\/p><p><b>LSE<\/b>: Laboratory systems engineer\n<\/p><p><b>NMR<\/b>: Nuclear magnetic resonance\n<\/p><p><b>QC<\/b>: Quality control\n<\/p><p><b>ROI<\/b>: Return on investment\n<\/p><p><b>SDMS<\/b>: Scientific data management system\n<\/p><p><b>Std.SP<\/b>: Standard sample program\n<\/p><p><b>TLA<\/b>: Total laboratory automation\n<\/p><p><b>TAT<\/b>: Turn-around time\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Footnotes\">Footnotes<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\" style=\"list-style-type: lower-alpha;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Where the amount of titrant added is adjusted based on the response to the previous addition. This should yield faster titrations with increased accuracy.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-18\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">In prior writings, the term \u201cscientific manufacturing\u201d was used. The problem with that term is that we\u2019re not making products but instead producing results. Plus \u201cmanufacturing results\u201d has some negative connotations.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-20\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Wikipedia <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Calender\" class=\"extiw wiki-link\" title=\"wikipedia:Calender\" data-key=\"d8d8d99ee47563a86625118bdd0b05a2\">says this<\/a> of calendering: \"A calender is a series of hard pressure rollers used to finish or smooth a sheet of material such as paper, textiles, or plastics. Calender rolls are also used to form some types of plastic films and to apply coatings.\"<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-21\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">See the discussion on clinical chemistry in the main text.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-22\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">If you\u2019re not familiar with the method, Wikipedia's <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chromatography\" title=\"Chromatography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2615535d1f14c6cffdfad7285999ad9d\">chromatography<\/a> page is a good starting point.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-23\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">See Wikipedia's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microplate\" class=\"extiw wiki-link\" title=\"wikipedia:Microplate\" data-key=\"118619c5fab5efc970417c99b85e858d\">microplate<\/a> article for more.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"About_the_author\">About the author<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Initially educated as a chemist, author Joe Liscouski (joe dot liscouski at gmail dot com) is an experienced laboratory automation\/computing professional with over forty years of experience in the field, including the design and development of automation systems (both custom and commercial systems), LIMS, robotics and data interchange standards. He also consults on the use of computing in laboratory work. He has held symposia on validation and presented technical material and short courses on laboratory automation and computing in the U.S., Europe, and Japan. He has worked\/consulted in pharmaceutical, biotech, polymer, medical, and government laboratories. His current work centers on working with companies to establish planning programs for lab systems, developing effective support groups, and helping people with the application of automation and information technologies in research and quality control environments.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Liscouski, J.&#32;(2015).&#32;<i>Computerized Systems in the Modern Laboratory: A Practical Guide<\/i>.&#32;PDA\/DHI.&#32;pp.&#160;432.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ASIN\" data-key=\"5cc6746513dcbbbee6f1bf9284ead699\">ASIN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.amazon.com\/dp\/B010EWO06S\" target=\"_blank\">B010EWO06S<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;978-1933722863.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Computerized+Systems+in+the+Modern+Laboratory%3A+A+Practical+Guide&amp;rft.aulast=Liscouski%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Liscouski%2C+J.&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B432&amp;rft.pub=PDA%2FDHI&amp;rft_id=info:asin\/B010EWO06S&amp;rft.isbn=978-1933722863&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WilkinsonTheFAIR16-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-WilkinsonTheFAIR16_2-0\">2.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-WilkinsonTheFAIR16_2-1\">2.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Wilkinson, M.D.; Dumontier, M.; Aalbersberg, I.J. et al.&#32;(2016).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC4792175\" target=\"_blank\">\"The FAIR Guiding Principles for scientific data management and stewardship\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Scientific Data<\/i>&#32;<b>3<\/b>: 160018.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1038%2Fsdata.2016.18\" target=\"_blank\">10.1038\/sdata.2016.18<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Central\" data-key=\"c85bdffd69dd30e02024b9cc3d7679e2\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC4792175\/\" target=\"_blank\">PMC4792175<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/26978244\" target=\"_blank\">26978244<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC4792175\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&amp;artid=PMC4792175<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=The+FAIR+Guiding+Principles+for+scientific+data+management+and+stewardship&amp;rft.jtitle=Scientific+Data&amp;rft.aulast=Wilkinson%2C+M.D.%3B+Dumontier%2C+M.%3B+Aalbersberg%2C+I.J.+et+al.&amp;rft.au=Wilkinson%2C+M.D.%3B+Dumontier%2C+M.%3B+Aalbersberg%2C+I.J.+et+al.&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft.volume=3&amp;rft.pages=160018&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1038%2Fsdata.2016.18&amp;rft_id=info:pmc\/PMC4792175&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/26978244&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pubmedcentral.nih.gov%2Farticlerender.fcgi%3Ftool%3Dpmcentrez%26artid%3DPMC4792175&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FishOvercoming05-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FishOvercoming05_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Fish, M.; Minicuci, D.&#32;(2005).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/apps.thermoscientific.com\/media\/SID\/Informatics\/PDF\/Article-Overcoming-the-Challanges.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Overcoming the Challenges of a LIMS Migration\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;<i>Research &amp; Development<\/i>&#32;<b>47<\/b>&#32;(2)<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/apps.thermoscientific.com\/media\/SID\/Informatics\/PDF\/Article-Overcoming-the-Challanges.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/apps.thermoscientific.com\/media\/SID\/Informatics\/PDF\/Article-Overcoming-the-Challanges.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Overcoming+the+Challenges+of+a+LIMS+Migration&amp;rft.jtitle=Research+%26+Development&amp;rft.aulast=Fish%2C+M.%3B+Minicuci%2C+D.&amp;rft.au=Fish%2C+M.%3B+Minicuci%2C+D.&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.volume=47&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fapps.thermoscientific.com%2Fmedia%2FSID%2FInformatics%2FPDF%2FArticle-Overcoming-the-Challanges.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FishOvercoming13-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FishOvercoming13_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Fish, M.; Minicuci, D.&#32;(1 April 2013).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientistlive.com\/content\/overcoming-daunting-business-challenges-lims-migration\" target=\"_blank\">\"Overcoming daunting business challenges of a LIMS migration\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Scientist Live<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientistlive.com\/content\/overcoming-daunting-business-challenges-lims-migration\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.scientistlive.com\/content\/overcoming-daunting-business-challenges-lims-migration<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Overcoming+daunting+business+challenges+of+a+LIMS+migration&amp;rft.atitle=Scientist+Live&amp;rft.aulast=Fish%2C+M.%3B+Minicuci%2C+D.&amp;rft.au=Fish%2C+M.%3B+Minicuci%2C+D.&amp;rft.date=1+April+2013&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientistlive.com%2Fcontent%2Fovercoming-daunting-business-challenges-lims-migration&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FreeLIMSWhat18-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FreeLIMSWhat18_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/freelims.org\/blog\/legacy-data-migration-to-lims.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Overcoming the Challenges of Legacy Data Migration\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>FreeLIMS.org<\/i>.&#32;CloudLIMS.com, LLC.&#32;29 June 2018<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/freelims.org\/blog\/legacy-data-migration-to-lims.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/freelims.org\/blog\/legacy-data-migration-to-lims.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Overcoming+the+Challenges+of+Legacy+Data+Migration&amp;rft.atitle=FreeLIMS.org&amp;rft.date=29+June+2018&amp;rft.pub=CloudLIMS.com%2C+LLC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffreelims.org%2Fblog%2Flegacy-data-migration-to-lims.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CLSIAUTO03-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CLSIAUTO03_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/clsi.org\/standards\/products\/automation-and-informatics\/documents\/auto03\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"AUTO03 Laboratory Automation: Communications With Automated Clinical Laboratory Systems, Instruments, Devices, and Information Systems, 2nd Edition\"<\/a>.&#32;Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute.&#32;30 September 2009<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/clsi.org\/standards\/products\/automation-and-informatics\/documents\/auto03\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/clsi.org\/standards\/products\/automation-and-informatics\/documents\/auto03\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=AUTO03+Laboratory+Automation%3A+Communications+With+Automated+Clinical+Laboratory+Systems%2C+Instruments%2C+Devices%2C+and+Information+Systems%2C+2nd+Edition&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=30+September+2009&amp;rft.pub=Clinical+and+Laboratory+Standards+Institute&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fclsi.org%2Fstandards%2Fproducts%2Fautomation-and-informatics%2Fdocuments%2Fauto03%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SarkoziTheEff03-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SarkoziTheEff03_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Sarkozi, L.; Simson, E.; Ramanathan, L.&#32;(2003).&#32;\"The effects of total laboratory automation on the management of a clinical chemistry laboratory. Retrospective analysis of 36 years\".&#32;<i>Clinica Chimica Acta<\/i>&#32;<b>329<\/b>&#32;(1\u20132): 89\u201394.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016%2FS0009-8981%2803%2900020-2\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/S0009-8981(03)00020-2<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=The+effects+of+total+laboratory+automation+on+the+management+of+a+clinical+chemistry+laboratory.+Retrospective+analysis+of+36+years&amp;rft.jtitle=Clinica+Chimica+Acta&amp;rft.aulast=Sarkozi%2C+L.%3B+Simson%2C+E.%3B+Ramanathan%2C+L.&amp;rft.au=Sarkozi%2C+L.%3B+Simson%2C+E.%3B+Ramanathan%2C+L.&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.volume=329&amp;rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&amp;rft.pages=89%E2%80%9394&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1016%2FS0009-8981%2803%2900020-2&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BissellTotal14-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BissellTotal14_8-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=RdwFZyYE_4Q\" target=\"_blank\">\"Total Laboratory Automation - Michael Bissell, MD, Ph.D\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>YouTube<\/i>.&#32;University of Washington.&#32;15 July 2014<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=RdwFZyYE_4Q\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=RdwFZyYE_4Q<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Total+Laboratory+Automation+-+Michael+Bissell%2C+MD%2C+Ph.D&amp;rft.atitle=YouTube&amp;rft.date=15+July+2014&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Washington&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DRdwFZyYE_4Q&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WatersMassLynx16-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-WatersMassLynx16_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.waters.com\/webassets\/cms\/library\/docs\/720005731en%20Masslynx%20LIMS%20Interface.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"MassLynx LIMS Interface\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Waters Corporation.&#32;November 2016<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.waters.com\/webassets\/cms\/library\/docs\/720005731en%20Masslynx%20LIMS%20Interface.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.waters.com\/webassets\/cms\/library\/docs\/720005731en%20Masslynx%20LIMS%20Interface.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=MassLynx+LIMS+Interface&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=November+2016&amp;rft.pub=Waters+Corporation&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.waters.com%2Fwebassets%2Fcms%2Flibrary%2Fdocs%2F720005731en%2520Masslynx%2520LIMS%2520Interface.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ASTME1578_18-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ASTME1578_18_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1578.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"ASTM E1578 - 18 Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics\"<\/a>.&#32;ASTM International.&#32;2018<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1578.htm\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1578.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ASTM+E1578+-+18+Standard+Guide+for+Laboratory+Informatics&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft.pub=ASTM+International&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.astm.org%2FStandards%2FE1578.htm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-11\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Schmitt, S., ed.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.dhibooks.com\/assuring-data-integrity-for-life-sciences\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Assuring Data Integrity for Life Sciences<\/i><\/a>.&#32;DHI Publishing.&#32;pp.&#160;385.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781933722979<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.dhibooks.com\/assuring-data-integrity-for-life-sciences\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.dhibooks.com\/assuring-data-integrity-for-life-sciences<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Assuring+Data+Integrity+for+Life+Sciences&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B385&amp;rft.pub=DHI+Publishing&amp;rft.isbn=9781933722979&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dhibooks.com%2Fassuring-data-integrity-for-life-sciences&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ASTMEE2078_16-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ASTMEE2078_16_12-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E2078.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"ASTM E2078 - 00(2016) Standard Guide for Analytical Data Interchange Protocol for Mass Spectrometric Data\"<\/a>.&#32;ASTM International.&#32;2016<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E2078.htm\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E2078.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ASTM+E2078+-+00%282016%29+Standard+Guide+for+Analytical+Data+Interchange+Protocol+for+Mass+Spectrometric+Data&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft.pub=ASTM+International&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.astm.org%2FStandards%2FE2078.htm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ASTME1948_14-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ASTME1948_14_13-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1948.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"ASTM E1948 - 98(2014) Standard Guide for Analytical Data Interchange Protocol for Chromatographic Data\"<\/a>.&#32;ASTM International.&#32;2014<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1948.htm\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1948.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ASTM+E1948+-+98%282014%29+Standard+Guide+for+Analytical+Data+Interchange+Protocol+for+Chromatographic+Data&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft.pub=ASTM+International&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.astm.org%2FStandards%2FE1948.htm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MerckMilli19-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MerckMilli19_14-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.emdgroup.com\/en\/news\/bssn-software-06-08-2019.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"MilliporeSigma Acquires BSSN Software to Accelerate Customers\u2019 Digital Transformation in the Lab\"<\/a>.&#32;Merck KGaA.&#32;6 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href=\"#cite_ref-15\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">McDonald,&#32;Robert S.&#59;&#32;Wilks,&#32;Paul A.&#32;(1 January 1988).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1366\/0003702884428734\" target=\"_blank\">\"JCAMP-DX: A Standard Form for Exchange of Infrared Spectra in Computer Readable Form\"<\/a>&#32;(in en).&#32;<i>Applied Spectroscopy<\/i>&#32;<b>42<\/b>&#32;(1): 151\u2013162.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1366%2F0003702884428734\" target=\"_blank\">10.1366\/0003702884428734<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Serial_Number\" data-key=\"a5dec3e4d005e654c29ad167ab53f53a\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0003-7028\" target=\"_blank\">0003-7028<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1366\/0003702884428734\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1366\/0003702884428734<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=JCAMP-DX%3A+A+Standard+Form+for+Exchange+of+Infrared+Spectra+in+Computer+Readable+Form&amp;rft.jtitle=Applied+Spectroscopy&amp;rft.aulast=McDonald&amp;rft.aufirst=Robert+S.&amp;rft.au=McDonald%2C%26%2332%3BRobert+S.&amp;rft.au=Wilks%2C%26%2332%3BPaul+A.&amp;rft.date=1+January+1988&amp;rft.volume=42&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=151%E2%80%93162&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1366%2F0003702884428734&amp;rft.issn=0003-7028&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1366%2F0003702884428734&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GAML-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GAML_16-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" 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class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">CNN Business&#32;(17 April 2015).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=_PuTKH7143c\" target=\"_blank\">\"Micro robots drive Bayer's high-tech vision\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>YouTube<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=_PuTKH7143c\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=_PuTKH7143c<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Micro+robots+drive+Bayer%27s+high-tech+vision&amp;rft.atitle=YouTube&amp;rft.aulast=CNN+Business&amp;rft.au=CNN+Business&amp;rft.date=17+April+2015&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3D_PuTKH7143c&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-OxerTheEss17-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-OxerTheEss17_24-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Oxer, M.; Stroud, T.&#32;(2017).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.titian.co.uk\/the-essential-guide-to-managing-laboratory-samples-web\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Essential Guide to Managing Laboratory Samples\"<\/a>.&#32;Titian Software Ltd<span 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id=\"cite_note-:0-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_25-0\">19.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_25-1\">19.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Redrup,&#32;Michael J.&#59;&#32;Igarashi,&#32;Harue&#59;&#32;Schaefgen,&#32;Jay&#59;&#32;Lin,&#32;Jenny&#59;&#32;Geisler,&#32;Lisa&#59;&#32;Ben M\u2019Barek,&#32;Mohamed&#59;&#32;Ramachandran,&#32;Subramanian&#59;&#32;Cardoso,&#32;Thales&#32;<i>et al.<\/i>&#32;(1 March 2016).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1208\/s12248-016-9869-2\" target=\"_blank\">\"Sample Management: Recommendation for Best Practices and Harmonization from the Global Bioanalysis Consortium Harmonization Team\"<\/a>&#32;(in en).&#32;<i>The AAPS Journal<\/i>&#32;<b>18<\/b>&#32;(2): 290\u2013293.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1208%2Fs12248-016-9869-2\" target=\"_blank\">10.1208\/s12248-016-9869-2<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Serial_Number\" data-key=\"a5dec3e4d005e654c29ad167ab53f53a\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1550-7416\" target=\"_blank\">1550-7416<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Central\" data-key=\"c85bdffd69dd30e02024b9cc3d7679e2\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC4779093\/\" target=\"_blank\">PMC4779093<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/26821803\" target=\"_blank\">26821803<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1208\/s12248-016-9869-2\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1208\/s12248-016-9869-2<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Sample+Management%3A+Recommendation+for+Best+Practices+and+Harmonization+from+the+Global+Bioanalysis+Consortium+Harmonization+Team&amp;rft.jtitle=The+AAPS+Journal&amp;rft.aulast=Redrup&amp;rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&amp;rft.au=Redrup%2C%26%2332%3BMichael+J.&amp;rft.au=Igarashi%2C%26%2332%3BHarue&amp;rft.au=Schaefgen%2C%26%2332%3BJay&amp;rft.au=Lin%2C%26%2332%3BJenny&amp;rft.au=Geisler%2C%26%2332%3BLisa&amp;rft.au=Ben+M%E2%80%99Barek%2C%26%2332%3BMohamed&amp;rft.au=Ramachandran%2C%26%2332%3BSubramanian&amp;rft.au=Cardoso%2C%26%2332%3BThales&amp;rft.au=Hillewaert%2C%26%2332%3BVera&amp;rft.date=1+March+2016&amp;rft.volume=18&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=290%E2%80%93293&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1208%2Fs12248-016-9869-2&amp;rft.issn=1550-7416&amp;rft_id=info:pmc\/PMC4779093&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/26821803&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1208%2Fs12248-016-9869-2&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110121053\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.829 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.301 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 14382\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 100080\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 34791\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 25\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 34153\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 492.568 1 -total\n 86.37% 425.412 2 Template:Reflist\n 55.71% 274.395 19 Template:Citation\/core\n 32.51% 160.116 12 Template:Cite_web\n 16.33% 80.451 2 Template:Cite_book\n 14.83% 73.059 5 Template:Cite_journal\n 9.30% 45.798 14 Template:Date\n 7.18% 35.349 6 Template:Efn\n 6.14% 30.225 13 Template:Citation\/identifier\n 5.76% 28.367 24 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Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","87d7f050e0c47d7762a90382989592a1_images":["https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/d\/dc\/Fig1_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/7\/70\/Fig2_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/3\/3e\/Fig3_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/b\/b2\/Fig4_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/c\/cc\/Fig5_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/0\/05\/FigA1_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/c\/c8\/FigA2_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/1\/1c\/FigA3_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/b\/b3\/FigA4_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/f\/f1\/FigA5_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png"],"87d7f050e0c47d7762a90382989592a1_timestamp":1704907032,"00b300565027cb0518bcb0410d6df360_type":"article","00b300565027cb0518bcb0410d6df360_title":"A Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization's Work","00b300565027cb0518bcb0410d6df360_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:A_Guide_for_Management:_Successfully_Applying_Laboratory_Systems_to_Your_Organization%27s_Work","00b300565027cb0518bcb0410d6df360_plaintext":"\n\nLII:A Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization's WorkFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search\nTitle: A Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization's Work\nAuthor for citation: Joe Liscouski\nLicense for content: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International\nPublication date: January 2018\n\r\n\nLaboratory informatics involves a collection of technologies that range from sample storage management and robotics to database\/workflow management systems such as laboratory information management systems (LIMS) and electronic laboratory notebooks (ELN), with a lot of task-specific tools in between. These components were designed by a number of vendors who saw specific needs and developed products to address them. Those products in turn were presented to laboratories as a means of solving their instrumental data collection and analysis, sample preparation, data management, and document management issues. With many needs and so many ways to address them, how do you go about choosing a set of products that will work for you? \nThat is what this set of webinars is all about. We introduce the technologies and position them for you so that you can see how they may or may not apply to your work. Then we address the very real world topic of justifying the investment needed to put those tools to use in your laboratories. \nOnce that foundation has been put in place we cover:\n\nTechnology planning and education: Planning is essential for success in this work. We look at how to go about it, who to involve, and methodologies for carrying out the work. We also look at the associated knowledge necessary to be effective.\nImplementation: Informatics systems can be a challenge to implement. We look at what is needed to minimize risks and make the implementation easier, as well as the support requirements needed to manage their use in your laboratory environment.\nRegulatory guidelines and compliance: We also address regulatory guidelines and compliance and how they can affect every laboratory application.\nThe future: What developments will arise and be needed in the future? We wrap up the series with those details.\n\r\n\nAbout the author\nInitially educated as a chemist, author Joe Liscouski is an experienced laboratory automation\/computing professional with over forty years experience in the field, including the design and development of automation systems (both custom and commercial systems), LIMS, robotics and data interchange standards. He also consults on the use of computing in laboratory work. He has held symposia on validation and presented technical material and short courses on laboratory automation and computing in the U.S., Europe, and Japan. He has worked\/consulted in pharmaceutical, biotech, polymer, medical, and government laboratories. His current work centers on working with companies to establish planning programs for lab systems, developing effective support groups, and helping people with the application of automation and information technologies in research and quality control environments.\n\nContents \n\n1 Introduction \n\n1.1 Introductory video \n1.2 Slides and transcripts \n\n\n2 Part 1: Laboratory Informatics Technologies \n\n2.1 Webinar \n2.2 Slides and transcripts \n\n\n3 Part 2: Laboratory Informatics and Return on Investment \n\n3.1 Webinar \n3.2 Slides and transcripts \n\n\n4 Part 3: Technology, Planning, &amp; Education \n\n4.1 Webinar \n4.2 Slides and transcripts \n\n\n5 Part 4: LIMS\/LIS, ELN, SDMS, IT &amp; Education \n\n5.1 Webinar \n5.2 Slides and transcripts \n\n\n6 Part 5: Supporting Laboratory Systems \n\n6.1 Webinar \n6.2 Slides and transcripts \n\n\n7 Part 6: Instrument Data Systems \n\n7.1 Webinar \n7.2 Slides and transcripts \n\n\n8 Part 7: Laboratory Processes \n\n8.1 Webinar \n8.2 Slides and transcripts \n\n\n\n\n\nIntroduction \nOnce the scientific mission of a lab has been established, lab work is divided into three areas:\n\nAdministrative work, including report preparation\nPlanning experimental work, including method development and attendant documentation \/ validation\nExperiment \/procedure \/ task execution\nLaboratory computing and automation can play a useful role in each of these points. The effectiveness of these tools depends on preparation, planning, and the capabilities of those carrying out lab work. It is those points that need attention if we are going to transition from a collection of technologies to integrated functional systems. Similar transitions took other production environments from a succession of individual steps to highly efficient, cost-effective, and successful productivity.\nThe purpose of these webinars and the resources they carry with them, is to help people understand how to make that transition happen. How those tools can improve laboratory operations.\nWe, as a community, need to move from a series of incremental improvements to well-designed, engineered solutions to laboratory needs. That will require a change in mindset. That mindset change will lead to better science, better results, improved productivity, and more effective laboratory operations and technology management.\n\nIntroductory video \n The introductory video for this series of webinars (12:30) can be found at YouTube: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/\n\nSlides and transcripts \n The slides and transcripts for this introductory video can be found on Google Drive: https:\/\/drive.google.com\/\n\nPart 1: Laboratory Informatics Technologies \nLIMS, ELN, scientific data management systems (SDMS), laboratory information systems (LIS), laboratory execution systems (LES), and instrument data systems are terms that have been part of laboratory discussions for years, but unless you\u2019ve been an active part of those conversations, they sound like techno-babble. The purpose of this webinar is two-fold:\n\nfirst, to introduce the webinar series and its objectives, and\nsecond, to convert that babble into meaningful subjects and see how they apply (or not) to your laboratory.\nInformatics is part of laboratory life: unless it is a piece of glassware, almost everything in the lab has a chip that is supposed to improve its usefulness. At the end of this webinar you will have an understanding of what the key technologies are, how they relate to each other, and how they might improve you lab's operations. The remainder of the series will build on this background, looking at return on investment (ROI) considerations, planning, education, and IT support requirements. You\u2019ll love it.\n\nWebinar \n The webinar for this session (50:17) can be found at YouTube: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/\n\nSlides and transcripts \n The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive: https:\/\/drive.google.com\/\n\nPart 2: Laboratory Informatics and Return on Investment \nWhen you are considering lab informatics and automation projects, someone is going to ask \u201cwhat is the return on the investment you\u2019re asking for?\u201d How do you answer them? This second webinar in the series provides practical guidance.\nThe introduction of informatics\/automation technologies into laboratory work requires larger investments than typical lab bench spending and involves people from outside support groups. It also brings up issues of knowledge and intellectual property management, an increasingly important corporate topic. Your ability to address these points within the ROI conversation will have a direct impact on the approval of your projects. Join us as we begin to look into these considerations:\n\nHow do you justify the expense of laboratory systems?\nWhat results can be expected from an investment in laboratory technologies?\nHow do you go about setting goals that are easily understood and play into corporate concerns?\nHow will these investments affect other groups?\nAs laboratory work and the investments in it become more visible to the corporate organization, more effort will have to be put into the justification and evaluation of these expenditures. This webinar will help you form a basis for that work.\n\nWebinar \n The webinar for this session (38:31) can be found at YouTube: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/\n\nSlides and transcripts \n The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive: https:\/\/drive.google.com\/\n\n Part 3: Technology, Planning, &amp; Education \nThe first webinar introduced the subject of laboratory informatics, comparing the use of LIMS, ELN, SDMS, LIS, LES, and instrument data systems in different laboratory settings. The second looked at how you can evaluate the ROI in those technologies.\nThis third webinar looks at technology planning and education, and more specifically, how you can gain the benefits expected from your investment in informatics technologies. Effective planning, by people with a good understanding of laboratory technologies, is one of the key points in successfully applying informatics technologies to laboratory work. Most failures can be traced back to insufficient planning efforts.\nThis subject may span more than one webinar session and will look at the:\n\nmethodologies for laboratory systems planning, including where and when to start and who should be involved;\nroles of regulatory guidelines in different laboratories;\nroles that laboratory management, personnel, and IT support groups play;\nchanges taking place in laboratory work and the backgrounds needed to be successful; and\nefforts needed to support the technical work and meet ROI and performance goals.\nWebinar \n The webinar for this session (42:18) can be found at YouTube: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/\n\nSlides and transcripts \n The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive: https:\/\/drive.google.com\/\n\n Part 4: LIMS\/LIS, ELN, SDMS, IT &amp; Education \nThis session builds on the material covered in the previous webinars. We extend the discussion of centralized laboratory database systems (LIMS\/LIS, ELN, SDMS) to look at multi-laboratory applications, as well as the use of virtual systems, local\/private cloud, remote cloud, and vendor-supported remote database applications. This session also begins looking at the roles that information technology support groups can play in this work. Points covered include:\n\nplanning for multiple laboratory use of database systems;\nusing local and cloud-based computing models; and\nintegrating IT teams to better play a role in the work.\nWebinar \n The webinar for this session (43:59) can be found at YouTube: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/\n\nSlides and transcripts \n The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive: https:\/\/drive.google.com\/\n\nPart 5: Supporting Laboratory Systems \nThe previous webinars have progressed from the descriptions of laboratory technologies to choosing some components, the financial justification for their use, and the beginnings of describing the topology and distribution of lab informatics. In the course of those sessions, we began looking at the need for outside support for the systems under consideration: what help do you need when carrying out this work, and where will it come from?\nThis webinar continues the development of that topic. What roles do lab personnel and corporate IT support play in identifying technologies, selecting products, implementing them, and providing for long-term support? Is there a need for additional players in this work and what are their roles?\nWhy is this important to you? We\u2019re past the point where traditional IT backgrounds are sufficient to support laboratory work. While the ability to effectively apply the available technologies, and identify missing components, is outside the experience of most lab personnel and IT support, it is an essential need if we are going to meet the growing productivity and return on investment (ROI) demands of laboratory work. This presentation looks at how we develop people to fit that need.\n\nWebinar \n The webinar for this session (43:31) can be found on YouTube: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/\n\nSlides and transcripts \n The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive: https:\/\/drive.google.com\/\n\nPart 6: Instrument Data Systems \nInstrument data systems represent a critical transition in lab work: it is the place where we stop working with materials and begin working with numerical representations of those materials, where lab bench science ends and informatics begins. Problems in that transition can negate all the work leading up to it, leading to results that are open to challenge.\nThis webinar takes a look at:\n\nthose instrument data systems;\nthe processes that affect your data;\nthe choices you face in designing an informatics architecture for your lab; and\nthe silo effect and the roles of lab managers, personnel, and support have in selecting and managing those technologies.\nWhy does this matter? We are moving toward the development of automated science as a means of gaining higher productivity and reducing costs. If the systems we are putting in place are not well understood and planned, that automation can result in questionable results and missed opportunities. Laboratory informatics architectures have become a major factor in the success of lab operations, and this webinar represents an important step in building that success.\n\nWebinar \n The webinar for this session (43:09) can be found on YouTube: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/\n\nSlides and transcripts \n The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive: https:\/\/drive.google.com\/\n\nPart 7: Laboratory Processes \nIn this seventh and final episode of the webinar series, we broaden our view to examine the full range of lab work, including the methods and procedures that put the \u201cscience\u201d in lab work. \nThis webinar takes a look at:\n\nhow the various informatics pieces relate to each other in the process of lab work, and\nwhat it takes to integrate them into computer-controlled, computer-assisted, and scientific production systems.\nWhy is this important to you? As the drive for higher productivity and improved ROI continues, laboratories need to take advantage of the full range of informatics and automation tools available to them. That includes viewing the lab's operations from a broader viewpoint, ensuring that resources are used effectively and opportunities aren\u2019t missed. This concluding session brings the entire series to a close, allowing you to apply all the concepts we've covered to your lab's work, all while realizing how regulatory guidelines come into play.\n\nWebinar \n The webinar for this session (33:10) can be found on YouTube: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/\n\nSlides and transcripts \n The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive: https:\/\/drive.google.com\/\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:A_Guide_for_Management:_Successfully_Applying_Laboratory_Systems_to_Your_Organization%27s_Work\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:A_Guide_for_Management:_Successfully_Applying_Laboratory_Systems_to_Your_Organization%27s_Work<\/a>\nCategory: LII:Guides, white papers, and other publicationsNavigation menuPage actionsLIIDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsLIIDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 4 January 2024, at 15:46.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 15,569 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","00b300565027cb0518bcb0410d6df360_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-202 ns-subject page-LII_A_Guide_for_Management_Successfully_Applying_Laboratory_Systems_to_Your_Organization_s_Work rootpage-LII_A_Guide_for_Management_Successfully_Applying_Laboratory_Systems_to_Your_Organization_s_Work skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">LII:A Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization's Work<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"floatright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:LabCourses_Transparent.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"e8c952781a315e89a294f7326bb7182d\"><img alt=\"LabCourses Transparent.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/b\/b4\/LabCourses_Transparent.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"240\" height=\"147\" \/><\/a><\/div>\n<p><b>Title<\/b>: <i>A Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization's Work<\/i>\n<\/p><p><b>Author for citation<\/b>: Joe Liscouski\n<\/p><p><b>License for content<\/b>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International<\/a>\n<\/p><p><b>Publication date<\/b>: January 2018\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">Laboratory informatics<\/a> involves a collection of technologies that range from sample storage management and robotics to database\/workflow management systems such as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00\">laboratory information management systems<\/a> (LIMS) and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Electronic laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f\">electronic laboratory notebooks<\/a> (ELN), with a lot of task-specific tools in between. These components were designed by a number of vendors who saw specific needs and developed products to address them. Those products in turn were presented to laboratories as a means of solving their instrumental data collection and analysis, sample preparation, data management, and document management issues. With many needs and so many ways to address them, how do you go about choosing a set of products that will work for you? \n<\/p><p>That is what this set of webinars is all about. We introduce the technologies and position them for you so that you can see how they may or may not apply to your work. Then we address the very real world topic of justifying the investment needed to put those tools to use in your laboratories. \n<\/p><p>Once that foundation has been put in place we cover:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Technology planning and education: Planning is essential for success in this work. We look at how to go about it, who to involve, and methodologies for carrying out the work. We also look at the associated knowledge necessary to be effective.<\/li>\n<li>Implementation: Informatics systems can be a challenge to implement. We look at what is needed to minimize risks and make the implementation easier, as well as the support requirements needed to manage their use in your laboratory environment.<\/li>\n<li>Regulatory guidelines and compliance: We also address regulatory guidelines and compliance and how they can affect every laboratory application.<\/li>\n<li>The future: What developments will arise and be needed in the future? We wrap up the series with those details.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p><br \/>\n<b>About the author<\/b>\n<\/p><p>Initially educated as a chemist, author Joe Liscouski is an experienced laboratory automation\/computing professional with over forty years experience in the field, including the design and development of automation systems (both custom and commercial systems), LIMS, robotics and data interchange standards. He also consults on the use of computing in laboratory work. He has held symposia on validation and presented technical material and short courses on laboratory automation and computing in the U.S., Europe, and Japan. He has worked\/consulted in pharmaceutical, biotech, polymer, medical, and government laboratories. His current work centers on working with companies to establish planning programs for lab systems, developing effective support groups, and helping people with the application of automation and information technologies in research and quality control environments.\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Introduction\">Introduction<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Once the scientific mission of a lab has been established, lab work is divided into three areas:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>Administrative work, including report preparation<\/li>\n<li>Planning experimental work, including method development and attendant documentation \/ validation<\/li>\n<li>Experiment \/procedure \/ task execution<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>Laboratory computing and automation can play a useful role in each of these points. The effectiveness of these tools depends on preparation, planning, and the capabilities of those carrying out lab work. It is those points that need attention if we are going to transition from a collection of technologies to integrated functional systems. Similar transitions took other production environments from a succession of individual steps to highly efficient, cost-effective, and successful productivity.\n<\/p><p>The purpose of these webinars and the resources they carry with them, is to help people understand how to make that transition happen. How those tools can improve laboratory operations.\n<\/p><p>We, as a community, need to move from a series of incremental improvements to well-designed, engineered solutions to laboratory needs. That will require a change in mindset. That mindset change will lead to better science, better results, improved productivity, and more effective laboratory operations and technology management.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Introductory_video\">Introductory video<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=6p_aRNTiBQM\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PlayVideo.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/4\/46\/PlayVideo.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The introductory video for this series of webinars (12:30) can be found at YouTube<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=6p_aRNTiBQM\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Slides_and_transcripts\">Slides and transcripts<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/open?id=15jiWwQ0PBflzjP7fvG6S48ppvJVVvmcn\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PDF.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/a6\/PDF.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The slides and transcripts for this introductory video can be found on Google Drive<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/open?id=15jiWwQ0PBflzjP7fvG6S48ppvJVVvmcn\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/drive.google.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Part_1:_Laboratory_Informatics_Technologies\">Part 1: Laboratory Informatics Technologies<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>LIMS, ELN, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Scientific_data_management_system\" title=\"Scientific data management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f38d322b743f578fef487b6f3d7c253\">scientific data management systems<\/a> (SDMS), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system\" title=\"Laboratory information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64\">laboratory information systems<\/a> (LIS), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_execution_system\" title=\"Laboratory execution system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"774bdcab852f4d09565f0486bfafc26a\">laboratory execution systems<\/a> (LES), and instrument data systems are terms that have been part of laboratory discussions for years, but unless you\u2019ve been an active part of those conversations, they sound like techno-babble. The purpose of this webinar is two-fold:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>first, to introduce the webinar series and its objectives, and<\/li>\n<li>second, to convert that babble into meaningful subjects and see how they apply (or not) to your laboratory.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Informatics is part of laboratory life: unless it is a piece of glassware, almost everything in the lab has a chip that is supposed to improve its usefulness. At the end of this webinar you will have an understanding of what the key technologies are, how they relate to each other, and how they might improve you lab's operations. The remainder of the series will build on this background, looking at return on investment (ROI) considerations, planning, education, and IT support requirements. You\u2019ll love it.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Webinar\">Webinar<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=p6FtygPEZS4\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PlayVideo.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/4\/46\/PlayVideo.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The webinar for this session (50:17) can be found at YouTube<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=p6FtygPEZS4\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Slides_and_transcripts_2\">Slides and transcripts<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/file\/d\/1iykZUk9HcNrpFrqg5ZpuHmoAQdCn-yf_\/view\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PDF.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/a6\/PDF.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/file\/d\/1iykZUk9HcNrpFrqg5ZpuHmoAQdCn-yf_\/view\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/drive.google.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Part_2:_Laboratory_Informatics_and_Return_on_Investment\">Part 2: Laboratory Informatics and Return on Investment<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>When you are considering lab informatics and automation projects, someone is going to ask \u201cwhat is the return on the investment you\u2019re asking for?\u201d How do you answer them? This second webinar in the series provides practical guidance.\n<\/p><p>The introduction of informatics\/automation technologies into laboratory work requires larger investments than typical lab bench spending and involves people from outside support groups. It also brings up issues of knowledge and intellectual property management, an increasingly important corporate topic. Your ability to address these points within the ROI conversation will have a direct impact on the approval of your projects. Join us as we begin to look into these considerations:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>How do you justify the expense of laboratory systems?<\/li>\n<li>What results can be expected from an investment in laboratory technologies?<\/li>\n<li>How do you go about setting goals that are easily understood and play into corporate concerns?<\/li>\n<li>How will these investments affect other groups?<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>As laboratory work and the investments in it become more visible to the corporate organization, more effort will have to be put into the justification and evaluation of these expenditures. This webinar will help you form a basis for that work.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Webinar_2\">Webinar<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=e6SfvFEXwSk\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PlayVideo.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/4\/46\/PlayVideo.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The webinar for this session (38:31) can be found at YouTube<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=e6SfvFEXwSk\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Slides_and_transcripts_3\">Slides and transcripts<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/file\/d\/1az0Wq-SX1f-m4_-wVn838kgX8I6LZ3me\/view\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PDF.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/a6\/PDF.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/file\/d\/1az0Wq-SX1f-m4_-wVn838kgX8I6LZ3me\/view\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/drive.google.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Part_3:_Technology,_Planning,_&amp;_Education\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Part_3:_Technology.2C_Planning.2C_.26_Education\">Part 3: Technology, Planning, &amp; Education<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The first webinar introduced the subject of laboratory informatics, comparing the use of LIMS, ELN, SDMS, LIS, LES, and instrument data systems in different laboratory settings. The second looked at how you can evaluate the ROI in those technologies.\n<\/p><p>This third webinar looks at technology planning and education, and more specifically, how you can gain the benefits expected from your investment in informatics technologies. Effective planning, by people with a good understanding of laboratory technologies, is one of the key points in successfully applying informatics technologies to laboratory work. Most failures can be traced back to insufficient planning efforts.\n<\/p><p>This subject may span more than one webinar session and will look at the:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>methodologies for laboratory systems planning, including where and when to start and who should be involved;<\/li>\n<li>roles of regulatory guidelines in different laboratories;<\/li>\n<li>roles that laboratory management, personnel, and IT support groups play;<\/li>\n<li>changes taking place in laboratory work and the backgrounds needed to be successful; and<\/li>\n<li>efforts needed to support the technical work and meet ROI and performance goals.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Webinar_3\">Webinar<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=nyIt6j_6qzQ\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PlayVideo.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/4\/46\/PlayVideo.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The webinar for this session (42:18) can be found at YouTube<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=nyIt6j_6qzQ\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Slides_and_transcripts_4\">Slides and transcripts<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/file\/d\/1sGeOlNLfzoJfcRXBYQBaT24GloSJ2zyB\/view\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PDF.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/a6\/PDF.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/file\/d\/1sGeOlNLfzoJfcRXBYQBaT24GloSJ2zyB\/view\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/drive.google.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Part_4:_LIMS\/LIS,_ELN,_SDMS,_IT_&amp;_Education\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Part_4:_LIMS.2FLIS.2C_ELN.2C_SDMS.2C_IT_.26_Education\">Part 4: LIMS\/LIS, ELN, SDMS, IT &amp; Education<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This session builds on the material covered in the previous webinars. We extend the discussion of centralized laboratory database systems (LIMS\/LIS, ELN, SDMS) to look at multi-laboratory applications, as well as the use of virtual systems, local\/private cloud, remote cloud, and vendor-supported remote database applications. This session also begins looking at the roles that information technology support groups can play in this work. Points covered include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>planning for multiple laboratory use of database systems;<\/li>\n<li>using local and cloud-based computing models; and<\/li>\n<li>integrating IT teams to better play a role in the work.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Webinar_4\">Webinar<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=-8dkKsuEwdU\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PlayVideo.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/4\/46\/PlayVideo.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The webinar for this session (43:59) can be found at YouTube<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=-8dkKsuEwdU\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Slides_and_transcripts_5\">Slides and transcripts<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/file\/d\/1RFlWkKHZAi-MPqV1XjDm5vYexyO7tGld\/view\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PDF.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/a6\/PDF.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/file\/d\/1RFlWkKHZAi-MPqV1XjDm5vYexyO7tGld\/view\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/drive.google.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Part_5:_Supporting_Laboratory_Systems\">Part 5: Supporting Laboratory Systems<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The previous webinars have progressed from the descriptions of laboratory technologies to choosing some components, the financial justification for their use, and the beginnings of describing the topology and distribution of lab informatics. In the course of those sessions, we began looking at the need for outside support for the systems under consideration: what help do you need when carrying out this work, and where will it come from?\n<\/p><p>This webinar continues the development of that topic. What roles do lab personnel and corporate IT support play in identifying technologies, selecting products, implementing them, and providing for long-term support? Is there a need for additional players in this work and what are their roles?\n<\/p><p>Why is this important to you? We\u2019re past the point where traditional IT backgrounds are sufficient to support laboratory work. While the ability to effectively apply the available technologies, and identify missing components, is outside the experience of most lab personnel and IT support, it is an essential need if we are going to meet the growing productivity and return on investment (ROI) demands of laboratory work. This presentation looks at how we develop people to fit that need.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Webinar_5\">Webinar<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/1Oi6Flczt8g\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PlayVideo.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/4\/46\/PlayVideo.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The webinar for this session (43:31) can be found on YouTube<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/1Oi6Flczt8g\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Slides_and_transcripts_6\">Slides and transcripts<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/open?id=1tfNnWYgVb49FyKU5S_saPi1TZ6n9_L4Q\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PDF.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/a6\/PDF.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/open?id=1tfNnWYgVb49FyKU5S_saPi1TZ6n9_L4Q\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/drive.google.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Part_6:_Instrument_Data_Systems\">Part 6: Instrument Data Systems<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Instrument data systems represent a critical transition in lab work: it is the place where we stop working with materials and begin working with numerical representations of those materials, where lab bench science ends and informatics begins. Problems in that transition can negate all the work leading up to it, leading to results that are open to challenge.\n<\/p><p>This webinar takes a look at:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>those instrument data systems;<\/li>\n<li>the processes that affect your data;<\/li>\n<li>the choices you face in designing an informatics architecture for your lab; and<\/li>\n<li>the silo effect and the roles of lab managers, personnel, and support have in selecting and managing those technologies.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Why does this matter? We are moving toward the development of automated science as a means of gaining higher productivity and reducing costs. If the systems we are putting in place are not well understood and planned, that automation can result in questionable results and missed opportunities. Laboratory informatics architectures have become a major factor in the success of lab operations, and this webinar represents an important step in building that success.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Webinar_6\">Webinar<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=gvkTjx8veBI\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PlayVideo.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/4\/46\/PlayVideo.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The webinar for this session (43:09) can be found on YouTube<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=gvkTjx8veBI\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Slides_and_transcripts_7\">Slides and transcripts<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/open?id=1_vMiovIWRfUrA4Wf8kTP4YQplfPWH0KH\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PDF.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/a6\/PDF.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/open?id=1_vMiovIWRfUrA4Wf8kTP4YQplfPWH0KH\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/drive.google.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Part_7:_Laboratory_Processes\">Part 7: Laboratory Processes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In this seventh and final episode of the webinar series, we broaden our view to examine the full range of lab work, including the methods and procedures that put the \u201cscience\u201d in lab work. \n<\/p><p>This webinar takes a look at:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>how the various informatics pieces relate to each other in the process of lab work, and<\/li>\n<li>what it takes to integrate them into computer-controlled, computer-assisted, and scientific production systems.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Why is this important to you? As the drive for higher productivity and improved ROI continues, laboratories need to take advantage of the full range of informatics and automation tools available to them. That includes viewing the lab's operations from a broader viewpoint, ensuring that resources are used effectively and opportunities aren\u2019t missed. This concluding session brings the entire series to a close, allowing you to apply all the concepts we've covered to your lab's work, all while realizing how regulatory guidelines come into play.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Webinar_7\">Webinar<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=-ppHVRoNkFE\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PlayVideo.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/4\/46\/PlayVideo.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The webinar for this session (33:10) can be found on YouTube<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=-ppHVRoNkFE\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Slides_and_transcripts_8\">Slides and transcripts<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/open?id=1ex1qRsP9nw2_rT5u34NLoFSm2-Onwn4B\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PDF.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/a6\/PDF.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/open?id=1ex1qRsP9nw2_rT5u34NLoFSm2-Onwn4B\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/drive.google.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171712\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.089 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.142 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 93\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 0\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 0.000 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10382-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171711 and revision id 57734. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:A_Guide_for_Management:_Successfully_Applying_Laboratory_Systems_to_Your_Organization%27s_Work\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:A_Guide_for_Management:_Successfully_Applying_Laboratory_Systems_to_Your_Organization%27s_Work<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","00b300565027cb0518bcb0410d6df360_images":["https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/b\/b4\/LabCourses_Transparent.png"],"00b300565027cb0518bcb0410d6df360_timestamp":1704907031,"8c3143a94da249329391b763571f1991_type":"article","8c3143a94da249329391b763571f1991_title":"The NELAC Institute","8c3143a94da249329391b763571f1991_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/The_NELAC_Institute","8c3143a94da249329391b763571f1991_plaintext":"\n\nThe NELAC InstituteFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchThe NELAC Institute (TNI) is a non-profit organization dedicated to promoting \"the generation of environmental data of known and documented quality through an open, inclusive, and transparent process that is responsive to the needs of the community.\"&#91;1&#93; The founders' long-term motivation behind the creation of the NIC was to enact a \"uniform, rigorous, and robust\" nationwide environmental laboratory and monitoring accreditation program.&#91;1&#93; This accreditation program exists today in the form of the National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Program (NELAP).\n\nContents \n\n1 History \n2 National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Program \n3 External links \n4 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nThe NELAC Institute (TNI) was formed on November 6, 2006 as a collaboration between the National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Conference (NELAC) and the Institute for National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation (INELA) with \"the vision that all entities generating environmental data in the United States be accredited to a national standard.\"&#91;2&#93; \nWith the original 2003 NELAC Standard and 2005 updates to ISO\/IEC 17025 as their guide, TNI continued work on revising the NELAC Standard, culminating in the release of its new standards in July 2011. The revisions both made ISO\/IEC 17025 adherence mandatory and added analysis requirements for \"five new contaminants and lower limits for existing contaminants.\"&#91;3&#93;&#91;4&#93;\n\nNational Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Program \nNELAP is an accreditation program targeted at environmental laboratories. The laboratory and accreditation body standards for the program were originally modeled after sections of ISO\/IEC 17025 and ISO\/IEC 17011.&#91;5&#93; Accreditation for NELAP is performed by U.S. state governmental agencies that wish to participate; control over scope, laboratory types accepted, and fees are all controlled by the state agency. As of April 2020&#91;update&#93;, 15 agencies in 14 states are organized as NELAP accreditation bodies. Those states are Florida, Illinois, Kansas, Louisiana, Minnesota, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Texas, Utah, and Virginia.&#91;6&#93; California used to also participate but withdrew from the program on January 31, 2014.&#91;7&#93;\nEnvironmental laboratories seeking NELAP accreditation are directed to go to their State's accreditation body. If the lab's state doesn't have such a body, the lab is still able to select an out-of-state body to do the accreditation for them.&#91;6&#93;&#91;8&#93; This sort of \"reciprocal certification\" has the disadvantage that the accredited lab will only be certified to test a certain subset of analytes and contaminants, specifically those chosen for coverage by the state's accreditation body. This requires labs to carefully select which state agency to go through. Once the application stage begins, labs go through a series of performance evaluation studies and on-site auditing as well as pay the necessary fees. Each state may vary its audit requirements for labs maintaining accreditation.&#91;9&#93;\n\nExternal links \nThe NELAC Institute\nNational Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Program\nTNI LAMS\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 1.0 1.1 \"The NELAC Instute - About TNI\".&#32;The NELAC Institute.&#32;https:\/\/nelac-institute.org\/content\/aboutus.php .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"NELAC\".&#32;U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.&#32;25 January 2011.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 10 February 2015.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150210093828\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/nelac\/ .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Mensingh, J.; Thurston, C.&#32;(1 October 2012).&#32;\"LIMS Wastes No Time Testing Wastewater\".&#32;Laboratory Equipment.&#32;Advantage Business Media.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 21 September 2015.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150921202658\/http:\/\/www.laboratoryequipment.com\/articles\/2012\/10\/lims-wastes-no-time-testing-wastewater .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Parr, J.L.&#32;(20 October 2008).&#32;\"History and Future of Laboratory Accreditation\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;The NELAC Institute.&#32;http:\/\/www.nelac-institute.org\/docs\/pubs\/NELAC%20history2008.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 23 February 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Program (NELAP)\".&#32;The NELAC Institute.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 07 March 2012.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120307105256\/http:\/\/www.nelac-institute.org\/newnelap.php .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 6.0 6.1 \"NELAP-Recognized Accreditation Bodies\".&#32;The NELAC Institute.&#32;https:\/\/nelac-institute.org\/content\/NELAP\/accred-bodies.php .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"TestAmerica NELAP Accredited in California Despite State's Decision to Withdraw from Program\".&#32;TestAmerica Laboratories, Inc.&#32;6 February 2014.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 23 February 2015.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150223210526\/http:\/\/www.testamericainc.com\/news\/2014\/testamerica-nelap-accredited-in-california-despite-state%E2%80%99s-decision-to-withdraw-from-program\/ .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Management System: Search\".&#32;The NELAC Institute.&#32;http:\/\/lams.nelac-institute.org\/search .&#32;Retrieved 23 February 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Metzger, M.&#32;(10 April 2012).&#32;\"Is your Laboratory EPA Certified?\".&#32;National Testing Laboratories, Ltd.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 27 June 2012.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120627173128\/http:\/\/www.ntllabs.com\/blog\/?p=24 .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/The_NELAC_Institute\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/The_NELAC_Institute<\/a>\nCategories: Articles containing potentially dated statements from April 2020All articles containing potentially dated statementsAccrediting organizationsNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 16 April 2020, at 22:52.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 16,807 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","8c3143a94da249329391b763571f1991_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-The_NELAC_Institute rootpage-The_NELAC_Institute skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">The NELAC Institute<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p><b>The NELAC Institute<\/b> (<b>TNI<\/b>) is a non-profit organization dedicated to promoting \"the generation of environmental data of known and documented quality through an open, inclusive, and transparent process that is responsive to the needs of the community.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NELACAbout_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NELACAbout-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The founders' long-term motivation behind the creation of the NIC was to enact a \"uniform, rigorous, and robust\" nationwide environmental laboratory and monitoring accreditation program.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NELACAbout_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NELACAbout-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> This accreditation program exists today in the form of the National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Program (NELAP).\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The NELAC Institute (TNI) was formed on November 6, 2006 as a collaboration between the National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Conference (NELAC) and the Institute for National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation (INELA) with \"the vision that all entities generating environmental data in the United States be accredited to a national standard.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EPANELAP_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EPANELAP-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>With the original 2003 NELAC Standard and 2005 updates to <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_17025\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 17025\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a89cebb34370dd860cce86881cbf29c\">ISO\/IEC 17025<\/a> as their guide, TNI continued work on revising the NELAC Standard, culminating in the release of its new standards in July 2011. The revisions both made ISO\/IEC 17025 adherence mandatory and added analysis requirements for \"five new contaminants and lower limits for existing contaminants.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LABNewStands_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LABNewStands-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Parr_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Parr-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"National_Environmental_Laboratory_Accreditation_Program\">National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Program<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>NELAP is an accreditation program targeted at environmental laboratories. The laboratory and accreditation body standards for the program were originally modeled after sections of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_17025\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 17025\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a89cebb34370dd860cce86881cbf29c\">ISO\/IEC 17025<\/a> and ISO\/IEC 17011.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NELAPHome_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NELAPHome-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Accreditation for NELAP is performed by U.S. state governmental agencies that wish to participate; control over scope, laboratory types accepted, and fees are all controlled by the state agency. As of April 2020<sup class=\"plainlinks noprint asof-tag update\" style=\"display:none;\"><\/sup>, 15 agencies in 14 states are organized as NELAP accreditation bodies. Those states are Florida, Illinois, Kansas, Louisiana, Minnesota, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Texas, Utah, and Virginia.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NELAPAccred_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NELAPAccred-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup> California used to also participate but withdrew from the program on January 31, 2014.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NELAPCali_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NELAPCali-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Environmental laboratories seeking NELAP accreditation are directed to go to their State's accreditation body. If the lab's state doesn't have such a body, the lab is still able to select an out-of-state body to do the accreditation for them.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NELAPAccred_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NELAPAccred-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TNILAMS_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TNILAMS-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup> This sort of \"reciprocal certification\" has the disadvantage that the accredited lab will only be certified to test a certain subset of analytes and contaminants, specifically those chosen for coverage by the state's accreditation body. This requires labs to carefully select which state agency to go through. Once the application stage begins, labs go through a series of performance evaluation studies and on-site auditing as well as pay the necessary fees. Each state may vary its audit requirements for labs maintaining accreditation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NELAPNTL_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NELAPNTL-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/nelac-institute.org\/index.php\" target=\"_blank\">The NELAC Institute<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/nelac-institute.org\/content\/NELAP\/index.php\" target=\"_blank\">National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Program<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/lams.nelac-institute.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">TNI LAMS<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-NELACAbout-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-NELACAbout_1-0\">1.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-NELACAbout_1-1\">1.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/nelac-institute.org\/content\/aboutus.php\" target=\"_blank\">\"The NELAC Instute - About TNI\"<\/a>.&#32;The NELAC Institute<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/nelac-institute.org\/content\/aboutus.php\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/nelac-institute.org\/content\/aboutus.php<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+NELAC+Instute+-+About+TNI&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=The+NELAC+Institute&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnelac-institute.org%2Fcontent%2Faboutus.php&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_NELAC_Institute\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EPANELAP-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-EPANELAP_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150210093828\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/nelac\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"NELAC\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.&#32;25 January 2011.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/nelac\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 10 February 2015<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150210093828\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/nelac\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150210093828\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/nelac\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=NELAC&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=25+January+2011&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Environmental+Protection+Agency&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20150210093828%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fnelac%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_NELAC_Institute\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LABNewStands-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LABNewStands_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Mensingh, J.; Thurston, C.&#32;(1 October 2012).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150921202658\/http:\/\/www.laboratoryequipment.com\/articles\/2012\/10\/lims-wastes-no-time-testing-wastewater\" target=\"_blank\">\"LIMS Wastes No Time Testing Wastewater\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Laboratory Equipment<\/i>.&#32;Advantage Business Media.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.laboratoryequipment.com\/articles\/2012\/10\/lims-wastes-no-time-testing-wastewater\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 21 September 2015<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150921202658\/http:\/\/www.laboratoryequipment.com\/articles\/2012\/10\/lims-wastes-no-time-testing-wastewater\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150921202658\/http:\/\/www.laboratoryequipment.com\/articles\/2012\/10\/lims-wastes-no-time-testing-wastewater<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=LIMS+Wastes+No+Time+Testing+Wastewater&amp;rft.atitle=Laboratory+Equipment&amp;rft.aulast=Mensingh%2C+J.%3B+Thurston%2C+C.&amp;rft.au=Mensingh%2C+J.%3B+Thurston%2C+C.&amp;rft.date=1+October+2012&amp;rft.pub=Advantage+Business+Media&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20150921202658%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.laboratoryequipment.com%2Farticles%2F2012%2F10%2Flims-wastes-no-time-testing-wastewater&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_NELAC_Institute\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Parr-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Parr_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Parr, J.L.&#32;(20 October 2008).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nelac-institute.org\/docs\/pubs\/NELAC%20history2008.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"History and Future of Laboratory Accreditation\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;The NELAC Institute<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nelac-institute.org\/docs\/pubs\/NELAC%20history2008.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.nelac-institute.org\/docs\/pubs\/NELAC%20history2008.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 23 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=History+and+Future+of+Laboratory+Accreditation&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Parr%2C+J.L.&amp;rft.au=Parr%2C+J.L.&amp;rft.date=20+October+2008&amp;rft.pub=The+NELAC+Institute&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nelac-institute.org%2Fdocs%2Fpubs%2FNELAC%2520history2008.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_NELAC_Institute\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NELAPHome-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-NELAPHome_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120307105256\/http:\/\/www.nelac-institute.org\/newnelap.php\" target=\"_blank\">\"National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Program (NELAP)\"<\/a>.&#32;The NELAC Institute.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nelac-institute.org\/newnelap.php\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 07 March 2012<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120307105256\/http:\/\/www.nelac-institute.org\/newnelap.php\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120307105256\/http:\/\/www.nelac-institute.org\/newnelap.php<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=National+Environmental+Laboratory+Accreditation+Program+%28NELAP%29&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=The+NELAC+Institute&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20120307105256%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.nelac-institute.org%2Fnewnelap.php&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_NELAC_Institute\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NELAPAccred-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-NELAPAccred_6-0\">6.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-NELAPAccred_6-1\">6.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/nelac-institute.org\/content\/NELAP\/accred-bodies.php\" target=\"_blank\">\"NELAP-Recognized Accreditation Bodies\"<\/a>.&#32;The NELAC Institute<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/nelac-institute.org\/content\/NELAP\/accred-bodies.php\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/nelac-institute.org\/content\/NELAP\/accred-bodies.php<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=NELAP-Recognized+Accreditation+Bodies&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=The+NELAC+Institute&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnelac-institute.org%2Fcontent%2FNELAP%2Faccred-bodies.php&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_NELAC_Institute\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NELAPCali-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-NELAPCali_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150223210526\/http:\/\/www.testamericainc.com\/news\/2014\/testamerica-nelap-accredited-in-california-despite-state%E2%80%99s-decision-to-withdraw-from-program\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"TestAmerica NELAP Accredited in California Despite State's Decision to Withdraw from Program\"<\/a>.&#32;TestAmerica Laboratories, Inc.&#32;6 February 2014.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.testamericainc.com\/news\/2014\/testamerica-nelap-accredited-in-california-despite-state%E2%80%99s-decision-to-withdraw-from-program\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 23 February 2015<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150223210526\/http:\/\/www.testamericainc.com\/news\/2014\/testamerica-nelap-accredited-in-california-despite-state%E2%80%99s-decision-to-withdraw-from-program\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150223210526\/http:\/\/www.testamericainc.com\/news\/2014\/testamerica-nelap-accredited-in-california-despite-state%E2%80%99s-decision-to-withdraw-from-program\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=TestAmerica+NELAP+Accredited+in+California+Despite+State%27s+Decision+to+Withdraw+from+Program&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=6+February+2014&amp;rft.pub=TestAmerica+Laboratories%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20150223210526%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.testamericainc.com%2Fnews%2F2014%2Ftestamerica-nelap-accredited-in-california-despite-state%25E2%2580%2599s-decision-to-withdraw-from-program%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_NELAC_Institute\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TNILAMS-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-TNILAMS_8-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/lams.nelac-institute.org\/search\" target=\"_blank\">\"National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Management System: Search\"<\/a>.&#32;The NELAC Institute<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/lams.nelac-institute.org\/search\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/lams.nelac-institute.org\/search<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 23 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=National+Environmental+Laboratory+Accreditation+Management+System%3A+Search&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=The+NELAC+Institute&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flams.nelac-institute.org%2Fsearch&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_NELAC_Institute\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NELAPNTL-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-NELAPNTL_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Metzger, M.&#32;(10 April 2012).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120627173128\/http:\/\/www.ntllabs.com\/blog\/?p=24\" target=\"_blank\">\"Is your Laboratory EPA Certified?\"<\/a>.&#32;National Testing Laboratories, Ltd.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ntllabs.com\/blog\/?p=24\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 27 June 2012<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120627173128\/http:\/\/www.ntllabs.com\/blog\/?p=24\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120627173128\/http:\/\/www.ntllabs.com\/blog\/?p=24<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Is+your+Laboratory+EPA+Certified%3F&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Metzger%2C+M.&amp;rft.au=Metzger%2C+M.&amp;rft.date=10+April+2012&amp;rft.pub=National+Testing+Laboratories%2C+Ltd&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20120627173128%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.ntllabs.com%2Fblog%2F%3Fp%3D24&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_NELAC_Institute\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110073305\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.251 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.304 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 6178\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 42394\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 21190\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 18\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 1\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 13624\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 267.005 1 -total\n 79.14% 211.302 1 Template:Reflist\n 62.15% 165.951 9 Template:Cite_web\n 55.29% 147.621 9 Template:Citation\/core\n 19.21% 51.300 1 Template:As_of\n 14.33% 38.259 1 Template:DMCA\n 10.94% 29.200 5 Template:Date\n 9.32% 24.879 1 Template:Dated_maintenance_category\n 8.65% 23.083 15 Template:Citation\/make_link\n 5.18% 13.844 1 Template:FULLROOTPAGENAME\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:3387-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110073305 and revision id 39048. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/The_NELAC_Institute\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/The_NELAC_Institute<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","8c3143a94da249329391b763571f1991_images":[],"8c3143a94da249329391b763571f1991_timestamp":1704907031,"7dbc9be278a8efda25a4b592ee6ef0ca_type":"article","7dbc9be278a8efda25a4b592ee6ef0ca_title":"Regulatory compliance","7dbc9be278a8efda25a4b592ee6ef0ca_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Regulatory_compliance","7dbc9be278a8efda25a4b592ee6ef0ca_plaintext":"\n\nRegulatory complianceFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regulatory_compliance?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Regulatory_compliance\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Regulatory_compliance<\/a>\nCategories: Business and data managementRegulatory informationHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 31 July 2018, at 22:05.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 5,825 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","7dbc9be278a8efda25a4b592ee6ef0ca_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Regulatory_compliance rootpage-Regulatory_compliance skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Regulatory compliance<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regulatory_compliance?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regulatory_compliance\" data-key=\"4ca6bf47b29b4fa458d97db174b6cb0f\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171711\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.147 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.214 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 103\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 1206.971 1 wikipedia:Regulatory_compliance\n100.00% 1206.971 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10705-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171710 and revision id 33634. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Regulatory_compliance\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Regulatory_compliance<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","7dbc9be278a8efda25a4b592ee6ef0ca_images":[],"7dbc9be278a8efda25a4b592ee6ef0ca_timestamp":1704907029,"0a89cebb34370dd860cce86881cbf29c_type":"article","0a89cebb34370dd860cce86881cbf29c_title":"ISO\/IEC 17025","0a89cebb34370dd860cce86881cbf29c_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_17025","0a89cebb34370dd860cce86881cbf29c_plaintext":"\n\nISO\/IEC 17025From LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search Even military testing and calibration labs like the Navy Standards Laboratory (WPP) opt to get ISO\/IEC 17025 certified.ISO\/IEC 17025 is an International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standard used by testing and calibration laboratories to provide a basis for accreditation of laboratory quality systems. There are many commonalities with the ISO 9000 family of standards, but ISO\/IEC 17025 adds in the concept of competence to the equation, applying directly to those organizations that produce testing and calibration results. \nContents \n\n1 History \n2 The standard \n\n2.1 Scope \n2.2 Normative references \n2.3 Terms and definitions \n2.4 General requirements \n2.5 Structural requirements \n2.6 Resource requirements \n2.7 Process requirements \n2.8 Management system requirements \n2.9 Annexes \n\n\n3 Accreditation \n4 Further reading \n5 External links \n6 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nISO\/IEC 17025 was originally known as ISO\/IEC Guide 25, first released in 1978, with subsequent editions following in 1982 and 1990. Guide 25 was created with the belief that \"third party certification systems [for laboratories] should, to the extent possible, be based on internationally agreed standards and procedures.\"&#91;1&#93; In the mid- to late 1990s, an update to Guide 25 was required. However, the ISO decided to convert the guide into a standard and introduce tight compatibility with ISO 9001, which was also being revised, such that ISO 9001 would be treated as a master standard and the next evolution of Guide 25 to be treated as a standard to be specifically applied to testing and calibration laboratories.\nISO\/IEC 17025:1999 was issued by the ISO in late 1999 and was internationally adopted in 2000. A second release\u2014ISO\/IEC 17025:2005\u2014was made on May 12, 2005 after it was agreed that it needed to have its wording more closely aligned with the 2000 version of ISO 9001. The most significant changes introduced greater emphasis on the responsibilities of senior management, as well as explicit requirements for continual improvement of the management system itself, particularly communication with the customer.&#91;2&#93;&#91;1&#93;\nAt the end of November 2017, the ISO released an updated version, ISO\/IEC 17025:2017. This update brought with it broader scope in sampling, testing, and calibration; a more consistent process approach; a stronger focus on information technologies; and the addition of risk-based thinking methods.&#91;3&#93;\n\nThe standard \nThe ISO\/IEC 17025:2017 standard itself comprises eight (formerly five) elements: scope, normative references, terms and definitions, general requirements, structural requirements, resource requirements, process requirements, and management system requirements. Two annexes are also included. The management and technical requirements sections of 2005 were further broken out into general, structural, resource, process, and management system requirements. The management system requirements section remains one of the more important ones, detailing the operation and effectiveness of the quality management system within the laboratory, with the process requirements being equally as vital.\nThe standard is organized as follows&#91;4&#93;&#91;5&#93;&#91;6&#93;:\n\nScope \nThe scope of the standard is described over six points. It states what type of testing and calibration is covered; who it's applicable to; the purpose for the standard; what's not covered; and how it relates to ISO 9001.\n\nNormative references \nThis section states both ISO\/IEC 17000 and the International Vocabulary of Metrology (VIM) are vital to applying the standard.\n\nTerms and definitions \nThis section simply states that relevant terms found in the standard can be defined via ISO\/IEC 17000 and VIM. The 2017 version added nine new terms to be defined, including \"impartiality,\" \"complaint,\" and \"validation.\"&#91;4&#93;&#91;6&#93;\n\nGeneral requirements \nThis section discusses the risks associated with creating biased results (impartiality) and risks associate with handling protected information (confidentiality) to the standard. The requirements are broken down into two subsections:\n4.1 Impartiality\n4.2 Confidentiality\n\nStructural requirements \nThis section addresses the organization as a legal entity, responsible for its processes and actions, including the protection of customer information.\n\nResource requirements \nThis section addresses the provisioning of resources necessary to supporting organizational operations. The requirements are broken down into six subsections:\n6.1 General\n6.2 Personnel\n6.3 Facilities and environmental conditions\n6.4 Equipment\n6.5 Metrological traceability\n6.6 Externally provided products and services\n\nProcess requirements \nThis section gets into the nuts and bolts of operations within the laboratory, running through best practices for various laboratory functions. The requirements are broken down into 11 subsections:\n7.1 Review of requests, tenders and contracts\n7.2 Selection, verification and validation of methods\n7.3 Sampling\n7.4 Handling of test or calibration items\n7.5 Technical records\n7.6 Evaluation of measurement uncertainty\n7.7 Ensuring the validity of results\n7.8 Reporting of results\n7.9 Complaints\n7.10 Nonconforming work\n7.11 Control of data and information management\n\nManagement system requirements \nThe requirements for the operational effectiveness of a laboratory's quality management system are outlined in this section. It splits compliance into two options: A. complying with all of this section's subsections, or B. complying with ISO 9001:2015. The requirements are broken down into nine subsections:\n8.1 Options\n8.2 Management system documentation (Option A)\n8.3 Control of management system documents (Option A)\n8.4 Control of records (Option A)\n8.5 Actions to address risks and opportunities (Option A)\n8.6 Improvement (Option A)\n8.7 Corrective actions (Option A)\n8.8 Internal audits (Option A)\n8.9 Management reviews (Option A)\n\nAnnexes \nTwo annexes and a bibliography are included. Annex A: Metrological traceability provides further context on section 6.5 of the standard, including addressing international agreements. Annex B: Management system options elaborates on section 8, including rationale behind the various options.\n\nAccreditation \nLaboratories use ISO\/IEC 17025 to implement a quality system aimed at improving their ability to consistently produce valid results.&#91;7&#93; It is also the basis for accreditation from an accreditation body. Since the standard is about competence, accreditation is simply formal recognition of a demonstration of that competence. A prerequisite for a laboratory to become accredited is to have a documented quality management system. The usual contents of the quality manual follow the outline of the ISO\/IEC 17025 standard.&#91;1&#93;\nNational accreditation bodies are primarily responsible for accrediting laboratories to ISO\/IEC 17025. Laboratories can use either a domestic organization or some other internationally recognized body in cases where the domestic organization \"has either no international recognition or where it lacks recognition in parts of the world relevant to the laboratory\u2019s operations.\"&#91;1&#93; Laboratories typically select a range of common and frequently used methodologies that could readily benefit and demonstrate a comprehensive quality system that those methodologies run under.\n\nFurther reading \n\"Complying with ISO 17025\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;United Nations Industrial Development Organization.&#32;October 2009.&#32;pp. 106.&#32;https:\/\/www.unido.org\/sites\/default\/files\/2010-08\/Complying_with_ISO_17025_A_practical_guidebook_0.pdf . &#160; \n\"ISO\/IEC 17025:2017 Transition\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Perry Johnson Laboratory Accreditation, Inc.&#32;26 February 2019.&#32;https:\/\/www.pjlabs.com\/downloads\/17025-Transition-Book.pdf . &#160; \nExternal links \nISO\/IEC 17025:2017\nISO\/IEC 17025:2017 on the ISO Online Browsing Platform\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 \"Complying with ISO 17025\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;United Nations Industrial Development Organization.&#32;October 2009.&#32;pp. 106.&#32;https:\/\/www.unido.org\/sites\/default\/files\/2010-08\/Complying_with_ISO_17025_A_practical_guidebook_0.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Hoolihan, D.D..&#32;\"ISO\/IEC 17025:1999 versus 2005\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Hoolihan EMC Consulting.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 24 January 2017.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170124140236\/http:\/\/gsi.nist.gov\/global\/docs\/mra\/2005_Hoolihan_17025.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Tranchard, S.&#32;(1 December 2017).&#32;\"New Edition of ISO\/IEC 17025 Just Published\".&#32;ISO News.&#32;International Organization for Standardization.&#32;https:\/\/www.iso.org\/news\/ref2250.html .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 4.0 4.1 \"ISO\/IEC 17025:2017(en) - General requirements for the competence of testing and calibration laboratories\".&#32;ISO Online Browsing Platform (OBP).&#32;International Organization for Standardization.&#32;2017.&#32;https:\/\/www.iso.org\/obp\/ui\/#iso:std:iso-iec:17025:ed-3:v1:en .&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ISO\/IEC 17025 - General requirements for the competence of testing and calibration laboratories\".&#32;Activation Laboratories Ltd.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 05 October 2019.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20191005053732\/http:\/\/www.actlabs.com\/page.aspx?menu=60&amp;app=206&amp;cat1=732&amp;tp=2&amp;lk=no .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 6.0 6.1 \"ISO\/IEC 17025:2017 Transition\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Perry Johnson Laboratory Accreditation, Inc.&#32;26 February 2019.&#32;https:\/\/www.pjlabs.com\/downloads\/17025-Transition-Book.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Honsa, J.D.; McIntyre, D.A.&#32;(2003).&#32;\"ISO 17025: Practical Benefits of Implementing a Quality System\".&#32;Journal of AOAC International&#32;86&#32;(5): 1038\u20131044.&#32;doi:10.1093\/jaoac\/86.5.1038. &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_17025\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_17025<\/a>\nCategory: Laboratory informatics standardsNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 24 January 2023, at 20:52.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 31,906 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","0a89cebb34370dd860cce86881cbf29c_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-ISO_IEC_17025 rootpage-ISO_IEC_17025 skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">ISO\/IEC 17025<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:402px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:US_Navy_100714-N-3852A-118_Hull_Systems_Technician_monitors_nitrogen_tank.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"de97ce7e843011f46d92204cfd550a0d\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/9\/96\/US_Navy_100714-N-3852A-118_Hull_Systems_Technician_monitors_nitrogen_tank.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"thumbimage\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:US_Navy_100714-N-3852A-118_Hull_Systems_Technician_monitors_nitrogen_tank.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"de97ce7e843011f46d92204cfd550a0d\"><\/a><\/div>Even military testing and calibration labs like the Navy Standards Laboratory (WPP) opt to get ISO\/IEC 17025 certified.<\/div><\/div><\/div><p><b>ISO\/IEC 17025<\/b> is an <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/International_Organization_for_Standardization\" title=\"International Organization for Standardization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"116defc5d89c8a55f5b7c1be0790b442\">International Organization for Standardization<\/a> (ISO) standard used by testing and calibration laboratories to provide a basis for accreditation of laboratory quality systems. There are many commonalities with the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_9000\" title=\"ISO 9000\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53ace2d12e80a7d890ce881bc6fe244a\">ISO 9000<\/a> family of standards, but ISO\/IEC 17025 adds in the concept of competence to the equation, applying directly to those organizations that produce testing and calibration results. \n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>ISO\/IEC 17025 was originally known as ISO\/IEC Guide 25, first released in 1978, with subsequent editions following in 1982 and 1990. Guide 25 was created with the belief that \"third party certification systems [for laboratories] should, to the extent possible, be based on internationally agreed standards and procedures.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Comp17025_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Comp17025-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> In the mid- to late 1990s, an update to Guide 25 was required. However, the ISO decided to convert the guide into a standard and introduce tight compatibility with <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_9001\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISO 9001\" data-key=\"6de0ce2bd9e48192cdb903331a793aa7\">ISO 9001<\/a>, which was also being revised, such that ISO 9001 would be treated as a master standard and the next evolution of Guide 25 to be treated as a standard to be specifically applied to testing and calibration laboratories.\n<\/p><p>ISO\/IEC 17025:1999 was issued by the ISO in late 1999 and was internationally adopted in 2000. A second release\u2014ISO\/IEC 17025:2005\u2014was made on May 12, 2005 after it was agreed that it needed to have its wording more closely aligned with the 2000 version of ISO 9001. The most significant changes introduced greater emphasis on the responsibilities of senior management, as well as explicit requirements for continual improvement of the management system itself, particularly communication with the customer.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Difs_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Difs-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Comp17025_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Comp17025-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>At the end of November 2017, the ISO released an updated version, ISO\/IEC 17025:2017. This update brought with it broader scope in sampling, testing, and calibration; a more consistent process approach; a stronger focus on information technologies; and the addition of risk-based thinking methods.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TranchardNewEd17_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TranchardNewEd17-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"The_standard\">The standard<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The ISO\/IEC 17025:2017 standard itself comprises eight (formerly five) elements: scope, normative references, terms and definitions, general requirements, structural requirements, resource requirements, process requirements, and management system requirements. Two annexes are also included. The management and technical requirements sections of 2005 were further broken out into general, structural, resource, process, and management system requirements. The management system requirements section remains one of the more important ones, detailing the operation and effectiveness of the quality management system within the laboratory, with the process requirements being equally as vital.\n<\/p><p>The standard is organized as follows<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO17025Peak_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO17025Peak-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ACT_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ACT-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PJLA_ISO_19_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PJLA_ISO_19-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Scope\">Scope<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The scope of the standard is described over six points. It states what type of testing and calibration is covered; who it's applicable to; the purpose for the standard; what's not covered; and how it relates to ISO 9001.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Normative_references\">Normative references<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This section states both ISO\/IEC 17000 and the International Vocabulary of Metrology (VIM) are vital to applying the standard.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Terms_and_definitions\">Terms and definitions<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This section simply states that relevant terms found in the standard can be defined via ISO\/IEC 17000 and VIM. The 2017 version added nine new terms to be defined, including \"impartiality,\" \"complaint,\" and \"validation.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO17025Peak_4-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO17025Peak-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PJLA_ISO_19_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PJLA_ISO_19-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"General_requirements\">General requirements<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This section discusses the risks associated with creating biased results (impartiality) and risks associate with handling protected information (confidentiality) to the standard. The requirements are broken down into two subsections:\n<\/p><p><b>4.1<\/b> Impartiality\n<\/p><p><b>4.2<\/b> Confidentiality\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Structural_requirements\">Structural requirements<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This section addresses the organization as a legal entity, responsible for its processes and actions, including the protection of customer information.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Resource_requirements\">Resource requirements<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This section addresses the provisioning of resources necessary to supporting organizational operations. The requirements are broken down into six subsections:\n<\/p><p><b>6.1<\/b> General\n<\/p><p><b>6.2<\/b> Personnel\n<\/p><p><b>6.3<\/b> Facilities and environmental conditions\n<\/p><p><b>6.4<\/b> Equipment\n<\/p><p><b>6.5<\/b> Metrological traceability\n<\/p><p><b>6.6<\/b> Externally provided products and services\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Process_requirements\">Process requirements<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This section gets into the nuts and bolts of operations within the laboratory, running through best practices for various laboratory functions. The requirements are broken down into 11 subsections:\n<\/p><p><b>7.1<\/b> Review of requests, tenders and contracts\n<\/p><p><b>7.2<\/b> Selection, verification and validation of methods\n<\/p><p><b>7.3<\/b> Sampling\n<\/p><p><b>7.4<\/b> Handling of test or calibration items\n<\/p><p><b>7.5<\/b> Technical records\n<\/p><p><b>7.6<\/b> Evaluation of measurement uncertainty\n<\/p><p><b>7.7<\/b> Ensuring the validity of results\n<\/p><p><b>7.8<\/b> Reporting of results\n<\/p><p><b>7.9<\/b> Complaints\n<\/p><p><b>7.10<\/b> Nonconforming work\n<\/p><p><b>7.11<\/b> Control of data and information management\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Management_system_requirements\">Management system requirements<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The requirements for the operational effectiveness of a laboratory's quality management system are outlined in this section. It splits compliance into two options: A. complying with all of this section's subsections, or B. complying with ISO 9001:2015. The requirements are broken down into nine subsections:\n<\/p><p><b>8.1<\/b> Options\n<\/p><p><b>8.2<\/b> Management system documentation (Option A)\n<\/p><p><b>8.3<\/b> Control of management system documents (Option A)\n<\/p><p><b>8.4<\/b> Control of records (Option A)\n<\/p><p><b>8.5<\/b> Actions to address risks and opportunities (Option A)\n<\/p><p><b>8.6<\/b> Improvement (Option A)\n<\/p><p><b>8.7<\/b> Corrective actions (Option A)\n<\/p><p><b>8.8<\/b> Internal audits (Option A)\n<\/p><p><b>8.9<\/b> Management reviews (Option A)\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Annexes\">Annexes<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Two annexes and a bibliography are included. <i>Annex A: Metrological traceability<\/i> provides further context on section 6.5 of the standard, including addressing international agreements. <i>Annex B: Management system options<\/i> elaborates on section 8, including rationale behind the various options.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Accreditation\">Accreditation<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Laboratories use ISO\/IEC 17025 to implement a quality system aimed at improving their ability to consistently produce valid results.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Honsa_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Honsa-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup> It is also the basis for accreditation from an accreditation body. Since the standard is about competence, accreditation is simply formal recognition of a demonstration of that competence. A prerequisite for a laboratory to become accredited is to have a documented quality management system. The usual contents of the quality manual follow the outline of the ISO\/IEC 17025 standard.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Comp17025_1-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Comp17025-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>National accreditation bodies are primarily responsible for accrediting laboratories to ISO\/IEC 17025. Laboratories can use either a domestic organization or some other internationally recognized body in cases where the domestic organization \"has either no international recognition or where it lacks recognition in parts of the world relevant to the laboratory\u2019s operations.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Comp17025_1-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Comp17025-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Laboratories typically select a range of common and frequently used methodologies that could readily benefit and demonstrate a comprehensive quality system that those methodologies run under.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.unido.org\/sites\/default\/files\/2010-08\/Complying_with_ISO_17025_A_practical_guidebook_0.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Complying with ISO 17025\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;United Nations Industrial Development Organization.&#32;October 2009.&#32;pp. 106<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.unido.org\/sites\/default\/files\/2010-08\/Complying_with_ISO_17025_A_practical_guidebook_0.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.unido.org\/sites\/default\/files\/2010-08\/Complying_with_ISO_17025_A_practical_guidebook_0.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Complying+with+ISO+17025&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=October+2009&amp;rft.pages=pp.+106&amp;rft.pub=United+Nations+Industrial+Development+Organization&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unido.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2F2010-08%2FComplying_with_ISO_17025_A_practical_guidebook_0.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO\/IEC_17025\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.pjlabs.com\/downloads\/17025-Transition-Book.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO\/IEC 17025:2017 Transition\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Perry Johnson Laboratory Accreditation, Inc.&#32;26 February 2019<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.pjlabs.com\/downloads\/17025-Transition-Book.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.pjlabs.com\/downloads\/17025-Transition-Book.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO%2FIEC+17025%3A2017+Transition&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=26+February+2019&amp;rft.pub=Perry+Johnson+Laboratory+Accreditation%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pjlabs.com%2Fdownloads%2F17025-Transition-Book.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO\/IEC_17025\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/39883.html\" target=\"_blank\">ISO\/IEC 17025:2017<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/obp\/ui\/#iso:std:iso-iec:17025:ed-3:v1:en\" target=\"_blank\">ISO\/IEC 17025:2017<\/a> on the ISO Online Browsing Platform<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-Comp17025-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Comp17025_1-0\">1.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Comp17025_1-1\">1.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Comp17025_1-2\">1.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Comp17025_1-3\">1.3<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.unido.org\/sites\/default\/files\/2010-08\/Complying_with_ISO_17025_A_practical_guidebook_0.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Complying with ISO 17025\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;United Nations Industrial Development Organization.&#32;October 2009.&#32;pp. 106<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.unido.org\/sites\/default\/files\/2010-08\/Complying_with_ISO_17025_A_practical_guidebook_0.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.unido.org\/sites\/default\/files\/2010-08\/Complying_with_ISO_17025_A_practical_guidebook_0.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Complying+with+ISO+17025&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=October+2009&amp;rft.pages=pp.+106&amp;rft.pub=United+Nations+Industrial+Development+Organization&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unido.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2F2010-08%2FComplying_with_ISO_17025_A_practical_guidebook_0.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO\/IEC_17025\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Difs-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Difs_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Hoolihan, D.D..&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170124140236\/http:\/\/gsi.nist.gov\/global\/docs\/mra\/2005_Hoolihan_17025.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO\/IEC 17025:1999 versus 2005\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Hoolihan EMC Consulting.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/gsi.nist.gov\/global\/docs\/mra\/2005_Hoolihan_17025.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 24 January 2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170124140236\/http:\/\/gsi.nist.gov\/global\/docs\/mra\/2005_Hoolihan_17025.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170124140236\/http:\/\/gsi.nist.gov\/global\/docs\/mra\/2005_Hoolihan_17025.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO%2FIEC+17025%3A1999+versus+2005&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Hoolihan%2C+D.D.&amp;rft.au=Hoolihan%2C+D.D.&amp;rft.pub=Hoolihan+EMC+Consulting&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20170124140236%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fgsi.nist.gov%2Fglobal%2Fdocs%2Fmra%2F2005_Hoolihan_17025.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO\/IEC_17025\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TranchardNewEd17-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-TranchardNewEd17_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Tranchard, S.&#32;(1 December 2017).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/news\/ref2250.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"New Edition of ISO\/IEC 17025 Just Published\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>ISO News<\/i>.&#32;International Organization for Standardization<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/news\/ref2250.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.iso.org\/news\/ref2250.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=New+Edition+of+ISO%2FIEC+17025+Just+Published&amp;rft.atitle=ISO+News&amp;rft.aulast=Tranchard%2C+S.&amp;rft.au=Tranchard%2C+S.&amp;rft.date=1+December+2017&amp;rft.pub=International+Organization+for+Standardization&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fnews%2Fref2250.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO\/IEC_17025\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ISO17025Peak-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO17025Peak_4-0\">4.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO17025Peak_4-1\">4.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#iso:std:iso-iec:17025:ed-3:v1:en\">\"ISO\/IEC 17025:2017(en) - General requirements for the competence of testing and calibration laboratories\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>ISO Online Browsing Platform (OBP)<\/i>.&#32;International Organization for Standardization.&#32;2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"#iso:std:iso-iec:17025:ed-3:v1:en\">https:\/\/www.iso.org\/obp\/ui\/#iso:std:iso-iec:17025:ed-3:v1:en<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO%2FIEC+17025%3A2017%28en%29+-+General+requirements+for+the+competence+of+testing+and+calibration+laboratories&amp;rft.atitle=ISO+Online+Browsing+Platform+%28OBP%29&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft.pub=International+Organization+for+Standardization&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fobp%2Fui%2F%23iso%3Astd%3Aiso-iec%3A17025%3Aed-3%3Av1%3Aen&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO\/IEC_17025\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ACT-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ACT_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20191005053732\/http:\/\/www.actlabs.com\/page.aspx?menu=60&app=206&cat1=732&tp=2&lk=no\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO\/IEC 17025 - General requirements for the competence of testing and calibration laboratories\"<\/a>.&#32;Activation Laboratories Ltd.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/actlabs.com\/page.aspx?menu=60&app=206&cat1=732&tp=2&lk=no\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 05 October 2019<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20191005053732\/http:\/\/www.actlabs.com\/page.aspx?menu=60&app=206&cat1=732&tp=2&lk=no\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20191005053732\/http:\/\/www.actlabs.com\/page.aspx?menu=60&amp;app=206&amp;cat1=732&amp;tp=2&amp;lk=no<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO%2FIEC+17025+-+General+requirements+for+the+competence+of+testing+and+calibration+laboratories&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Activation+Laboratories+Ltd&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20191005053732%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.actlabs.com%2Fpage.aspx%3Fmenu%3D60%26app%3D206%26cat1%3D732%26tp%3D2%26lk%3Dno&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO\/IEC_17025\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PJLA_ISO_19-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-PJLA_ISO_19_6-0\">6.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-PJLA_ISO_19_6-1\">6.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.pjlabs.com\/downloads\/17025-Transition-Book.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO\/IEC 17025:2017 Transition\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Perry Johnson Laboratory Accreditation, Inc.&#32;26 February 2019<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.pjlabs.com\/downloads\/17025-Transition-Book.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.pjlabs.com\/downloads\/17025-Transition-Book.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO%2FIEC+17025%3A2017+Transition&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=26+February+2019&amp;rft.pub=Perry+Johnson+Laboratory+Accreditation%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pjlabs.com%2Fdownloads%2F17025-Transition-Book.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO\/IEC_17025\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Honsa-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Honsa_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Honsa, J.D.; McIntyre, D.A.&#32;(2003).&#32;\"ISO 17025: Practical Benefits of Implementing a Quality System\".&#32;<i>Journal of AOAC International<\/i>&#32;<b>86<\/b>&#32;(5): 1038\u20131044.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1093%2Fjaoac%2F86.5.1038\" target=\"_blank\">10.1093\/jaoac\/86.5.1038<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=ISO+17025%3A+Practical+Benefits+of+Implementing+a+Quality+System&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+AOAC+International&amp;rft.aulast=Honsa%2C+J.D.%3B+McIntyre%2C+D.A.&amp;rft.au=Honsa%2C+J.D.%3B+McIntyre%2C+D.A.&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.volume=86&amp;rft.issue=5&amp;rft.pages=1038%E2%80%931044&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1093%2Fjaoac%2F86.5.1038&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO\/IEC_17025\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110000049\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.526 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.022 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 6175\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 39336\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 17427\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 18\/40\nExpensive parser function 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Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_17025\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_17025<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","0a89cebb34370dd860cce86881cbf29c_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/9\/96\/US_Navy_100714-N-3852A-118_Hull_Systems_Technician_monitors_nitrogen_tank.jpg"],"0a89cebb34370dd860cce86881cbf29c_timestamp":1704907029,"0760ac8a009427ff5077ec385024faed_type":"article","0760ac8a009427ff5077ec385024faed_title":"ISO\/IEC 12207","0760ac8a009427ff5077ec385024faed_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_12207","0760ac8a009427ff5077ec385024faed_plaintext":"\n\nISO\/IEC 12207From LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\/IEC_12207?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_12207\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_12207<\/a>\nCategories: Design and development standardsSoftware standardsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 22 June 2018, at 22:01.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 3,306 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","0760ac8a009427ff5077ec385024faed_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-ISO_IEC_12207 rootpage-ISO_IEC_12207 skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">ISO\/IEC 12207<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\/IEC_12207?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\/IEC_12207\" data-key=\"ee1dab1cc8d418c7364804835b424f4c\">article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171709\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.128 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.245 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 95\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 240.193 1 wikipedia:ISO\/IEC_12207\n100.00% 240.193 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10658-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171709 and revision id 33472. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_12207\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_12207<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","0760ac8a009427ff5077ec385024faed_images":[],"0760ac8a009427ff5077ec385024faed_timestamp":1704907029,"53ace2d12e80a7d890ce881bc6fe244a_type":"article","53ace2d12e80a7d890ce881bc6fe244a_title":"ISO 9000","53ace2d12e80a7d890ce881bc6fe244a_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_9000","53ace2d12e80a7d890ce881bc6fe244a_plaintext":"\n\nISO 9000From LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search A General Motors assembly plant advertises its ISO 9001 certification.\nISO 9000 is a family of standards related to quality management systems and designed to help organizations ensure that they meet the needs of customers and other stakeholders.&#91;1&#93; The standards are published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and are available through national standards bodies. ISO 9000 deals with the fundamentals of quality management systems &#91;2&#93;, including the eight management principles on which the family of standards is based.&#91;2&#93;&#91;3&#93;\nISO 9001 deals with the requirements that organizations wishing to meet the standard have to fulfill.&#91;4&#93; Third-party certification bodies provide independent confirmation that organizations meet the requirements of ISO 9001. Over a million organizations in over 170 countries&#91;5&#93; are independently certified, making ISO 9001 one of the most widely used management tools in the world today. Despite widespread use, however, the ISO certification process has been criticized at times as being wasteful and not being useful for all organizations.&#91;6&#93;&#91;7&#93;&#91;8&#93;&#91;9&#93;&#91;10&#93;\n\nContents \n\n1 History \n\n1.1 Changes to ISO 9000 \n\n\n2 Adoption of the standard \n3 Criticisms of the standard \n4 Further reading \n5 External links \n6 Notes \n7 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nThe ISO 9000 family of standards was originally built on several British standards developed in the early 1970s: BS 9000, BS 5179, and BS 5750. These quality assurance standards were initially related to the electronics manufacturing industry and set guidelines on managing supply-side quality through auditing and contractual documentation.&#91;11&#93; However, the history of ISO 9000 can be traced back even further to the publication of the United States Department of Defense MIL-Q-9858 standard in 1959. MIL-Q-9858 was revised into the NATO AQAP series of standards in 1969, which in turn were revised into the BS 5179 series of guidance standards published in 1974, and finally revised into the BS 5750 series of requirements standards in 1979.&#91;12&#93;&#91;13&#93;\nAs the idea of company certification of meeting a certain level of quality became more attractive, the push for a more rigorous international standard (primarily led by the British Standards Institute [BSI]&#91;14&#93;) resulted in the creation of the ISO 9000 family in 1987.&#91;11&#93; Originally based on BS 5750, the ISO 9000 family started out with three quality management models and a set of guidelines for following them&#91;15&#93;&#91;16&#93;:\n\nISO 9001:1987 Model for quality assurance in design, development, production, installation, and servicing\nISO 9002:1987 Model for quality assurance in production, installation, and servicing\nISO 9003:1987 Model for quality assurance in final inspection and test\nISO 9004.1:1987 Quality management and quality system elements - Part 1: Guidelines\nChanges to ISO 9000 \nIn 1994, the ISO 9000 standards were updated to place focus on the importance of quality control and preventative action, and emphasize the need for the documentation of procedures.&#91;16&#93;&#91;17&#93;\nIn 2000, ISO 9001, 9002, and 9003 were combined into ISO 9001:2000, with a major shift in focus towards quality management versus quality control as well as a focus on process management, \"the monitoring and optimizing of a company's tasks and activities, instead of just inspecting the final product.\"&#91;17&#93; It directed manufacturers to carefully examine client requirements in order to design and improve processes and improve customer satisfaction.&#91;16&#93;\nThe 2008 changes to ISO 9001 were minimal, clarifying and simplifying language while making it more consistent with other standards.&#91;17&#93;&#91;16&#93;\nThe ISO 9004 guidelines document was updated in 2009 \"to promote a sustainable business approach\" that focused on all stakeholders.&#91;16&#93;\nAn updated version of ISO 9001 is expected at the end of 2015 if the ISO members vote favorably in the second quarter of 2015.&#91;18&#93; With the revision the scope of the standard will not change. An essential change, however, will affect the structure. The new ISO 9001:2015 will follow the so-called high-level structure. This, and the uniform use of core texts and terms, will enable an identical structure for all management systems.&#91;19&#93; \n\nAdoption of the standard \nThe global adoption of ISO 9001 may be attributable to a number of factors. Many major purchasers require their suppliers to hold ISO 9001 certification. In addition to several stakeholders' benefits, a number of studies have identified significant workflow and financial benefits for organizations certified to ISO 9001. Examples include:\n1. In 2002, Heras et al. found superior return on assets compared to otherwise similar organizations without certification and demonstrated that this was statistically significant and not a function of organization size.&#91;20&#93; \n2. A 2003 study of 146 Singapore-based companies by Chow-Chua et al. found improved financial performance, though with the caveat \"that while certification leads to better overall financial performance, non\u2010listed certified firms experience better documentation procedures, higher perceived quality of products or services, and more effective communication among employees than listed certified firms.\"&#91;21&#93;\n3. That same year Rajan and Tamimi showed that ISO 9001 certification resulted in superior stock market performance and suggested that shareholders were richly rewarded for investing in the certified companies.&#91;22&#93;\n4. In 2005, Corbett et al. showed in 2005 similar superior performance, atating that \"three years after certification, the certified firms do display strongly significant abnormal performance under all control-group specifications.\"&#91;23&#93; \n5. That same year, Sharma linked increases in \"operating efficiency, growth in sales, and overall financial performance\" gains with ISO 9000 certification.&#91;24&#93; \n6. Naveha and Marcus claimed in 2007 that manufacturers in the U.S. automotive industry that implemented ISO 9001 saw superior operational performance soon after.&#91;25&#93;\n7. A 2011 survey from The British Assessment Bureau showing 44 percent of their certified clients had won new business due to becoming certified.&#91;26&#93;\n8. More recently, in 2019, Domingues et al. surveyed a worldwide collection of IRCA (International Register of Certified Auditors) QM ISO 9001 Auditors, noting that \"relying on third-party auditor's feedback brings a more independent perspective than studies based on quality managers or consultants' views.\" They hypothesized that organizations seeking certification would see the most sustainable business improvements by turning to quality auditors. The authors indeed found that having \"competent and experienced auditors is essential to ensure a credible and accountable certification process to all stakeholders,\" which aligned well with other research \"that found that organizations that adopt early planning, carry on ISO 9001:2015 training, and ensure they have the necessary competences, reported the soundest benefits and fewer difficulties in successfully implementing ISO 9001:2015.\"&#91;27&#93;\nWhile the connection between superior financial performance and ISO 9001 may be seen from the examples cited, there remains no proof of direct causation, though longitudinal studies such as those of Corbett et al.&#91;23&#93; may suggest it. Other researchers such as Heras et al. have suggested that while there is some evidence of this, the improvement is partly driven by the fact that there is a tendency for better performing companies to seek ISO 9001 certification.&#91;20&#93;\n\nCriticisms of the standard \nA common criticism of the ISO 9000 family of standards is the amount of money, time, and paperwork required for registration. In 2003, writing for Quality Magazine, engineer Scott Dalgleish emphasized that \"[u]nder ISO, every quality system enhancement triggers enormous documentation changes that make quality managers question whether the benefits of the change are worth the effort.\"&#91;28&#93; In a piece for Inc. magazine in 2005, journalist Stephanie Clifford told the story of Delaware North Companies, which spent nearly 18 months and $115,000 just to certify their guest services management division.&#91;6&#93;\nOthers have chosen not to adopt the standard because of the perceived risks and uncertainty of not knowing if there are direct relationships to improved quality as well as doubts about what kind and how many resources will be needed. Other perceived risks include how much certification will cost, increased bureaucratic processes, and risk of poor company image if the certification process fails.&#91;29&#93; Critics like John Seddon, a leading global authority on the service industry, claim ISO 9001 promotes specification, control, and procedures rather than understanding and improvement.&#91;8&#93; Others like business improvement specialist Jim Wade have argued that ISO 9001 is effective as a guideline, but that promoting it as a standard \"helps to mislead companies into thinking that certification means better quality, ... [undermining] the need for an organization to set its own quality standards.\"&#91;30&#93; In short, Wade argues that reliance on the specifications of ISO 9001 does not guarantee a successful quality system.\nThe standard has been seen as especially prone to failure when a company is interested in certification before quality.&#91;8&#93; Certifications have in fact often been based on customer contractual requirements rather than a desire to actually improve quality.&#91;31&#93;&#91;32&#93; \"If you just want the certificate on the wall, chances are you will create a paper system that doesn't have much to do with the way you actually run your business,\" said ISO's Roger Frost in 2001.&#91;32&#93; Certification by an independent auditor is often seen as the problem area, and according to Barnes, it \"has become a vehicle to increase consulting services.\"&#91;31&#93;\n\nFurther reading \nAbuhav, I.&#32;(2017).&#32;ISO 9001:2015 - A Complete Guide to Quality Management Systems.&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp.&#160;428.&#32;ISBN&#160;9781498733212.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=NmUlDgAAQBAJ . &#160; \nExternal links \nISO 9000 at the International Organization for Standardization\nNotes \nThis article reuses a few elements from the Wikipedia article.\n\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 Poksinska, B.; J\u00f6rn Dahlgaard, J.; Antoni, M.&#32;(2002).&#32;\"The state of ISO 9000 certification: A study of Swedish organizations\".&#32;The TQM Magazine&#32;14&#32;(5): 297\u2013306.&#32;doi:10.1108\/09544780210439734. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 2.0 2.1 Tsim, Y.; Yeung, V.; Leung, E.&#32;(2002).&#32;\"An adaptation to ISO 9001:2000 for certified organisations\".&#32;Managerial Auditing Journal&#32;17&#32;(5): 245\u201350.&#32;doi:10.1108\/02686900210429669. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Beattie, K.R.&#32;(2010).&#32;\"Implementing ISO 9000: A study of its benefits among Australian organizations\".&#32;Total Quality Management&#32;10&#32;(1): 95\u2013106.&#32;doi:10.1080\/0954412998090. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ISO 9001:2015 Quality management systems \u2014 Requirements\".&#32;International Organization for Standardization.&#32;September 2015.&#32;https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/62085.html .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ISO 9000 Family Quality Management\".&#32;International Organization for Standardization.&#32;https:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso-9001-quality-management.html .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 6.0 6.1 Clifford, S.&#32;(1 May 2005).&#32;\"So many standards to follow, so little payoff\".&#32;Inc. Magazine.&#32;https:\/\/www.inc.com\/magazine\/20050501\/management.html .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Wilson, I.&#32;(4 June 2010).&#32;\"Is ISO the way to go? Some say, Not So\".&#32;Westgard QC, Inc.&#32;http:\/\/james.westgard.com\/the_westgard_rules\/2010\/06\/iso-not-so.html .&#32;Retrieved 28 February 2012 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 8.0 8.1 8.2 Seddon, J.&#32;(18 November 2000).&#32;\"The 'quality' you can't feel\".&#32;The Guardian.&#32;https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/money\/2000\/nov\/19\/workandcareers.madeleinebunting .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Seddon, J.&#32;(2000).&#32;\"Chapter 1: A Brief History of ISO 9000 - Where did we go wrong?\".&#32;The Case Against ISO 9000&#32;(2nd ed.).&#32;Oak Tree Press.&#32;ISBN&#160;1860761739.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 18 January 2012.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120118194114\/http:\/\/www.systemsthinking.co.uk\/3-1-article.asp .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 O'Connor, P.D.T.&#32;(1991).&#32;\"ISO 9000: Help or Hoax\".&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 16 June 2013.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130616091145\/http:\/\/www.pat-oconnor.co.uk\/iso9000.htm .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 11.0 11.1 \"The history of ISO 9000\".&#32;The British Assessment Bureau.&#32;4 April 2012.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 04 August 2013.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130804070737\/http:\/\/www.british-assessment.co.uk\/articles\/the-history-of-iso-9000\/ .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Miura, A.&#32;(September 2004).&#32;\"MIL-Q-9858A, the Origin of ISO 9001\".&#32;Tech Journal.&#32;ASQ.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 10 August 2017.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170810051200\/http:\/\/asq.org\/fdc\/2012\/06\/mil-q-9858a-the-origin-of-iso-9001.html?shl=109629 .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Lamprecht, James L.&#32;(2000).&#32;\"Chapter 12: The ISO 9000 Phenomenon and the Privatization of Military Standards\".&#32;Quality and Power in the Supply Chain: What Industry Does for the Sake of Quality.&#32;Newnes.&#32;pp.&#160;125\u2013148.&#32;ISBN&#160;9780750673433.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=fSFlJSZLgfgC&amp;pg=PA132 .&#32;Retrieved 19 February 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ISO 9001 Whitepaper: The history and future of ISO 9001\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;BSI.&#32;March 2014.&#32;https:\/\/www.bsigroup.com\/LocalFiles\/en-IN\/Resources\/ISO%209001\/ISO-9001-Whitepaper-the-history-and-future-of-ISO%209001.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"History of ISO 9000 at a glance\".&#32;Standards Consultants Ltd.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 08 January 2014.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140108051024\/http:\/\/www.standardsconsultants.com\/iso-9000-overview .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 \"ISO 9000:1987\".&#32;International Organization for Standardization.&#32;https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/16529.html .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 17.0 17.1 17.2 \"History and Evolution of ISO 9000\".&#32;Kaizen Consulting Group.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 11 June 2013.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130611083052\/http:\/\/www.kcg.com.sg\/history-iso9000.html .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Calabrese, R.&#32;(3 December 2014).&#32;\"Countdown to ISO 9001:2015\".&#32;Quality Digest.&#32;Quality Circle Institute, Inc.&#32;https:\/\/www.qualitydigest.com\/inside\/quality-insider-article\/countdown-iso-90012015.html .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Croft, N.H.&#32;(28 August 2012).&#32;\"ISO 9001:2015 and beyond - Preparing for the next 25 years of quality management standards\".&#32;International Organization for Standardization.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 16 February 2015.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150216111440\/http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/home\/news_index\/news_archive\/news.htm?refid=Ref1633 .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 20.0 20.1 Heras,&#32;I\u00f1aki&#59;&#32;Dick,&#32;Gavin P.M.&#59;&#32;Casades\u00fas,&#32;Mart\u00ed&#32;(2002).&#32;\"ISO 9000 registration's impact on sales and profitability: A longitudinal analysis of performance before and after accreditation\".&#32;International Journal of Quality &amp; Reliability Management&#32;19&#32;(6): 774\u2013791.&#32;doi:10.1108\/02656710210429618. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Chow-Chua,&#32;Clare&#59;&#32;Goh,&#32;Mark&#59;&#32;Wan,&#32;Tan Boon&#32;(2003).&#32;\"Does ISO 9000 certification improve business performance?\".&#32;International Journal of Quality &amp; Reliability Management&#32;20&#32;(8): 936\u2013953.&#32;doi:10.1108\/02656710310493643. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Rajan,&#32;Murli&#59;&#32;Tamimi,&#32;Nabil&#32;(2003).&#32;\"Payoff to ISO 9000 Registration\".&#32;The Journal of Investing&#32;12&#32;(1): 71\u201377.&#32;doi:10.3905\/joi.2003.319536. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 23.0 23.1 Corbett,&#32;Charles J.&#59;&#32;Montes-Sancho,&#32;Mar\u00eda J.&#59;&#32;Kirsch,&#32;David A.&#32;(2005).&#32;\"The Financial Impact of ISO 9000 Certification in the United States: An Empirical Analysis\".&#32;Management Science&#32;51&#32;(7): 1607\u201316.&#32;doi:10.1287\/mnsc.1040.0358. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Sharma,&#32;Divesh S.&#32;(2005).&#32;\"The association between ISO 9000 certification and financial performance\".&#32;The International Journal of Accounting&#32;40&#32;(2): 151\u2013172.&#32;doi:10.1016\/j.intacc.2005.01.011. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Naveh,&#32;Eitan&#59;&#32;Marcus,&#32;Alfred&#32;(2007).&#32;\"Financial performance, ISO 9000 standard and safe driving practices effects on accident rate in the U.S. Motor carrier industry\".&#32;Accident Analysis &amp; Prevention&#32;39&#32;(4): 731\u2013742.&#32;doi:10.1016\/j.aap.2006.11.004. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ISO 9001 proven to help win new business\".&#32;The British Assessment Bureau.&#32;25 May 2011.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 28 July 2013.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130728164740\/http:\/\/www.british-assessment.co.uk\/news\/iso-9001-proven-to-help-win-new-business .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Domingues, J.P.; Reis, A.M.; Fonseca, L.M. et al.&#32;(2019).&#32;\"The Added Value of the ISO 9001:2015 International Standard from an Auditor's Perspective: A CB-SEM Based Evaluation\".&#32;International Journal for Quality Research&#32;13&#32;(4): 967\u201386.&#32;doi:10.24874\/IJQR13.04-15. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Dalgleish, S.&#32;(5 May 2003).&#32;\"ISO 9000: More Hindrance than Help\".&#32;Quality Magazine.&#32;BNP Media.&#32;https:\/\/www.qualitymag.com\/articles\/84308-probing-the-limits-br-iso-9000-more-hindrance-than-help .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Sroufe, Robert; Curkovic, Sime&#32;(July 2008).&#32;\"An examination of ISO 9000:2000 and supply chain quality assurance\".&#32;Journal of Operations Management&#32;26&#32;(4): 503\u2013520.&#32;doi:10.1016\/j.jom.2007.06.006. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Wade, Jim&#32;(May\u2013June 2002).&#32;\"Is ISO 9000 really a standard?\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;ISO Management Systems.&#32;pp. 17\u201320.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 03 January 2007.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20070103143212\/http:\/\/www.bin.co.uk\/IMS_May_2002.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 31.0 31.1 Barnes, F.&#32;(22 March 2000).&#32;\"Good Business Sense Is the Key to Confronting ISO 9000\".&#32;AllBusiness.&#32;AllBusiness.com, Inc.&#32;https:\/\/www.thefreelibrary.com\/Good+Business+Sense+Is+the+Key+to+Confronting+ISO+9000.-a073182519 .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 32.0 32.1 Henricks, Mark&#32;(01 Decenber 2001).&#32;\"ISO a Go-Go\".&#32;Entrepreneur Magazine.&#32;Entrepreneur Media, Inc.&#32;https:\/\/www.entrepreneur.com\/article\/46342 .&#32;Retrieved 19 February 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_9000\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_9000<\/a>\nCategory: Production standardsNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 8 January 2022, at 01:01.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 26,061 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","53ace2d12e80a7d890ce881bc6fe244a_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-ISO_9000 rootpage-ISO_9000 skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">ISO 9000<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:402px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Janesville_GM_Assembly_Plant_-_ISO_9001_Certified_sign_(3549915451).jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"3da7a4e566deb147b80af46bf15c34ac\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/6\/66\/Janesville_GM_Assembly_Plant_-_ISO_9001_Certified_sign_%283549915451%29.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"thumbimage\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Janesville_GM_Assembly_Plant_-_ISO_9001_Certified_sign_(3549915451).jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"3da7a4e566deb147b80af46bf15c34ac\"><\/a><\/div>A General Motors assembly plant advertises its ISO 9001 certification.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p><b>ISO 9000 <\/b> is a family of standards related to quality management systems and designed to help organizations ensure that they meet the needs of customers and other stakeholders.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PoksinskaTheState02_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PoksinskaTheState02-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The standards are published by the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/International_Organization_for_Standardization\" title=\"International Organization for Standardization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"116defc5d89c8a55f5b7c1be0790b442\">International Organization for Standardization<\/a> (ISO) and are available through national standards bodies. ISO 9000 deals with the fundamentals of quality management systems <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TsimAnAdapt02_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TsimAnAdapt02-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, including the eight management principles on which the family of standards is based.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TsimAnAdapt02_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TsimAnAdapt02-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BeattieImplem10_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BeattieImplem10-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>ISO 9001 deals with the requirements that organizations wishing to meet the standard have to fulfill.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Third-party certification bodies provide independent confirmation that organizations meet the requirements of ISO 9001. Over a million organizations in over 170 countries<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup> are independently certified, making ISO 9001 one of the most widely used management tools in the world today. Despite widespread use, however, the ISO certification process has been criticized at times as being wasteful and not being useful for all organizations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-clifford_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-clifford-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-wilson_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-wilson-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Seddon_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Seddon-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-seddon2_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-seddon2-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OConnor_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OConnor-10\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The ISO 9000 family of standards was originally built on several British standards developed in the early 1970s: BS 9000, BS 5179, and BS 5750. These quality assurance standards were initially related to the electronics manufacturing industry and set guidelines on managing supply-side quality through auditing and contractual documentation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-His90001_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-His90001-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup> However, the history of ISO 9000 can be traced back even further to the publication of the United States Department of Defense MIL-Q-9858 standard in 1959. MIL-Q-9858 was revised into the NATO AQAP series of standards in 1969, which in turn were revised into the BS 5179 series of guidance standards published in 1974, and finally revised into the BS 5750 series of requirements standards in 1979.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Miura_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Miura-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Lamprecht_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Lamprecht-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>As the idea of company certification of meeting a certain level of quality became more attractive, the push for a more rigorous international standard (primarily led by the British Standards Institute [BSI]<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BSI9000_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BSI9000-14\">&#91;14&#93;<\/a><\/sup>) resulted in the creation of the ISO 9000 family in 1987.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-His90001_11-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-His90001-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Originally based on BS 5750, the ISO 9000 family started out with three quality management models and a set of guidelines for following them<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-His90002_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-His90002-15\">&#91;15&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9000-1987_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9000-1987-16\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>ISO 9001:1987 Model for quality assurance in design, development, production, installation, and servicing<\/li>\n<li>ISO 9002:1987 Model for quality assurance in production, installation, and servicing<\/li>\n<li>ISO 9003:1987 Model for quality assurance in final inspection and test<\/li>\n<li>ISO 9004.1:1987 Quality management and quality system elements - Part 1: Guidelines<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Changes_to_ISO_9000\">Changes to ISO 9000<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In 1994, the ISO 9000 standards were updated to place focus on the importance of quality control and preventative action, and emphasize the need for the documentation of procedures.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9000-1987_16-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9000-1987-16\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Kaizen_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Kaizen-17\">&#91;17&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In 2000, ISO 9001, 9002, and 9003 were combined into ISO 9001:2000, with a major shift in focus towards quality management versus quality control as well as a focus on process management, \"the monitoring and optimizing of a company's tasks and activities, instead of just inspecting the final product.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Kaizen_17-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Kaizen-17\">&#91;17&#93;<\/a><\/sup> It directed manufacturers to carefully examine client requirements in order to design and improve processes and improve customer satisfaction.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9000-1987_16-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9000-1987-16\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The 2008 changes to ISO 9001 were minimal, clarifying and simplifying language while making it more consistent with other standards.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Kaizen_17-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Kaizen-17\">&#91;17&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9000-1987_16-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9000-1987-16\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The ISO 9004 guidelines document was updated in 2009 \"to promote a sustainable business approach\" that focused on all stakeholders.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9000-1987_16-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9000-1987-16\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>An updated version of ISO 9001 is expected at the end of 2015 if the ISO members vote favorably in the second quarter of 2015.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Countdown_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Countdown-18\">&#91;18&#93;<\/a><\/sup> With the revision the scope of the standard will not change. An essential change, however, will affect the structure. The new ISO 9001:2015 will follow the so-called high-level structure. This, and the uniform use of core texts and terms, will enable an identical structure for all management systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Nigel_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Nigel-19\">&#91;19&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Adoption_of_the_standard\">Adoption of the standard<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The global adoption of ISO 9001 may be attributable to a number of factors. Many major purchasers require their suppliers to hold ISO 9001 certification. In addition to several stakeholders' benefits, a number of studies have identified significant <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow\" title=\"Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8\">workflow<\/a> and financial benefits for organizations certified to ISO 9001. Examples include:\n<\/p><p><b>1.<\/b> In 2002, Heras <i>et al.<\/i> found superior return on assets compared to otherwise similar organizations without certification and demonstrated that this was statistically significant and not a function of organization size.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Heras_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Heras-20\">&#91;20&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p><b>2.<\/b> A 2003 study of 146 Singapore-based companies by Chow-Chua <i>et al.<\/i> found improved financial performance, though with the caveat \"that while certification leads to better overall financial performance, non\u2010listed certified firms experience better documentation procedures, higher perceived quality of products or services, and more effective communication among employees than listed certified firms.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ChowChua_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ChowChua-21\">&#91;21&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><b>3.<\/b> That same year Rajan and Tamimi showed that ISO 9001 certification resulted in superior stock market performance and suggested that shareholders were richly rewarded for investing in the certified companies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Rajan_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Rajan-22\">&#91;22&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><b>4.<\/b> In 2005, Corbett <i>et al.<\/i> showed in 2005 similar superior performance, atating that \"three years after certification, the certified firms do display strongly significant abnormal performance under all control-group specifications.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Corbett_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Corbett-23\">&#91;23&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p><b>5.<\/b> That same year, Sharma linked increases in \"operating efficiency, growth in sales, and overall financial performance\" gains with ISO 9000 certification.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Sharma2005_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Sharma2005-24\">&#91;24&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p><b>6.<\/b> Naveha and Marcus claimed in 2007 that manufacturers in the U.S. automotive industry that implemented ISO 9001 saw superior operational performance soon after.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Naveh_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Naveh-25\">&#91;25&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><b>7.<\/b> A 2011 survey from The British Assessment Bureau showing 44 percent of their certified clients had won new business due to becoming certified.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BAB44_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BAB44-26\">&#91;26&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><b>8.<\/b> More recently, in 2019, Domingues <i>et al.<\/i> surveyed a worldwide collection of IRCA (International Register of Certified Auditors) QM ISO 9001 Auditors, noting that \"relying on third-party auditor's feedback brings a more independent perspective than studies based on quality managers or consultants' views.\" They hypothesized that organizations seeking certification would see the most sustainable business improvements by turning to quality auditors. The authors indeed found that having \"competent and experienced auditors is essential to ensure a credible and accountable certification process to all stakeholders,\" which aligned well with other research \"that found that organizations that adopt early planning, carry on ISO 9001:2015 training, and ensure they have the necessary competences, reported the soundest benefits and fewer difficulties in successfully implementing ISO 9001:2015.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DominguesTheAdded19_27-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DominguesTheAdded19-27\">&#91;27&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>While the connection between superior financial performance and ISO 9001 may be seen from the examples cited, there remains no proof of direct causation, though longitudinal studies such as those of Corbett <i>et al.<\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Corbett_23-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Corbett-23\">&#91;23&#93;<\/a><\/sup> may suggest it. Other researchers such as Heras <i>et al.<\/i> have suggested that while there is some evidence of this, the improvement is partly driven by the fact that there is a tendency for better performing companies to seek ISO 9001 certification.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Heras_20-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Heras-20\">&#91;20&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Criticisms_of_the_standard\">Criticisms of the standard<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>A common criticism of the ISO 9000 family of standards is the amount of money, time, and paperwork required for registration. In 2003, writing for <i>Quality Magazine<\/i>, engineer Scott Dalgleish emphasized that \"[u]nder ISO, every quality system enhancement triggers enormous documentation changes that make quality managers question whether the benefits of the change are worth the effort.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Dalgleish_28-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Dalgleish-28\">&#91;28&#93;<\/a><\/sup> In a piece for <i>Inc.<\/i> magazine in 2005, journalist Stephanie Clifford told the story of Delaware North Companies, which spent nearly 18 months and $115,000 just to certify their guest services management division.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-clifford_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-clifford-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Others have chosen not to adopt the standard because of the perceived risks and uncertainty of not knowing if there are direct relationships to improved quality as well as doubts about what kind and how many resources will be needed. Other perceived risks include how much certification will cost, increased bureaucratic processes, and risk of poor company image if the certification process fails.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Sroufe_29-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Sroufe-29\">&#91;29&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Critics like John Seddon, a leading global authority on the service industry, claim ISO 9001 promotes specification, control, and procedures rather than understanding and improvement.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Seddon_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Seddon-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Others like business improvement specialist Jim Wade have argued that ISO 9001 is effective as a guideline, but that promoting it as a standard \"helps to mislead companies into thinking that certification means better quality, ... [undermining] the need for an organization to set its own quality standards.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Wade_30-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Wade-30\">&#91;30&#93;<\/a><\/sup> In short, Wade argues that reliance on the specifications of ISO 9001 does not guarantee a successful quality system.\n<\/p><p>The standard has been seen as especially prone to failure when a company is interested in certification before quality.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Seddon_8-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Seddon-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Certifications have in fact often been based on customer contractual requirements rather than a desire to actually improve quality.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Barnes_31-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Barnes-31\">&#91;31&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Henricks_32-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Henricks-32\">&#91;32&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \"If you just want the certificate on the wall, chances are you will create a paper system that doesn't have much to do with the way you actually run your business,\" said ISO's Roger Frost in 2001.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Henricks_32-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Henricks-32\">&#91;32&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Certification by an independent auditor is often seen as the problem area, and according to Barnes, it \"has become a vehicle to increase consulting services.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Barnes_31-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Barnes-31\">&#91;31&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation book\">Abuhav, I.&#32;(2017).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=NmUlDgAAQBAJ\" target=\"_blank\"><i>ISO 9001:2015 - A Complete Guide to Quality Management Systems<\/i><\/a>.&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp.&#160;428.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781498733212<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=NmUlDgAAQBAJ\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=NmUlDgAAQBAJ<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=ISO+9001%3A2015+-+A+Complete+Guide+to+Quality+Management+Systems&amp;rft.aulast=Abuhav%2C+I.&amp;rft.au=Abuhav%2C+I.&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B428&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.isbn=9781498733212&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNmUlDgAAQBAJ&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso-9001-quality-management.html\" target=\"_blank\">ISO 9000<\/a> at the International Organization for Standardization<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article reuses a few elements from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO_9000\" data-key=\"225abbe7cfb1a96ba955acf58227e5dd\">the Wikipedia article<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-PoksinskaTheState02-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-PoksinskaTheState02_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Poksinska, B.; J\u00f6rn Dahlgaard, J.; Antoni, M.&#32;(2002).&#32;\"The state of ISO 9000 certification: A study of Swedish organizations\".&#32;<i>The TQM Magazine<\/i>&#32;<b>14<\/b>&#32;(5): 297\u2013306.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1108%2F09544780210439734\" target=\"_blank\">10.1108\/09544780210439734<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=The+state+of+ISO+9000+certification%3A+A+study+of+Swedish+organizations&amp;rft.jtitle=The+TQM+Magazine&amp;rft.aulast=Poksinska%2C+B.%3B+J%C3%B6rn+Dahlgaard%2C+J.%3B+Antoni%2C+M.&amp;rft.au=Poksinska%2C+B.%3B+J%C3%B6rn+Dahlgaard%2C+J.%3B+Antoni%2C+M.&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.volume=14&amp;rft.issue=5&amp;rft.pages=297%E2%80%93306&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1108%2F09544780210439734&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TsimAnAdapt02-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-TsimAnAdapt02_2-0\">2.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-TsimAnAdapt02_2-1\">2.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Tsim, Y.; Yeung, V.; Leung, E.&#32;(2002).&#32;\"An adaptation to ISO 9001:2000 for certified organisations\".&#32;<i>Managerial Auditing Journal<\/i>&#32;<b>17<\/b>&#32;(5): 245\u201350.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1108%2F02686900210429669\" target=\"_blank\">10.1108\/02686900210429669<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=An+adaptation+to+ISO+9001%3A2000+for+certified+organisations&amp;rft.jtitle=Managerial+Auditing+Journal&amp;rft.aulast=Tsim%2C+Y.%3B+Yeung%2C+V.%3B+Leung%2C+E.&amp;rft.au=Tsim%2C+Y.%3B+Yeung%2C+V.%3B+Leung%2C+E.&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.volume=17&amp;rft.issue=5&amp;rft.pages=245%E2%80%9350&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1108%2F02686900210429669&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BeattieImplem10-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BeattieImplem10_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Beattie, K.R.&#32;(2010).&#32;\"Implementing ISO 9000: A study of its benefits among Australian organizations\".&#32;<i>Total Quality Management<\/i>&#32;<b>10<\/b>&#32;(1): 95\u2013106.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1080%2F0954412998090\" target=\"_blank\">10.1080\/0954412998090<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Implementing+ISO+9000%3A+A+study+of+its+benefits+among+Australian+organizations&amp;rft.jtitle=Total+Quality+Management&amp;rft.aulast=Beattie%2C+K.R.&amp;rft.au=Beattie%2C+K.R.&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.volume=10&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=95%E2%80%93106&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1080%2F0954412998090&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/62085.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO 9001:2015 Quality management systems \u2014 Requirements\"<\/a>.&#32;International Organization for Standardization.&#32;September 2015<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/62085.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/62085.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO+9001%3A2015+Quality+management+systems+%E2%80%94+Requirements&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=September+2015&amp;rft.pub=International+Organization+for+Standardization&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fstandard%2F62085.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso-9001-quality-management.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO 9000 Family Quality Management\"<\/a>.&#32;International Organization for Standardization<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso-9001-quality-management.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso-9001-quality-management.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO+9000+Family+Quality+Management&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=International+Organization+for+Standardization&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fiso-9001-quality-management.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-clifford-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-clifford_6-0\">6.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-clifford_6-1\">6.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Clifford, S.&#32;(1 May 2005).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.inc.com\/magazine\/20050501\/management.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"So many standards to follow, so little payoff\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Inc. Magazine<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.inc.com\/magazine\/20050501\/management.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.inc.com\/magazine\/20050501\/management.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=So+many+standards+to+follow%2C+so+little+payoff&amp;rft.atitle=Inc.+Magazine&amp;rft.aulast=Clifford%2C+S.&amp;rft.au=Clifford%2C+S.&amp;rft.date=1+May+2005&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.inc.com%2Fmagazine%2F20050501%2Fmanagement.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-wilson-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-wilson_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Wilson, I.&#32;(4 June 2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/james.westgard.com\/the_westgard_rules\/2010\/06\/iso-not-so.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Is ISO the way to go? Some say, Not So\"<\/a>.&#32;Westgard QC, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/james.westgard.com\/the_westgard_rules\/2010\/06\/iso-not-so.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/james.westgard.com\/the_westgard_rules\/2010\/06\/iso-not-so.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 28 February 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Is+ISO+the+way+to+go%3F+Some+say%2C+Not+So&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Wilson%2C+I.&amp;rft.au=Wilson%2C+I.&amp;rft.date=4+June+2010&amp;rft.pub=Westgard+QC%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjames.westgard.com%2Fthe_westgard_rules%2F2010%2F06%2Fiso-not-so.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Seddon-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Seddon_8-0\">8.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Seddon_8-1\">8.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Seddon_8-2\">8.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Seddon, J.&#32;(18 November 2000).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/money\/2000\/nov\/19\/workandcareers.madeleinebunting\" target=\"_blank\">\"The 'quality' you can't feel\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>The Guardian<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/money\/2000\/nov\/19\/workandcareers.madeleinebunting\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/money\/2000\/nov\/19\/workandcareers.madeleinebunting<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+%27quality%27+you+can%27t+feel&amp;rft.atitle=The+Guardian&amp;rft.aulast=Seddon%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Seddon%2C+J.&amp;rft.date=18+November+2000&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fmoney%2F2000%2Fnov%2F19%2Fworkandcareers.madeleinebunting&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-seddon2-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-seddon2_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Seddon, J.&#32;(2000).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120118194114\/http:\/\/www.systemsthinking.co.uk\/3-1-article.asp\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: A Brief History of ISO 9000 - Where did we go wrong?\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>The Case Against ISO 9000<\/i>&#32;(2nd ed.).&#32;Oak Tree Press.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;1860761739.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.systemsthinking.co.uk\/3-1-article.asp\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 18 January 2012<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120118194114\/http:\/\/www.systemsthinking.co.uk\/3-1-article.asp\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120118194114\/http:\/\/www.systemsthinking.co.uk\/3-1-article.asp<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+1%3A+A+Brief+History+of+ISO+9000+-+Where+did+we+go+wrong%3F&amp;rft.atitle=The+Case+Against+ISO+9000&amp;rft.aulast=Seddon%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Seddon%2C+J.&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.edition=2nd&amp;rft.pub=Oak+Tree+Press&amp;rft.isbn=1860761739&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20120118194114%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.systemsthinking.co.uk%2F3-1-article.asp&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-OConnor-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-OConnor_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">O'Connor, P.D.T.&#32;(1991).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130616091145\/http:\/\/www.pat-oconnor.co.uk\/iso9000.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO 9000: Help or Hoax\"<\/a>.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pat-oconnor.co.uk\/iso9000.htm\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 16 June 2013<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130616091145\/http:\/\/www.pat-oconnor.co.uk\/iso9000.htm\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130616091145\/http:\/\/www.pat-oconnor.co.uk\/iso9000.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO+9000%3A+Help+or+Hoax&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=O%27Connor%2C+P.D.T.&amp;rft.au=O%27Connor%2C+P.D.T.&amp;rft.date=1991&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20130616091145%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.pat-oconnor.co.uk%2Fiso9000.htm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-His90001-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-His90001_11-0\">11.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-His90001_11-1\">11.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130804070737\/http:\/\/www.british-assessment.co.uk\/articles\/the-history-of-iso-9000\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The history of ISO 9000\"<\/a>.&#32;The British Assessment Bureau.&#32;4 April 2012.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.british-assessment.co.uk\/articles\/the-history-of-iso-9000\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 04 August 2013<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130804070737\/http:\/\/www.british-assessment.co.uk\/articles\/the-history-of-iso-9000\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130804070737\/http:\/\/www.british-assessment.co.uk\/articles\/the-history-of-iso-9000\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+history+of+ISO+9000&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=4+April+2012&amp;rft.pub=The+British+Assessment+Bureau&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20130804070737%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.british-assessment.co.uk%2Farticles%2Fthe-history-of-iso-9000%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Miura-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Miura_12-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Miura, A.&#32;(September 2004).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170810051200\/http:\/\/asq.org\/fdc\/2012\/06\/mil-q-9858a-the-origin-of-iso-9001.html?shl=109629\" target=\"_blank\">\"MIL-Q-9858A, the Origin of ISO 9001\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Tech Journal<\/i>.&#32;ASQ.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/asq.org\/fdc\/2012\/06\/mil-q-9858a-the-origin-of-iso-9001.html?shl=109629\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 10 August 2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170810051200\/http:\/\/asq.org\/fdc\/2012\/06\/mil-q-9858a-the-origin-of-iso-9001.html?shl=109629\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170810051200\/http:\/\/asq.org\/fdc\/2012\/06\/mil-q-9858a-the-origin-of-iso-9001.html?shl=109629<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=MIL-Q-9858A%2C+the+Origin+of+ISO+9001&amp;rft.atitle=Tech+Journal&amp;rft.aulast=Miura%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=Miura%2C+A.&amp;rft.date=September+2004&amp;rft.pub=ASQ&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20170810051200%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fasq.org%2Ffdc%2F2012%2F06%2Fmil-q-9858a-the-origin-of-iso-9001.html%3Fshl%3D109629&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Lamprecht-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Lamprecht_13-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Lamprecht, James L.&#32;(2000).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=fSFlJSZLgfgC&pg=PA132\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 12: The ISO 9000 Phenomenon and the Privatization of Military Standards\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Quality and Power in the Supply Chain: What Industry Does for the Sake of Quality<\/i>.&#32;Newnes.&#32;pp.&#160;125\u2013148.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9780750673433<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=fSFlJSZLgfgC&pg=PA132\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=fSFlJSZLgfgC&amp;pg=PA132<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 19 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+12%3A+The+ISO+9000+Phenomenon+and+the+Privatization+of+Military+Standards&amp;rft.atitle=Quality+and+Power+in+the+Supply+Chain%3A+What+Industry+Does+for+the+Sake+of+Quality&amp;rft.aulast=Lamprecht%2C+James+L.&amp;rft.au=Lamprecht%2C+James+L.&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B125%E2%80%93148&amp;rft.pub=Newnes&amp;rft.isbn=9780750673433&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfSFlJSZLgfgC%26pg%3DPA132&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BSI9000-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BSI9000_14-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bsigroup.com\/LocalFiles\/en-IN\/Resources\/ISO%209001\/ISO-9001-Whitepaper-the-history-and-future-of-ISO%209001.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO 9001 Whitepaper: The history and future of ISO 9001\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;BSI.&#32;March 2014<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bsigroup.com\/LocalFiles\/en-IN\/Resources\/ISO%209001\/ISO-9001-Whitepaper-the-history-and-future-of-ISO%209001.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.bsigroup.com\/LocalFiles\/en-IN\/Resources\/ISO%209001\/ISO-9001-Whitepaper-the-history-and-future-of-ISO%209001.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO+9001+Whitepaper%3A+The+history+and+future+of+ISO+9001&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=March+2014&amp;rft.pub=BSI&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bsigroup.com%2FLocalFiles%2Fen-IN%2FResources%2FISO%25209001%2FISO-9001-Whitepaper-the-history-and-future-of-ISO%25209001.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-His90002-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-His90002_15-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140108051024\/http:\/\/www.standardsconsultants.com\/iso-9000-overview\" target=\"_blank\">\"History of ISO 9000 at a glance\"<\/a>.&#32;Standards Consultants Ltd.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.standardsconsultants.com\/iso-9000-overview\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 08 January 2014<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140108051024\/http:\/\/www.standardsconsultants.com\/iso-9000-overview\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140108051024\/http:\/\/www.standardsconsultants.com\/iso-9000-overview<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=History+of+ISO+9000+at+a+glance&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Standards+Consultants+Ltd&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20140108051024%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.standardsconsultants.com%2Fiso-9000-overview&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-9000-1987-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-9000-1987_16-0\">16.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-9000-1987_16-1\">16.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-9000-1987_16-2\">16.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-9000-1987_16-3\">16.3<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-9000-1987_16-4\">16.4<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/16529.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO 9000:1987\"<\/a>.&#32;International Organization for Standardization<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/16529.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/16529.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO+9000%3A1987&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=International+Organization+for+Standardization&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fstandard%2F16529.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Kaizen-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Kaizen_17-0\">17.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Kaizen_17-1\">17.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Kaizen_17-2\">17.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130611083052\/http:\/\/www.kcg.com.sg\/history-iso9000.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"History and Evolution of ISO 9000\"<\/a>.&#32;Kaizen Consulting Group.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.kcg.com.sg\/history-iso9000.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 11 June 2013<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130611083052\/http:\/\/www.kcg.com.sg\/history-iso9000.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130611083052\/http:\/\/www.kcg.com.sg\/history-iso9000.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=History+and+Evolution+of+ISO+9000&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Kaizen+Consulting+Group&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20130611083052%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.kcg.com.sg%2Fhistory-iso9000.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Countdown-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Countdown_18-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Calabrese, R.&#32;(3 December 2014).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.qualitydigest.com\/inside\/quality-insider-article\/countdown-iso-90012015.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Countdown to ISO 9001:2015\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Quality Digest<\/i>.&#32;Quality Circle Institute, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.qualitydigest.com\/inside\/quality-insider-article\/countdown-iso-90012015.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.qualitydigest.com\/inside\/quality-insider-article\/countdown-iso-90012015.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Countdown+to+ISO+9001%3A2015&amp;rft.atitle=Quality+Digest&amp;rft.aulast=Calabrese%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Calabrese%2C+R.&amp;rft.date=3+December+2014&amp;rft.pub=Quality+Circle+Institute%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.qualitydigest.com%2Finside%2Fquality-insider-article%2Fcountdown-iso-90012015.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Nigel-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Nigel_19-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Croft, N.H.&#32;(28 August 2012).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150216111440\/http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/home\/news_index\/news_archive\/news.htm?refid=Ref1633\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO 9001:2015 and beyond - Preparing for the next 25 years of quality management standards\"<\/a>.&#32;International Organization for Standardization.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/home\/news_index\/news_archive\/news.htm?refid=Ref1633\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 16 February 2015<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150216111440\/http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/home\/news_index\/news_archive\/news.htm?refid=Ref1633\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150216111440\/http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/home\/news_index\/news_archive\/news.htm?refid=Ref1633<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO+9001%3A2015+and+beyond+-+Preparing+for+the+next+25+years+of+quality+management+standards&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Croft%2C+N.H.&amp;rft.au=Croft%2C+N.H.&amp;rft.date=28+August+2012&amp;rft.pub=International+Organization+for+Standardization&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20150216111440%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fiso%2Fhome%2Fnews_index%2Fnews_archive%2Fnews.htm%3Frefid%3DRef1633&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Heras-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Heras_20-0\">20.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Heras_20-1\">20.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Heras,&#32;I\u00f1aki&#59;&#32;Dick,&#32;Gavin P.M.&#59;&#32;Casades\u00fas,&#32;Mart\u00ed&#32;(2002).&#32;\"ISO 9000 registration's impact on sales and profitability: A longitudinal analysis of performance before and after accreditation\".&#32;<i>International Journal of Quality &amp; Reliability Management<\/i>&#32;<b>19<\/b>&#32;(6): 774\u2013791.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1108%2F02656710210429618\" target=\"_blank\">10.1108\/02656710210429618<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=ISO+9000+registration%27s+impact+on+sales+and+profitability%3A+A+longitudinal+analysis+of+performance+before+and+after+accreditation&amp;rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Quality+%26+Reliability+Management&amp;rft.aulast=Heras&amp;rft.aufirst=I%C3%B1aki&amp;rft.au=Heras%2C%26%2332%3BI%C3%B1aki&amp;rft.au=Dick%2C%26%2332%3BGavin+P.M.&amp;rft.au=Casades%C3%BAs%2C%26%2332%3BMart%C3%AD&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.volume=19&amp;rft.issue=6&amp;rft.pages=774%E2%80%93791&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1108%2F02656710210429618&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ChowChua-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ChowChua_21-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Chow-Chua,&#32;Clare&#59;&#32;Goh,&#32;Mark&#59;&#32;Wan,&#32;Tan Boon&#32;(2003).&#32;\"Does ISO 9000 certification improve business performance?\".&#32;<i>International Journal of Quality &amp; Reliability Management<\/i>&#32;<b>20<\/b>&#32;(8): 936\u2013953.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1108%2F02656710310493643\" target=\"_blank\">10.1108\/02656710310493643<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Does+ISO+9000+certification+improve+business+performance%3F&amp;rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Quality+%26+Reliability+Management&amp;rft.aulast=Chow-Chua&amp;rft.aufirst=Clare&amp;rft.au=Chow-Chua%2C%26%2332%3BClare&amp;rft.au=Goh%2C%26%2332%3BMark&amp;rft.au=Wan%2C%26%2332%3BTan+Boon&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.volume=20&amp;rft.issue=8&amp;rft.pages=936%E2%80%93953&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1108%2F02656710310493643&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Rajan-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Rajan_22-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Rajan,&#32;Murli&#59;&#32;Tamimi,&#32;Nabil&#32;(2003).&#32;\"Payoff to ISO 9000 Registration\".&#32;<i>The Journal of Investing<\/i>&#32;<b>12<\/b>&#32;(1): 71\u201377.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.3905%2Fjoi.2003.319536\" target=\"_blank\">10.3905\/joi.2003.319536<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Payoff+to+ISO+9000+Registration&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Investing&amp;rft.aulast=Rajan&amp;rft.aufirst=Murli&amp;rft.au=Rajan%2C%26%2332%3BMurli&amp;rft.au=Tamimi%2C%26%2332%3BNabil&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.volume=12&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=71%E2%80%9377&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.3905%2Fjoi.2003.319536&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Corbett-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Corbett_23-0\">23.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Corbett_23-1\">23.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Corbett,&#32;Charles J.&#59;&#32;Montes-Sancho,&#32;Mar\u00eda J.&#59;&#32;Kirsch,&#32;David A.&#32;(2005).&#32;\"The Financial Impact of ISO 9000 Certification in the United States: An Empirical Analysis\".&#32;<i>Management Science<\/i>&#32;<b>51<\/b>&#32;(7): 1607\u201316.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1287%2Fmnsc.1040.0358\" target=\"_blank\">10.1287\/mnsc.1040.0358<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=The+Financial+Impact+of+ISO+9000+Certification+in+the+United+States%3A+An+Empirical+Analysis&amp;rft.jtitle=Management+Science&amp;rft.aulast=Corbett&amp;rft.aufirst=Charles+J.&amp;rft.au=Corbett%2C%26%2332%3BCharles+J.&amp;rft.au=Montes-Sancho%2C%26%2332%3BMar%C3%ADa+J.&amp;rft.au=Kirsch%2C%26%2332%3BDavid+A.&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.volume=51&amp;rft.issue=7&amp;rft.pages=1607%E2%80%9316&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1287%2Fmnsc.1040.0358&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Sharma2005-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Sharma2005_24-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Sharma,&#32;Divesh S.&#32;(2005).&#32;\"The association between ISO 9000 certification and financial performance\".&#32;<i>The International Journal of Accounting<\/i>&#32;<b>40<\/b>&#32;(2): 151\u2013172.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.intacc.2005.01.011\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.intacc.2005.01.011<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=The+association+between+ISO+9000+certification+and+financial+performance&amp;rft.jtitle=The+International+Journal+of+Accounting&amp;rft.aulast=Sharma&amp;rft.aufirst=Divesh+S.&amp;rft.au=Sharma%2C%26%2332%3BDivesh+S.&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.volume=40&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=151%E2%80%93172&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1016%2Fj.intacc.2005.01.011&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Naveh-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Naveh_25-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Naveh,&#32;Eitan&#59;&#32;Marcus,&#32;Alfred&#32;(2007).&#32;\"Financial performance, ISO 9000 standard and safe driving practices effects on accident rate in the U.S. Motor carrier industry\".&#32;<i>Accident Analysis &amp; Prevention<\/i>&#32;<b>39<\/b>&#32;(4): 731\u2013742.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.aap.2006.11.004\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.aap.2006.11.004<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Financial+performance%2C+ISO+9000+standard+and+safe+driving+practices+effects+on+accident+rate+in+the+U.S.+Motor+carrier+industry&amp;rft.jtitle=Accident+Analysis+%26+Prevention&amp;rft.aulast=Naveh&amp;rft.aufirst=Eitan&amp;rft.au=Naveh%2C%26%2332%3BEitan&amp;rft.au=Marcus%2C%26%2332%3BAlfred&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.volume=39&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=731%E2%80%93742&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1016%2Fj.aap.2006.11.004&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BAB44-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BAB44_26-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130728164740\/http:\/\/www.british-assessment.co.uk\/news\/iso-9001-proven-to-help-win-new-business\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO 9001 proven to help win new business\"<\/a>.&#32;The British Assessment Bureau.&#32;25 May 2011.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.british-assessment.co.uk\/news\/iso-9001-proven-to-help-win-new-business\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 28 July 2013<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130728164740\/http:\/\/www.british-assessment.co.uk\/news\/iso-9001-proven-to-help-win-new-business\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130728164740\/http:\/\/www.british-assessment.co.uk\/news\/iso-9001-proven-to-help-win-new-business<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO+9001+proven+to+help+win+new+business&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=25+May+2011&amp;rft.pub=The+British+Assessment+Bureau&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20130728164740%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.british-assessment.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fiso-9001-proven-to-help-win-new-business&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DominguesTheAdded19-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-DominguesTheAdded19_27-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Domingues, J.P.; Reis, A.M.; Fonseca, L.M. et al.&#32;(2019).&#32;\"The Added Value of the ISO 9001:2015 International Standard from an Auditor's Perspective: A CB-SEM Based Evaluation\".&#32;<i>International Journal for Quality Research<\/i>&#32;<b>13<\/b>&#32;(4): 967\u201386.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.24874%2FIJQR13.04-15\" target=\"_blank\">10.24874\/IJQR13.04-15<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=The+Added+Value+of+the+ISO+9001%3A2015+International+Standard+from+an+Auditor%27s+Perspective%3A+A+CB-SEM+Based+Evaluation&amp;rft.jtitle=International+Journal+for+Quality+Research&amp;rft.aulast=Domingues%2C+J.P.%3B+Reis%2C+A.M.%3B+Fonseca%2C+L.M.+et+al.&amp;rft.au=Domingues%2C+J.P.%3B+Reis%2C+A.M.%3B+Fonseca%2C+L.M.+et+al.&amp;rft.date=2019&amp;rft.volume=13&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=967%E2%80%9386&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.24874%2FIJQR13.04-15&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Dalgleish-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Dalgleish_28-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Dalgleish, S.&#32;(5 May 2003).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.qualitymag.com\/articles\/84308-probing-the-limits-br-iso-9000-more-hindrance-than-help\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO 9000: More Hindrance than Help\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Quality Magazine<\/i>.&#32;BNP Media<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.qualitymag.com\/articles\/84308-probing-the-limits-br-iso-9000-more-hindrance-than-help\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.qualitymag.com\/articles\/84308-probing-the-limits-br-iso-9000-more-hindrance-than-help<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO+9000%3A+More+Hindrance+than+Help&amp;rft.atitle=Quality+Magazine&amp;rft.aulast=Dalgleish%2C+S.&amp;rft.au=Dalgleish%2C+S.&amp;rft.date=5+May+2003&amp;rft.pub=BNP+Media&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.qualitymag.com%2Farticles%2F84308-probing-the-limits-br-iso-9000-more-hindrance-than-help&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Sroufe-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Sroufe_29-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Sroufe, Robert; Curkovic, Sime&#32;(July 2008).&#32;\"An examination of ISO 9000:2000 and supply chain quality assurance\".&#32;<i>Journal of Operations Management<\/i>&#32;<b>26<\/b>&#32;(4): 503\u2013520.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.jom.2007.06.006\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.jom.2007.06.006<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=An+examination+of+ISO+9000%3A2000+and+supply+chain+quality+assurance&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Operations+Management&amp;rft.aulast=Sroufe%2C+Robert%3B+Curkovic%2C+Sime&amp;rft.au=Sroufe%2C+Robert%3B+Curkovic%2C+Sime&amp;rft.date=July+2008&amp;rft.volume=26&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=503%E2%80%93520&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1016%2Fj.jom.2007.06.006&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Wade-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Wade_30-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Wade, Jim&#32;(May\u2013June 2002).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20070103143212\/http:\/\/www.bin.co.uk\/IMS_May_2002.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Is ISO 9000 really a standard?\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;<i>ISO Management Systems<\/i>.&#32;pp. 17\u201320.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/livelinkgetfile-isocs?nodeId=15013106\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 03 January 2007<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20070103143212\/http:\/\/www.bin.co.uk\/IMS_May_2002.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20070103143212\/http:\/\/www.bin.co.uk\/IMS_May_2002.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Is+ISO+9000+really+a+standard%3F&amp;rft.atitle=ISO+Management+Systems&amp;rft.aulast=Wade%2C+Jim&amp;rft.au=Wade%2C+Jim&amp;rft.date=May%E2%80%93June+2002&amp;rft.pages=pp.+17%E2%80%9320&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20070103143212%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.bin.co.uk%2FIMS_May_2002.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Barnes-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Barnes_31-0\">31.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Barnes_31-1\">31.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Barnes, F.&#32;(22 March 2000).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.thefreelibrary.com\/Good+Business+Sense+Is+the+Key+to+Confronting+ISO+9000.-a073182519\" target=\"_blank\">\"Good Business Sense Is the Key to Confronting ISO 9000\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>AllBusiness<\/i>.&#32;AllBusiness.com, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.thefreelibrary.com\/Good+Business+Sense+Is+the+Key+to+Confronting+ISO+9000.-a073182519\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.thefreelibrary.com\/Good+Business+Sense+Is+the+Key+to+Confronting+ISO+9000.-a073182519<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Good+Business+Sense+Is+the+Key+to+Confronting+ISO+9000&amp;rft.atitle=AllBusiness&amp;rft.aulast=Barnes%2C+F.&amp;rft.au=Barnes%2C+F.&amp;rft.date=22+March+2000&amp;rft.pub=AllBusiness.com%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thefreelibrary.com%2FGood%2BBusiness%2BSense%2BIs%2Bthe%2BKey%2Bto%2BConfronting%2BISO%2B9000.-a073182519&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Henricks-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Henricks_32-0\">32.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Henricks_32-1\">32.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Henricks, Mark&#32;(01 Decenber 2001).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.entrepreneur.com\/article\/46342\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO a Go-Go\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Entrepreneur Magazine<\/i>.&#32;Entrepreneur Media, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.entrepreneur.com\/article\/46342\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.entrepreneur.com\/article\/46342<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 19 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO+a+Go-Go&amp;rft.atitle=Entrepreneur+Magazine&amp;rft.aulast=Henricks%2C+Mark&amp;rft.au=Henricks%2C+Mark&amp;rft.date=01+Decenber+2001&amp;rft.pub=Entrepreneur+Media%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.entrepreneur.com%2Farticle%2F46342&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171708\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: 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Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_9000\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_9000<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","53ace2d12e80a7d890ce881bc6fe244a_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/6\/66\/Janesville_GM_Assembly_Plant_-_ISO_9001_Certified_sign_%283549915451%29.jpg"],"53ace2d12e80a7d890ce881bc6fe244a_timestamp":1704907027,"e7867fe884a6e63d87c5a1bff5c28bc2_type":"article","e7867fe884a6e63d87c5a1bff5c28bc2_title":"ISO 15189","e7867fe884a6e63d87c5a1bff5c28bc2_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_15189","e7867fe884a6e63d87c5a1bff5c28bc2_plaintext":"\n\nISO 15189From LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchISO standard\nISO 15189 Medical laboratories \u2014 Requirements for quality and competence is an international standard that specifies the quality management system requirements particular to medical laboratories. The standard was developed by the International Organisation for Standardization's Technical Committee 212 (ISO\/TC 212). ISO\/TC 212 assigned ISO 15189 to a working group to prepare the standard based on the details of ISO\/IEC 17025:1999 General requirements for the competence of testing and calibration laboratories.[1] This working group included provision of advice to medical laboratory users, including specifics on the collection of patient samples, the interpretation of test results, acceptable turnaround times, how testing is to be provided in a medical emergency, and the lab's role in the education and training of health care staff.[1] While the standard is based on ISO\/IEC 17025 and ISO 9001, it is a unique document that takes into consideration the specific requirements of the medical environment and the importance of the medical laboratory to patient care.[2]\n\n\n\nHistory \nThe first version of the standard was published in 2003, and it was revised in 2007 to align more closely to ISO\/IEC 17025.[1] A third edition of the standard was published in 2012, which revised the layout again and added a section on laboratory information management.[3]\nStarting in 2010, it took four years for the Kenya National HIV Reference Laboratory to gain ISO 15189 accreditation.[4]\nIn 2015 Plebani et al pointed out that \"despite its growing global recognition by the main scientific organizations in the field of laboratory medicine, in many countries only a small number of laboratories are currently accredited\" to ISO 15189.[5]\nIn 2019 the question was asked \"How Does ISO 15189 Laboratory Accreditation Support the Delivery of Healthcare in Ethiopia?\" and answered by a systematic review.[6]\nIn 2021 it became apparent that the International Health Regulations was a driver for ISO 15189 accreditation when the UKHSA provided training to EPHI staff.[7]\nIn 2022 the 4th edition of ISO 15189 was published.\n\nSee also \nQuality management system\nList of ISO standards\nExternal links \nEntry in ISO Standards catalogue \nReferences \n\n\n^ a b c Pereira, P. (February 2017). \"ISO 15189:2012 Medical laboratories - Requirements for quality and competence\". Westgard QC. Retrieved 28 November 2017 . \n\n^ \"Laboratory Quality Management System Handbook\" (PDF) . World Health Organization. 2011. \n\n^ Rej, R. (11 September 2013). \"What's new in ISO 15189: 2012?\" (PDF) . Association of Public Health Laboratories. Retrieved 28 November 2017 . \n\n^ Gachuki, Thomas; Sewe, Risper; Mwangi, Jane; Turgeon, David; Garcia, Mary; Luman, Elizabeth T.; Umuro, Mamo (2014). \"Attaining ISO 15189 accreditation through SLMTA: A journey by Kenya's National HIV Reference Laboratory\". African Journal of Laboratory Medicine. 3 (2): 216. doi:10.4102\/ajlm.v3i2.216. PMC&#160;4703332 . PMID&#160;26753130. S2CID&#160;17192412. \n\n^ Plebani, Mario; Sciacovelli, Laura; Chiozza, Maria Laura; Panteghini, Mauro (2015). \"Once upon a time: A tale of ISO 15189 accreditation\". Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine. 53 (8): 1127\u20131129. doi:10.1515\/cclm-2015-0355 . PMID&#160;25992514. S2CID&#160;207448605. \n\n^ Adane, Kasaw; Girma, Mekonnen; Deress, Teshiwal (1970). \"How Does ISO 15189 Laboratory Accreditation Support the Delivery of Healthcare in Ethiopia? A Systematic Review\". Ethiopian Journal of Health Sciences. 29 (2): 259\u2013264. doi:10.4314\/ejhs.v29i2.13. PMC&#160;6460445 . PMID&#160;31011274. \n\n^ \"ISO 15189 medical laboratory training provided to EPHI staff\". The Global Health Network. International Health Regulations Strengthening Project. 28 October 2021. \n\n\nvteISO standards by standard number List of ISO standards \u2013 ISO romanizations \u2013 IEC standards1\u20139999\n1\n2\n3\n4\n6\n7\n9\n16\n17\n31\n-0\n-1\n-3\n-4\n-5\n-6\n-7\n-8\n-9\n-10\n-11\n-12\n-13\n68-1\n128\n216\n217\n226\n228\n233\n259\n261\n262\n302\n306\n361\n500\n518\n519\n639\n-1\n-2\n-3\n-5\n-6\n646\n657\n668\n690\n704\n732\n764\n838\n843\n860\n898\n965\n999\n1000\n1004\n1007\n1073-1\n1073-2\n1155\n1413\n1538\n1629\n1745\n1989\n2014\n2015\n2022\n2033\n2047\n2108\n2145\n2146\n2240\n2281\n2533\n2709\n2711\n2720\n2788\n2848\n2852\n3029\n3103\n3166\n-1\n-2\n-3\n3297\n3307\n3601\n3602\n3864\n3901\n3950\n3977\n4031\n4157\n4165\n4217\n4909\n5218\n5426\n5427\n5428\n5725\n5775\n5776\n5800\n5807\n5964\n6166\n6344\n6346\n6373\n6385\n6425\n6429\n6438\n6523\n6709\n6943\n7001\n7002\n7010\n7027\n7064\n7098\n7185\n7200\n7498\n-1\n7637\n7736\n7810\n7811\n7812\n7813\n7816\n7942\n8000\n8093\n8178\n8217\n8373\n8501-1\n8571\n8583\n8601\n8613\n8632\n8651\n8652\n8691\n8805\/8806\n8807\n8820-5\n8859\n-1\n-2\n-3\n-4\n-5\n-6\n-7\n-8\n-8-I\n-9\n-10\n-11\n-12\n-13\n-14\n-15\n-16\n8879\n9000\/9001\n9036\n9075\n9126\n9141\n9227\n9241\n9293\n9314\n9362\n9407\n9496\n9506\n9529\n9564\n9592\/9593\n9594\n9660\n9797-1\n9897\n9899\n9945\n9984\n9985\n9995\n10000\u201319999\n10006\n10007\n10116\n10118-3\n10160\n10161\n10165\n10179\n10206\n10218\n10279\n10303\n-11\n-21\n-22\n-28\n-238\n10383\n10585\n10589\n10628\n10646\n10664\n10746\n10861\n10957\n10962\n10967\n11073\n11170\n11179\n11404\n11544\n11783\n11784\n11785\n11801\n11889\n11898\n11940 (-2)\n11941\n11941 (TR)\n11992\n12006\n12052\n12182\n12207\n12234-2\n12620\n13211\n-1\n-2\n13216\n13250\n13399\n13406-2\n13450\n13485\n13490\n13567\n13568\n13584\n13616\n13816\n14000\n14031\n14224\n14289\n14396\n14443\n14496\n-2\n-3\n-6\n-10\n-11\n-12\n-14\n-17\n-20\n14617\n14644\n14649\n14651\n14698\n14764\n14882\n14971\n15022\n15189\n15288\n15291\n15292\n15398\n15408\n15444\n-3\n-9\n15445\n15438\n15504\n15511\n15686\n15693\n15706\n-2\n15707\n15897\n15919\n15924\n15926\n15926 WIP\n15930\n16023\n16262\n16355-1\n16485\n16612-2\n16750\n16949 (TS)\n17024\n17025\n17100\n17203\n17369\n17442\n17506\n17799\n18004\n18014\n18181\n18245\n18629\n18916\n19005\n19011\n19092\n-1\n-2\n19114\n19115\n19125\n19136\n19407\n19439\n19500\n19501\n19502\n19503\n19505\n19506\n19507\n19508\n19509\n19510\n19600\n19752\n19757\n19770\n19775-1\n19794-5\n19831\n20000\u201329999\n20000\n20022\n20121\n20400\n20802\n21000\n21047\n21122\n21500\n21827\n22000\n22275\n22300\n22301\n22395\n22537\n23000\n23090-3\n23270\n23271\n23360\n24517\n24613\n24617\n24707\n25178\n25964\n26000\n26262\n26300\n26324\n27000 series\n27000\n27001\n27002\n27005\n27006\n27729\n28000\n29110\n29148\n29199-2\n29500\n30000+\n30170\n31000\n32000\n37001\n38500\n40500\n42010\n45001\n50001\n55000\n56000\n80000\n\n Category\n\n\n\n\n\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_15189\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_15189<\/a>\nCategories: Laboratory informatics standardsQuality standardsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 28 November 2017, at 23:24.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 7,378 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","e7867fe884a6e63d87c5a1bff5c28bc2_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-ISO_15189 rootpage-ISO_15189 skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">ISO 15189<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">ISO standard<\/div>\n<p><i><b>ISO 15189 Medical laboratories \u2014 Requirements for quality and competence<\/b><\/i> is an international standard that specifies the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quality_management_system\" title=\"Quality management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d64fd726a87573213d8dce6e9f2fe22f\">quality management system<\/a> requirements particular to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Medical_laboratory\" title=\"Medical laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cf9459b1af950b8cf84d574d3318b78f\">medical laboratories<\/a>. The standard was developed by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Organisation_for_Standardization\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"International Organisation for Standardization\" data-key=\"7914da2099e98b3432c5bc135abb80cd\">International Organisation for Standardization<\/a>'s Technical Committee 212 (ISO\/TC 212). ISO\/TC 212 assigned ISO 15189 to a working group to prepare the standard based on the details of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\/IEC_17025\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 17025\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"150dd5fbb859fb5a1317fff4e7a237bf\">ISO\/IEC 17025:1999<\/a> <i>General requirements for the competence of testing and calibration laboratories<\/i>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PereiraISO15189_17_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PereiraISO15189_17-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> This working group included provision of advice to medical laboratory users, including specifics on the collection of patient samples, the interpretation of test results, acceptable turnaround times, how testing is to be provided in a medical emergency, and the lab's role in the education and training of health care staff.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PereiraISO15189_17_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PereiraISO15189_17-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> While the standard is based on ISO\/IEC 17025 and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO_9001\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISO 9001\" data-key=\"45cf4657ea69b334ee95b95c9187f373\">ISO 9001<\/a>, it is a unique document that takes into consideration the specific requirements of the medical environment and the importance of the medical laboratory to patient care.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-lqms_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-lqms-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The first version of the standard was published in 2003, and it was revised in 2007 to align more closely to ISO\/IEC 17025.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PereiraISO15189_17_1-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PereiraISO15189_17-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> A third edition of the standard was published in 2012, which revised the layout again and added a section on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aeae8b5837c8036a820ad3734624b8d7\">laboratory information management<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RejWhats13_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RejWhats13-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Starting in 2010, it took four years for the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kenya\" title=\"Kenya\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"29c37ecadf09448591b3afd64cae4970\">Kenya<\/a> National HIV to gain ISO 15189 accreditation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-gachuki14_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-gachuki14-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In 2015 Plebani <i>et al<\/i> pointed out that \"despite its growing global recognition by the main scientific organizations in the field of laboratory medicine, in many countries only a small number of laboratories are currently accredited\" to ISO 15189.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-plebani15_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-plebani15-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In 2019 the question was asked \"How Does ISO 15189 Laboratory Accreditation Support the Delivery of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Healthcare\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Healthcare\" data-key=\"f1ffeab9b2f3909caea44907180a439a\">Healthcare<\/a> in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethiopia\" title=\"Ethiopia\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff0d062d77a74d6d5931c21ea3f843ba\">Ethiopia<\/a>?\" and answered by a systematic review.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-adane19_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-adane19-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In 2021 it became apparent that the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Health_Regulations\" title=\"International Health Regulations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d7372fedccd8fccd0b24f5d6fd174ea5\">International Health Regulations<\/a> was a driver for ISO 15189 accreditation when the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/UKHSA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"UKHSA\" data-key=\"423e8a3c79282c8242ad8b87a75c4073\">UKHSA<\/a> provided training to staff.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-tghni_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-tghni-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In 2022 the 4th edition of ISO 15189 was published.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quality_management_system\" title=\"Quality management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d64fd726a87573213d8dce6e9f2fe22f\">Quality management system<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_ISO_standards\" title=\"List of ISO standards\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cf170ea08d8b9c028769b2401bd4949f\">List of ISO standards<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><span class=\"official-website\"><span class=\"url\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/home\/store\/catalogue_ics\/catalogue_detail_ics.htm?csnumber=56115\" target=\"_blank\">Entry in ISO Standards catalogue<\/a><\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist reflist-columns references-column-width\" style=\"column-width: 30em;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-PereiraISO15189_17-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-PereiraISO15189_17_1-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-PereiraISO15189_17_1-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-PereiraISO15189_17_1-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPereira,_P.2017\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Pereira, P. (February 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.westgard.com\/iso-15189-2012-requirements-1.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO 15189:2012 Medical laboratories - Requirements for quality and competence\"<\/a>. Westgard QC<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">28 November<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=ISO+15189%3A2012+Medical+laboratories+-+Requirements+for+quality+and+competence&amp;rft.pub=Westgard+QC&amp;rft.date=2017-02&amp;rft.au=Pereira%2C+P.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.westgard.com%2Fiso-15189-2012-requirements-1.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AISO+15189\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-lqms-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-lqms_2-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.who.int\/ihr\/publications\/lqms_en.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Laboratory Quality Management System Handbook\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. World Health Organization. 2011.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Laboratory+Quality+Management+System+Handbook&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fihr%2Fpublications%2Flqms_en.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AISO+15189\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RejWhats13-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-RejWhats13_3-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRej,_R.2013\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Rej, R. (11 September 2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.aphl.org\/mrc\/documents\/lss_2013sept11_qif-presentation-whats-new-in-iso-15189(2012).pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"What's new in ISO 15189: 2012?\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Association of Public Health Laboratories<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">28 November<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=What%27s+new+in+ISO+15189%3A+2012%3F&amp;rft.pub=Association+of+Public+Health+Laboratories&amp;rft.date=2013-09-11&amp;rft.au=Rej%2C+R.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aphl.org%2Fmrc%2Fdocuments%2Flss_2013sept11_qif-presentation-whats-new-in-iso-15189%282012%29.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AISO+15189\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-gachuki14-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-gachuki14_4-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGachukiSeweMwangiTurgeon2014\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Gachuki, Thomas; Sewe, Risper; Mwangi, Jane; Turgeon, David; Garcia, Mary; Luman, Elizabeth T.; Umuro, Mamo (2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC4703332\" target=\"_blank\">\"Attaining ISO 15189 accreditation through SLMTA: A journey by Kenya's National HIV Reference Laboratory\"<\/a>. <i>African Journal of Laboratory Medicine<\/i>. <b>3<\/b> (2): 216. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4102%2Fajlm.v3i2.216\" target=\"_blank\">10.4102\/ajlm.v3i2.216<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC4703332\" target=\"_blank\">4703332<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/26753130\" target=\"_blank\">26753130<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:17192412\" target=\"_blank\">17192412<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=African+Journal+of+Laboratory+Medicine&amp;rft.atitle=Attaining+ISO+15189+accreditation+through+SLMTA%3A+A+journey+by+Kenya%27s+National+HIV+Reference+Laboratory&amp;rft.volume=3&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=216&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4703332%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A17192412%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26753130&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4102%2Fajlm.v3i2.216&amp;rft.aulast=Gachuki&amp;rft.aufirst=Thomas&amp;rft.au=Sewe%2C+Risper&amp;rft.au=Mwangi%2C+Jane&amp;rft.au=Turgeon%2C+David&amp;rft.au=Garcia%2C+Mary&amp;rft.au=Luman%2C+Elizabeth+T.&amp;rft.au=Umuro%2C+Mamo&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4703332&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AISO+15189\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-plebani15-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-plebani15_5-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPlebaniSciacovelliChiozzaPanteghini2015\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Plebani, Mario; Sciacovelli, Laura; Chiozza, Maria Laura; Panteghini, Mauro (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1515%2Fcclm-2015-0355\" target=\"_blank\">\"Once upon a time: A tale of ISO 15189 accreditation\"<\/a>. <i>Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine<\/i>. <b>53<\/b> (8): 1127\u20131129. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1515%2Fcclm-2015-0355\" target=\"_blank\">10.1515\/cclm-2015-0355<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/25992514\" target=\"_blank\">25992514<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:207448605\" target=\"_blank\">207448605<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Clinical+Chemistry+and+Laboratory+Medicine&amp;rft.atitle=Once+upon+a+time%3A+A+tale+of+ISO+15189+accreditation&amp;rft.volume=53&amp;rft.issue=8&amp;rft.pages=1127-1129&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A207448605%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25992514&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fcclm-2015-0355&amp;rft.aulast=Plebani&amp;rft.aufirst=Mario&amp;rft.au=Sciacovelli%2C+Laura&amp;rft.au=Chiozza%2C+Maria+Laura&amp;rft.au=Panteghini%2C+Mauro&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1515%252Fcclm-2015-0355&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AISO+15189\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-adane19-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-adane19_6-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAdaneGirmaDeress1970\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Adane, Kasaw; Girma, Mekonnen; Deress, Teshiwal (1970). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC6460445\" target=\"_blank\">\"How Does ISO 15189 Laboratory Accreditation Support the Delivery of Healthcare in Ethiopia? A Systematic Review\"<\/a>. <i>Ethiopian Journal of Health Sciences<\/i>. <b>29<\/b> (2): 259\u2013264. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4314%2Fejhs.v29i2.13\" target=\"_blank\">10.4314\/ejhs.v29i2.13<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC6460445\" target=\"_blank\">6460445<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/31011274\" target=\"_blank\">31011274<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Ethiopian+Journal+of+Health+Sciences&amp;rft.atitle=How+Does+ISO+15189+Laboratory+Accreditation+Support+the+Delivery+of+Healthcare+in+Ethiopia%3F+A+Systematic+Review&amp;rft.volume=29&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=259-264&amp;rft.date=1970&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6460445%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31011274&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4314%2Fejhs.v29i2.13&amp;rft.aulast=Adane&amp;rft.aufirst=Kasaw&amp;rft.au=Girma%2C+Mekonnen&amp;rft.au=Deress%2C+Teshiwal&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6460445&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AISO+15189\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-tghni-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-tghni_7-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/gphihr.tghn.org\/news\/iso-15189-medical-laboratory-training-provided-ephi-staff\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO 15189 medical laboratory training provided to EPHI staff\"<\/a>. 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International Health Regulations Strengthening Project. 28 October 2021.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=ISO+15189+medical+laboratory+training+provided+to+EPHI+staff&amp;rft.date=2021-10-28&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgphihr.tghn.org%2Fnews%2Fiso-15189-medical-laboratory-training-provided-ephi-staff%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AISO+15189\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1372\nCached time: 20240106034848\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 0.299 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.402 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 701\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 57229\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 416\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 8\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 31247\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.172\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 4512640\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 307.885 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>41.43% 127.550 1 Template:Reflist\n31.56% 97.155 1 Template:ISO_standards\n30.68% 94.452 1 Template:Navbox\n23.43% 72.135 2 Template:Cite_web\n19.75% 60.819 1 Template:Short_description\n 9.90% 30.474 2 Template:Pagetype\n 8.44% 25.986 3 Template:Cite_journal\n 6.36% 19.578 4 Template:Main_other\n 5.61% 17.284 1 Template:SDcat\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:6057715-0!canonical and timestamp 20240106034848 and revision id 1168342750. Rendering was triggered because: page-view\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO_15189\" data-key=\"41c39a8e9b081c91ae7e4049656e9972\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110045610\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.143 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.338 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 67318\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 303.473 1 wikipedia:ISO_15189\n100.00% 303.473 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10352-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110045609 and revision id 32087. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_15189\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_15189<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","e7867fe884a6e63d87c5a1bff5c28bc2_images":[],"e7867fe884a6e63d87c5a1bff5c28bc2_timestamp":1704907027,"e0bf845fb58d2bae05a846b47629e86f_type":"article","e0bf845fb58d2bae05a846b47629e86f_title":"Health Level 7","e0bf845fb58d2bae05a846b47629e86f_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Level_7","e0bf845fb58d2bae05a846b47629e86f_plaintext":"\n\nHealth Level 7From LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search The Reference Information Model (RIM) is an important component of the HL7 v3.0 standard and is based on XML.\nHealth Level Seven (HL7) is an international non-profit volunteer-based organization involved with the development of international health care informatics interoperability standards.&#91;1&#93; The HL7 community consists of health care experts and information scientists collaborating to create standards for the exchange, management, and integration of electronic health care information.\nThe term \"HL7\" is also used to refer to some of the specific standards created by the organization (e.g., HL7 v2.x, v3.0, HL7 RIM).&#91;2&#93; HL7 and its members provide a framework (and related standards) for the exchange, integration, sharing, and retrieval of electronic health information. v2.x of the standards, which support clinical practice and the management, delivery, and evaluation of health services, are the most commonly used in the world.&#91;3&#93; \n\nContents \n\n1 History \n2 Standards \n\n2.1 Reference Information Model (RIM) \n2.2 Clinical Document Architecture (CDA) \n2.3 Clinical Context Object Workgroup (CCOW) \n2.4 Fast Healthcare Interoperability Resources (FHIR) \n\n\n3 Further reading \n4 External links \n5 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nThe International Organization for Standardization (ISO) got involved with standardizing network exchanges of data between computers around 1979, creating the Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) standards model. These formal OSI standards ranged across seven levels, from OSI Level 1 (physical layer, e.g. communication over coaxial cable) to OSI Level 7 (application layer, e.g. communication between clinical software). By 1981, researchers at University of California - San Francisco had created a proprietary protocol that unbeknownst to them at the time fit under the OSI Level 7 model. The protocol was developed for clinical purposes such that \"computers exchanged several core messages, including the synchronization of patient admission-discharge-transfer information, orders from clinical areas, and the display of textual results to the clinical areas.\"&#91;4&#93; \nBy 1985, Simborg Systems (which developed hospital information systems) sought to have a non-proprietary protocol created because \"standardization efforts at the time was either fragmented, in a different direction or with a different scope.\"&#91;4&#93; This led to a push to create a new standards organization, with initial meetings occurring at the end of March 1987. The meetings produced the term \"HL7\" and prompted a non-profit organization to be created, eventually known as Health Level Seven International. Version 1.0 of the HL7 specification was released in October 1987. The direction of HL7 was largely led by Simborg Systems; however, with greater practical use seen in furthering the protocol and non-profit, the first non-Simborg Systems chairperson, Ed Hammond, took the reigns in 1989.&#91;4&#93; By June 1990, Version 2.1 was published and included mechanisms for results reporting and billing. By the early- to mid-1990s news of HL7 was beginning to spread to international clinical sectors, particularly parts of Europe, including Netherlands, Germany, Canada, Japan, Australia, and the United Kingdom.&#91;4&#93;&#91;5&#93;\nIn June 1994 the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) awarded Health Level 7 International status as an accredited standards developer. Version 2.2 became an official ANSI standard in February 1996. HL7 had roughly 1,700 members from various health care industries around the globe by the late 1990s.&#91;5&#93;\nVersion 3.0 of the HL7 standard was released in late 2005, which internationalized it and made it more consistent and precise.&#91;6&#93; Where the 2.x standards eventually received wide adoption for their flexibility and available implementation options, the 3.0 standards, in contrast, departed from that flexibility in order to be more \"definite and testable, and provide the ability to certify vendors' conformance.\"&#91;7&#93; In 2009, Corepoint Health reported that most HL7 messaging was occurring using 2.3 and 2.3.1 models, with 3.0-based messages representing only a tiny fraction of all interfaces&#91;8&#93;; in 2012 Corepoint Health's Rob Brull estimated that more than 90 percent of all healthcare systems were still utilizing 2.x models.&#91;9&#93; That trend continued, with several experts proclaiming the standard to be more or less a failure.&#91;10&#93;&#91;11&#93;\nIn early 2012, HL7 announced the HL7 FHIR (Fast Healthcare Interoperability Resources) initiative, which would utilize the best aspects of both 2.x and 3.0 standards, optimally resulting in a standard that is 20 percent the size of 3.0 but still meet the operation requirements of 80 percent of systems using the standard.&#91;12&#93; FHIR is being built on RESTful web services and provides modular, extensible \"resources\" to provide some flexibility but within a more fixed framework.&#91;13&#93; In December 2014, HL7 announced the Argonaut Project, meant \"to hasten current FHIR development efforts in order to create practical and focused guidelines and profiles for FHIR by the spring of 2015.\"&#91;14&#93;\n\nStandards \nIn total HL7 develops conceptual standards (e.g., HL7 RIM), document standards (e.g., HL7 CDA), application standards (e.g., HL7 CCOW), and messaging standards (e.g., HL7 v2.x and v3.0). Messaging standards are particularly important because they define how information is packaged and communicated from one party to another. Such standards set the language, structure, and data types required for seamless integration from one system to another.&#91;15&#93; Business use of the HL7 standards requires a paid organizational membership in HL7, Inc. HL7 members can access standards for free, and non-members can buy the standards from HL7 or ANSI.\nHL7 v2.x and 3.0 are the primary standards from the organization. They provide a framework for data exchange among clinical and healthcare systems in an ideal format. The 2.x standards are flexible, with several implementation options, loosely geared towards \"clinical interface specialists\" working to move clinical data in the application space. The 3.0 standards are designed to be more fixed, precise, and international, geared towards governments and end users of clinical applications.&#91;8&#93; \nWhile HL7 v2.x and 3.0 are the primary standards, a few other important standards and components are associated with HL7, as detailed below.\n\n Reference Information Model (RIM) \nThe Reference Information Model (RIM) is an important component of the HL7 Version 3 standard. RIM expresses the data content needed in a specific clinical or administrative context and provides an explicit representation of the semantic and lexical connections that exist between the information carried in the fields of HL7 messages.&#91;16&#93; The standard is accepted as official by the ISO as ISO\/HL7 21731; the original was approved in 2006, with a revised version appearing in 2014.&#91;17&#93;\n\n Clinical Document Architecture (CDA) \nThe Clinical Document Architecture (CDA) is an XML-based markup standard intended to specify the encoding, structure, and semantics of clinical documents for exchange.&#91;18&#93; The standard is accepted as official by the ISO as ISO\/HL7 27932; the most current version comes from 2009.&#91;19&#93;\n\n Clinical Context Object Workgroup (CCOW) \nThe Clinical Context Object Workgroup (CCOW) family of standards are designed to enable disparate applications to share user context and patient context in real-time, particularly at the user-interface level. CCOW implementations typically require a CCOW vault system to manage user security between applications. The primary standard under CCOW is the Context Management Specifications (CCOW), which \"serves as the basis for ensuring secure and consistent access to patient information from heterogeneous sources.\"&#91;20&#93; This standard is accepted as official by ANSI as ANSI\/HL7 CMS V1.6.\n\n Fast Healthcare Interoperability Resources (FHIR) \nThe Fast Healthcare Interoperability Resources (FHIR) standard was announced in 2012. FHIR was originally built on RESTful web services and provides modular, extensible \"resources\" to provide some flexibility but within a more fixed framework. During the development phase of FHIR, the driving fundamental principles were&#91;21&#93;:\n\nprioritize implementers as the target user of the standard;\nprovide a flexible framework for interoperability;\nlimit complexity to where it's most needed;\nkeep conformance requirement minimal but also provide varying degrees of rigor;\nleverage open source development principles;\nmake the standard available without cost;\nsupport multiple exchange architectures;\nleverage common web technologies;\nmake the standard forward and backward compatible; and\ndesign, publish, and implement associated specifications using widely available tools.\nIn February 2014, Health Level Seven International published FHIR as a \"Draft Standard for Trial Use\" (DSTU), Release 1, version DSTU 1 (v0.0.82).&#91;22&#93; By December 2014, a broad cross-section of stakeholders committed to the Argonaut Project&#91;23&#93;, which was dedicated to providing accelerated funding and political will to publish FHIR implementation guides and profiles for query\/response interoperability and document retrieval by the spring of 2015. It would then be possible for medical records systems to migrate from the current practice of exchanging complex clinical document architecture (CDA) documents and instead exchange sets of simpler, more modular and interoperable FHIR JSON objects.&#91;24&#93; By August 2016, the CEO of HL7 was suggesting that although still a draft standard, FHIR was already capable of providing valuable features to early adopters.&#91;25&#93; In March 2017, the first standards for trial use or STU version of FHIR was released as Release 3. It included coverage of a variety of clinical workflows, a resource description framework format, and a variety of other updates.&#91;26&#93; Revision 4 was released in January 2019, with the key takeaway that \"applications that implement the normative parts of R4 no longer risk being non-conformant to the standard,\" with those normative parts largely being \"the RESTful API, the XML and JSON formats, the terminology layer, the conformance framework as well as Patient and Observation resources.\"&#91;27&#93;\n\nFurther reading \nIntroduction to HL7 Standards\nSpronk, Ren\u00e9&#32;(5 September 2014).&#32;\"The Early History of Health Level 7\".&#32;Ringholm BV.&#32;http:\/\/www.ringholm.com\/docs\/the_early_history_of_health_level_7_HL7.htm . &#160; \nExternal links \nHealth Level 7 International\nHL7 Wiki\nHL7 FHIR\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 \"About Health Level Seven International\".&#32;Health Level Seven International.&#32;http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/about\/index.cfm .&#32;Retrieved 02 March 2012 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Healthcare Interoperability Glossary\".&#32;Corepoint Health.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 15 January 2016.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160115213217\/http:\/\/www.corepointhealth.com\/resource-center\/healthcare-interoperability-glossary .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Shaver, D.&#32;(2010).&#32;\"The HL7 Evolution - Comparing HL7 Versions 2 and 3\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Corepoint Health.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 03 March 2016.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160303221932\/http:\/\/corepointhealth.com\/sites\/default\/files\/whitepapers\/hl7-v2-v3-evolution.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Spronk, Ren\u00e9&#32;(5 September 2014).&#32;\"The Early History of Health Level 7\".&#32;Ringholm BV.&#32;http:\/\/www.ringholm.com\/docs\/the_early_history_of_health_level_7_HL7.htm .&#32;Retrieved 17 February 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 5.0 5.1 Di Lima, Sara N.; Johns, Lisa T.; Liebler, Joan Gratto&#32;(1998).&#32;A Practical Introduction to Health Information Management.&#32;Jones &amp; Bartlett Learning.&#32;ISBN&#160;9780834212312.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=vX_zVaMlR8sC&amp;pg=PA90 .&#32;Retrieved 17 February 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Shaver, D.&#32;(5 October 2006).&#32;\"What Is HL7 Version 3 or V3?\".&#32;Health Standards.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 15 April 2020.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200415214840\/http:\/\/healthstandards.com\/blog\/2006\/10\/05\/what-is-hl7-version-3-or-v3\/ .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"HL7 Version 3 Product Suite\".&#32;Health Level 7 International.&#32;15 May 2014.&#32;http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/product_brief.cfm?product_id=186 .&#32;Retrieved 18 February 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 8.0 8.1 Shaver, D.&#32;(2009).&#32;\"The HL7 Evolution: Comparing HL7 Version 2 to Version 3, Including a History of Version 2\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Corepoint Health.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 03 March 2016.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160303221932\/http:\/\/corepointhealth.com\/sites\/default\/files\/whitepapers\/hl7-v2-v3-evolution.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 McNickle, M.&#32;(25 April 2012).&#32;\"8 common questions about HL7\".&#32;Healthcare IT News.&#32;HIMSS Media.&#32;https:\/\/www.healthcareitnews.com\/news\/8-common-questions-about-hl7 .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Morin, J.&#32;(4 January 2011).&#32;\"Will HL7 V3 Adoption Take Off in 2011? 5 Points and 1 Caveat\".&#32;Caristix Blog.&#32;Caristix.&#32;https:\/\/caristix.com\/blog\/2011\/01\/will-hl7-v3-adoption-take-off-in-2011\/ .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Grieve, G.&#32;(15 August 2011).&#32;\"HL7 needs a fresh look because V3 has failed\".&#32;Health Intersections Blog.&#32;Health Intersections Pty. Ltd.&#32;http:\/\/www.healthintersections.com.au\/?p=476 .&#32;Retrieved 18 February 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 McKenzie, L.&#32;(February 2012).&#32;\"HL7\u2019s Next Generation Standard is Coming: Keep Calm, Carry On\".&#32;Healthcare Information Management &amp; Communications Canada&#32;26&#32;(1).&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 09 January 2014.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140109022012\/http:\/\/www.healthcareimc.com\/node\/515 .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Brull, R.&#32;(26 March 2013).&#32;\"5 Things to Know About HL7 FHIR\".&#32;Health Standards Blog.&#32;Health Standards.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 16 July 2017.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170716071425\/http:\/\/healthstandards.com\/blog\/2013\/03\/26\/hl7-fhir\/ .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Kern, C.&#32;(12 December 2014).&#32;\"HL7 Advancing FHIR\".&#32;Health IT Outcomes.&#32;Jameson Publishing.&#32;https:\/\/www.healthitoutcomes.com\/doc\/hl-advancing-fhir-0001 .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Kim, K.&#32;(July 2005).&#32;\"Creating Clinical Data Standards in Health Care: Five Case Studies\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;California HealthCare Foundation.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 10 September 2012.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120910215044\/http:\/\/www.kathykim.com\/sitebuildercontent\/sitebuilderfiles\/ClinicalDataStandardsInHealthCare.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"HL7 Reference Information Model\".&#32;Health Level 7 International.&#32;http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/rim.cfm .&#32;Retrieved 17 February 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ISO\/HL7 21731:2006\".&#32;International Organization for Standardization.&#32;https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/40399.html .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Boone, Keith W.&#32;(2011).&#32;The CDA Book.&#32;Springer Science &amp; Business Media.&#32;pp.&#160;17\u201321.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=rwa6DDB4jY8C&amp;pg=PA17 .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ISO\/HL7 27932:2009\".&#32;International Organization for Standardization.&#32;https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/44429.html .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Product CCOW\".&#32;HL7 Wiki.&#32;Health Level 7 International.&#32;27 October 2010.&#32;https:\/\/wiki.hl7.org\/index.php?title=Product_CCOW .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Fundamental Principles of FHIR\".&#32;HL7 Wiki.&#32;Health Level 7 International.&#32;17 September 2014.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 17 November 2014.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141117041614\/https:\/\/wiki.hl7.org\/index.php?title=Fundamental_Principles_of_FHIR .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 =HL7 International&#32;(February 2014).&#32;\"HL7 Fast Healthcare Interoperability Resources Specification 'FHIR', Release 1\".&#32;http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/product_brief.cfm?product_id=343 .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n\n\u2191 HL7 International&#32;(4 December 2014).&#32;\"HL7 Launches Joint Argonaut Project to Advance FHIR\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/documentcenter\/public\/pressreleases\/HL7_PRESS_20141204.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Braunstein, M.&#32;(26 January 2015).&#32;\"Can Argonaut Project Make Exchanging Health Data Easier?\".&#32;InformationWeek.&#32;https:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/strategic-cio\/can-argonaut-project-make-exchanging-health-data-easier- .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Murphy, K.&#32;(9 August 2016).&#32;\"Health IT Standard FHIR Ready to Advance Interoperability\".&#32;EHR Intelligence.&#32;https:\/\/ehrintelligence.com\/news\/health-it-standard-fhir-ready-to-advance-interoperability .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Miliard, M.&#32;(22 March 2017).&#32;\"HL7 publishes a new version of its FHIR specification\".&#32;Healthcare IT News.&#32;https:\/\/www.healthcareitnews.com\/news\/hl7-publishes-new-version-its-fhir-specification .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Sullivan, T.&#32;(2 January 2019).&#32;\"HL7 releases FHIR 4\".&#32;Healthcare IT News.&#32;https:\/\/www.healthcareitnews.com\/news\/hl7-releases-fhir-4 .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Level_7\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Level_7<\/a>\nCategories: Communication protocols and standardsHealth informaticsHealth standardsStandards organizationsNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 8 January 2022, at 00:53.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 33,227 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","e0bf845fb58d2bae05a846b47629e86f_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Health_Level_7 rootpage-Health_Level_7 skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Health Level 7<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:552px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:HL7_Reference_Information_Model.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8e925aa26de89f4ff8ca5fc5541ac42\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/f\/f8\/HL7_Reference_Information_Model.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"thumbimage\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:HL7_Reference_Information_Model.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"b8e925aa26de89f4ff8ca5fc5541ac42\"><\/a><\/div>The Reference Information Model (RIM) is an important component of the HL7 v3.0 standard and is based on XML.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p><b>Health Level Seven<\/b> (<b>HL7<\/b>) is an international non-profit volunteer-based organization involved with the development of international health care informatics interoperability standards.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HL7About_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HL7About-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The HL7 community consists of health care experts and information scientists collaborating to create standards for the exchange, management, and integration of electronic health care information.\n<\/p><p>The term \"HL7\" is also used to refer to some of the specific standards created by the organization (e.g., HL7 v2.x, v3.0, HL7 RIM).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HL7BatchProtocol_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HL7BatchProtocol-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> HL7 and its members provide a framework (and related standards) for the exchange, integration, sharing, and retrieval of electronic health information. v2.x of the standards, which support clinical practice and the management, delivery, and evaluation of health services, are the most commonly used in the world.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ShaverTheHL7_10_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ShaverTheHL7_10-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/International_Organization_for_Standardization\" title=\"International Organization for Standardization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"116defc5d89c8a55f5b7c1be0790b442\">International Organization for Standardization<\/a> (ISO) got involved with standardizing network exchanges of data between computers around 1979, creating the Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) standards model. These formal OSI standards ranged across seven levels, from OSI Level 1 (physical layer, e.g. communication over coaxial cable) to OSI Level 7 (application layer, e.g. communication between clinical software). By 1981, researchers at University of California - San Francisco had created a proprietary protocol that unbeknownst to them at the time fit under the OSI Level 7 model. The protocol was developed for clinical purposes such that \"computers exchanged several core messages, including the synchronization of patient admission-discharge-transfer information, orders from clinical areas, and the display of textual results to the clinical areas.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HL7Hist1_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HL7Hist1-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>By 1985, Simborg Systems (which developed <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Hospital_information_system\" title=\"Hospital information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8385de7b1f39a39d793f8ce349b448d\">hospital information systems<\/a>) sought to have a non-proprietary protocol created because \"standardization efforts at the time was either fragmented, in a different direction or with a different scope.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HL7Hist1_4-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HL7Hist1-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup> This led to a push to create a new standards organization, with initial meetings occurring at the end of March 1987. The meetings produced the term \"HL7\" and prompted a non-profit organization to be created, eventually known as Health Level Seven International. Version 1.0 of the HL7 specification was released in October 1987. The direction of HL7 was largely led by Simborg Systems; however, with greater practical use seen in furthering the protocol and non-profit, the first non-Simborg Systems chairperson, Ed Hammond, took the reigns in 1989.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HL7Hist1_4-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HL7Hist1-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup> By June 1990, Version 2.1 was published and included mechanisms for results reporting and billing. By the early- to mid-1990s news of HL7 was beginning to spread to international clinical sectors, particularly parts of Europe, including Netherlands, Germany, Canada, Japan, Australia, and the United Kingdom.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HL7Hist1_4-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HL7Hist1-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PractDiLama_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PractDiLama-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In June 1994 the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/American_National_Standards_Institute\" title=\"American National Standards Institute\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9a3da6ae9a20adfa068187109b058ff4\">American National Standards Institute<\/a> (ANSI) awarded Health Level 7 International status as an accredited standards developer. Version 2.2 became an official ANSI standard in February 1996. HL7 had roughly 1,700 members from various health care industries around the globe by the late 1990s.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PractDiLama_5-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PractDiLama-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Version 3.0 of the HL7 standard was released in late 2005, which internationalized it and made it more consistent and precise.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HL730_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HL730-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Where the 2.x standards eventually received wide adoption for their flexibility and available implementation options, the 3.0 standards, in contrast, departed from that flexibility in order to be more \"definite and testable, and provide the ability to certify vendors' conformance.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HL7Three_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HL7Three-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup> In 2009, Corepoint Health reported that most HL7 messaging was occurring using 2.3 and 2.3.1 models, with 3.0-based messages representing only a tiny fraction of all interfaces<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CH09_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CH09-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup>; in 2012 Corepoint Health's Rob Brull estimated that more than 90 percent of all healthcare systems were still utilizing 2.x models.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8Common_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8Common-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup> That trend continued, with several experts proclaiming the standard to be more or less a failure.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cari11_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cari11-10\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HI11_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HI11-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In early 2012, HL7 announced the HL7 FHIR (Fast Healthcare Interoperability Resources) initiative, which would utilize the best aspects of both 2.x and 3.0 standards, optimally resulting in a standard that is 20 percent the size of 3.0 but still meet the operation requirements of 80 percent of systems using the standard.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FHIR12_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FHIR12-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup> FHIR is being built on RESTful web services and provides modular, extensible \"resources\" to provide some flexibility but within a more fixed framework.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HL7StandardFHIR_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HL7StandardFHIR-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup> In December 2014, HL7 announced the Argonaut Project, meant \"to hasten current FHIR development efforts in order to create practical and focused guidelines and profiles for FHIR by the spring of 2015.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FHIRArgo_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FHIRArgo-14\">&#91;14&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Standards\">Standards<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In total HL7 develops conceptual standards (e.g., HL7 RIM), document standards (e.g., HL7 CDA), application standards (e.g., HL7 CCOW), and messaging standards (e.g., HL7 v2.x and v3.0). Messaging standards are particularly important because they define how information is packaged and communicated from one party to another. Such standards set the language, structure, and data types required for seamless integration from one system to another.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KimCreating05_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KimCreating05-15\">&#91;15&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Business use of the HL7 standards requires a paid organizational membership in HL7, Inc. HL7 members can access standards for free, and non-members can buy the standards from HL7 or <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ANSI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ANSI\" data-key=\"682431568a190846c1164f8943aedded\">ANSI<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>HL7 v2.x and 3.0 are the primary standards from the organization. They provide a framework for data exchange among clinical and healthcare systems in an ideal format. The 2.x standards are flexible, with several implementation options, loosely geared towards \"clinical interface specialists\" working to move clinical data in the application space. The 3.0 standards are designed to be more fixed, precise, and international, geared towards governments and end users of clinical applications.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CH09_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CH09-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>While HL7 v2.x and 3.0 are the primary standards, a few other important standards and components are associated with HL7, as detailed below.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Reference_Information_Model_(RIM)\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Reference_Information_Model_.28RIM.29\">Reference Information Model (RIM)<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The Reference Information Model (RIM) is an important component of the HL7 Version 3 standard. RIM expresses the data content needed in a specific clinical or administrative context and provides an explicit representation of the semantic and lexical connections that exist between the information carried in the fields of HL7 messages.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RIM_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RIM-16\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The standard is accepted as official by the ISO as ISO\/HL7 21731; the original was approved in 2006, with a revised version appearing in 2014.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO21731_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO21731-17\">&#91;17&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Clinical_Document_Architecture_(CDA)\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Clinical_Document_Architecture_.28CDA.29\">Clinical Document Architecture (CDA)<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The Clinical Document Architecture (CDA) is an XML-based markup standard intended to specify the encoding, structure, and semantics of clinical documents for exchange.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CDABook_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CDABook-18\">&#91;18&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The standard is accepted as official by the ISO as ISO\/HL7 27932; the most current version comes from 2009.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO27932_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO27932-19\">&#91;19&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Clinical_Context_Object_Workgroup_(CCOW)\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Clinical_Context_Object_Workgroup_.28CCOW.29\">Clinical Context Object Workgroup (CCOW)<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The Clinical Context Object Workgroup (CCOW) family of standards are designed to enable disparate applications to share user context and patient context in real-time, particularly at the user-interface level. CCOW implementations typically require a CCOW vault system to manage user security between applications. The primary standard under CCOW is the Context Management Specifications (CCOW), which \"serves as the basis for ensuring secure and consistent access to patient information from heterogeneous sources.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CCOWWiki_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CCOWWiki-20\">&#91;20&#93;<\/a><\/sup> This standard is accepted as official by ANSI as ANSI\/HL7 CMS V1.6.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Fast_Healthcare_Interoperability_Resources_(FHIR)\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Fast_Healthcare_Interoperability_Resources_.28FHIR.29\">Fast Healthcare Interoperability Resources (FHIR)<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The Fast Healthcare Interoperability Resources (FHIR) standard was announced in 2012. FHIR was originally built on RESTful web services and provides modular, extensible \"resources\" to provide some flexibility but within a more fixed framework. During the development phase of FHIR, the driving fundamental principles were<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FHIRPrinc_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FHIRPrinc-21\">&#91;21&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>prioritize implementers as the target user of the standard;<\/li>\n<li>provide a flexible framework for interoperability;<\/li>\n<li>limit complexity to where it's most needed;<\/li>\n<li>keep conformance requirement minimal but also provide varying degrees of rigor;<\/li>\n<li>leverage open source development principles;<\/li>\n<li>make the standard available without cost;<\/li>\n<li>support multiple exchange architectures;<\/li>\n<li>leverage common web technologies;<\/li>\n<li>make the standard forward and backward compatible; and<\/li>\n<li>design, publish, and implement associated specifications using widely available tools.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>In February 2014, Health Level Seven International published FHIR as a \"Draft Standard for Trial Use\" (DSTU), Release 1, version DSTU 1 (v0.0.82).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HL7Fast14-1_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HL7Fast14-1-22\">&#91;22&#93;<\/a><\/sup> By December 2014, a broad cross-section of stakeholders committed to the Argonaut Project<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">&#91;23&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, which was dedicated to providing accelerated funding and political will to publish FHIR implementation guides and profiles for query\/response interoperability and document retrieval by the spring of 2015. It would then be possible for medical records systems to migrate from the current practice of exchanging complex clinical document architecture (CDA) documents and instead exchange sets of simpler, more modular and interoperable FHIR JSON objects.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BraunsteinCanArgo15_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BraunsteinCanArgo15-24\">&#91;24&#93;<\/a><\/sup> By August 2016, the CEO of HL7 was suggesting that although still a draft standard, FHIR was already capable of providing valuable features to early adopters.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MurphyHealth16_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MurphyHealth16-25\">&#91;25&#93;<\/a><\/sup> In March 2017, the first standards for trial use or STU version of FHIR was released as Release 3. It included coverage of a variety of clinical workflows, a resource description framework format, and a variety of other updates.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MiliardHL717_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MiliardHL717-26\">&#91;26&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Revision 4 was released in January 2019, with the key takeaway that \"applications that implement the normative parts of R4 no longer risk being non-conformant to the standard,\" with those normative parts largely being \"the RESTful API, the XML and JSON formats, the terminology layer, the conformance framework as well as Patient and Observation resources.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SullivanHL7_19_27-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SullivanHL7_19-27\">&#91;27&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/index.cfm\" target=\"_blank\">Introduction to HL7 Standards<\/a><\/li>\n<li><span class=\"citation web\">Spronk, Ren\u00e9&#32;(5 September 2014).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ringholm.com\/docs\/the_early_history_of_health_level_7_HL7.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Early History of Health Level 7\"<\/a>.&#32;Ringholm BV<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ringholm.com\/docs\/the_early_history_of_health_level_7_HL7.htm\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.ringholm.com\/docs\/the_early_history_of_health_level_7_HL7.htm<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+Early+History+of+Health+Level+7&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Spronk%2C+Ren%C3%A9&amp;rft.au=Spronk%2C+Ren%C3%A9&amp;rft.date=5+September+2014&amp;rft.pub=Ringholm+BV&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ringholm.com%2Fdocs%2Fthe_early_history_of_health_level_7_HL7.htm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">Health Level 7 International<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/wiki.hl7.org\/index.php?title=Main_Page\" target=\"_blank\">HL7 Wiki<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/wiki.hl7.org\/index.php?title=FHIR\" target=\"_blank\">HL7 FHIR<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-HL7About-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HL7About_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/about\/index.cfm\" target=\"_blank\">\"About Health Level Seven International\"<\/a>.&#32;Health Level Seven International<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/about\/index.cfm\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/about\/index.cfm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 02 March 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=About+Health+Level+Seven+International&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Health+Level+Seven+International&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hl7.org%2Fabout%2Findex.cfm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HL7BatchProtocol-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HL7BatchProtocol_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160115213217\/http:\/\/www.corepointhealth.com\/resource-center\/healthcare-interoperability-glossary\" target=\"_blank\">\"Healthcare Interoperability Glossary\"<\/a>.&#32;Corepoint Health.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#H\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 15 January 2016<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160115213217\/http:\/\/www.corepointhealth.com\/resource-center\/healthcare-interoperability-glossary\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160115213217\/http:\/\/www.corepointhealth.com\/resource-center\/healthcare-interoperability-glossary<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Healthcare+Interoperability+Glossary&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Corepoint+Health&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20160115213217%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.corepointhealth.com%2Fresource-center%2Fhealthcare-interoperability-glossary&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ShaverTheHL7_10-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ShaverTheHL7_10_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Shaver, D.&#32;(2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160303221932\/http:\/\/corepointhealth.com\/sites\/default\/files\/whitepapers\/hl7-v2-v3-evolution.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"The HL7 Evolution - Comparing HL7 Versions 2 and 3\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Corepoint Health.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.corepointhealth.com\/sites\/default\/files\/whitepapers\/hl7-v2-v3-evolution.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 03 March 2016<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160303221932\/http:\/\/corepointhealth.com\/sites\/default\/files\/whitepapers\/hl7-v2-v3-evolution.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160303221932\/http:\/\/corepointhealth.com\/sites\/default\/files\/whitepapers\/hl7-v2-v3-evolution.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+HL7+Evolution+-+Comparing+HL7+Versions+2+and+3&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Shaver%2C+D.&amp;rft.au=Shaver%2C+D.&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.pub=Corepoint+Health&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20160303221932%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fcorepointhealth.com%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fwhitepapers%2Fhl7-v2-v3-evolution.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HL7Hist1-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HL7Hist1_4-0\">4.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HL7Hist1_4-1\">4.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HL7Hist1_4-2\">4.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HL7Hist1_4-3\">4.3<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Spronk, Ren\u00e9&#32;(5 September 2014).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ringholm.com\/docs\/the_early_history_of_health_level_7_HL7.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Early History of Health Level 7\"<\/a>.&#32;Ringholm BV<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ringholm.com\/docs\/the_early_history_of_health_level_7_HL7.htm\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.ringholm.com\/docs\/the_early_history_of_health_level_7_HL7.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+Early+History+of+Health+Level+7&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Spronk%2C+Ren%C3%A9&amp;rft.au=Spronk%2C+Ren%C3%A9&amp;rft.date=5+September+2014&amp;rft.pub=Ringholm+BV&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ringholm.com%2Fdocs%2Fthe_early_history_of_health_level_7_HL7.htm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PractDiLama-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-PractDiLama_5-0\">5.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-PractDiLama_5-1\">5.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Di Lima, Sara N.; Johns, Lisa T.; Liebler, Joan Gratto&#32;(1998).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=vX_zVaMlR8sC&pg=PA90\" target=\"_blank\"><i>A Practical Introduction to Health Information Management<\/i><\/a>.&#32;Jones &amp; Bartlett Learning.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9780834212312<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=vX_zVaMlR8sC&pg=PA90\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=vX_zVaMlR8sC&amp;pg=PA90<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=A+Practical+Introduction+to+Health+Information+Management&amp;rft.aulast=Di+Lima%2C+Sara+N.%3B+Johns%2C+Lisa+T.%3B+Liebler%2C+Joan+Gratto&amp;rft.au=Di+Lima%2C+Sara+N.%3B+Johns%2C+Lisa+T.%3B+Liebler%2C+Joan+Gratto&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft.pub=Jones+%26+Bartlett+Learning&amp;rft.isbn=9780834212312&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvX_zVaMlR8sC%26pg%3DPA90&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HL730-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HL730_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Shaver, D.&#32;(5 October 2006).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200415214840\/http:\/\/healthstandards.com\/blog\/2006\/10\/05\/what-is-hl7-version-3-or-v3\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"What Is HL7 Version 3 or V3?\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Health Standards<\/i>.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/healthstandards.com\/blog\/2006\/10\/05\/what-is-hl7-version-3-or-v3\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 15 April 2020<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200415214840\/http:\/\/healthstandards.com\/blog\/2006\/10\/05\/what-is-hl7-version-3-or-v3\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200415214840\/http:\/\/healthstandards.com\/blog\/2006\/10\/05\/what-is-hl7-version-3-or-v3\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=What+Is+HL7+Version+3+or+V3%3F&amp;rft.atitle=Health+Standards&amp;rft.aulast=Shaver%2C+D.&amp;rft.au=Shaver%2C+D.&amp;rft.date=5+October+2006&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20200415214840%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fhealthstandards.com%2Fblog%2F2006%2F10%2F05%2Fwhat-is-hl7-version-3-or-v3%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HL7Three-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HL7Three_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/product_brief.cfm?product_id=186\" target=\"_blank\">\"HL7 Version 3 Product Suite\"<\/a>.&#32;Health Level 7 International.&#32;15 May 2014<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/product_brief.cfm?product_id=186\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/product_brief.cfm?product_id=186<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=HL7+Version+3+Product+Suite&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=15+May+2014&amp;rft.pub=Health+Level+7+International&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hl7.org%2Fimplement%2Fstandards%2Fproduct_brief.cfm%3Fproduct_id%3D186&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CH09-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CH09_8-0\">8.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CH09_8-1\">8.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Shaver, D.&#32;(2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160303221932\/http:\/\/corepointhealth.com\/sites\/default\/files\/whitepapers\/hl7-v2-v3-evolution.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"The HL7 Evolution: Comparing HL7 Version 2 to Version 3, Including a History of Version 2\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Corepoint Health.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.corepointhealth.com\/sites\/default\/files\/whitepapers\/hl7-v2-v3-evolution.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 03 March 2016<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160303221932\/http:\/\/corepointhealth.com\/sites\/default\/files\/whitepapers\/hl7-v2-v3-evolution.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160303221932\/http:\/\/corepointhealth.com\/sites\/default\/files\/whitepapers\/hl7-v2-v3-evolution.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+HL7+Evolution%3A+Comparing+HL7+Version+2+to+Version+3%2C+Including+a+History+of+Version+2&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Shaver%2C+D.&amp;rft.au=Shaver%2C+D.&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.pub=Corepoint+Health&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20160303221932%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fcorepointhealth.com%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fwhitepapers%2Fhl7-v2-v3-evolution.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-8Common-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-8Common_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">McNickle, M.&#32;(25 April 2012).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.healthcareitnews.com\/news\/8-common-questions-about-hl7\" target=\"_blank\">\"8 common questions about HL7\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Healthcare IT News<\/i>.&#32;HIMSS Media<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.healthcareitnews.com\/news\/8-common-questions-about-hl7\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.healthcareitnews.com\/news\/8-common-questions-about-hl7<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=8+common+questions+about+HL7&amp;rft.atitle=Healthcare+IT+News&amp;rft.aulast=McNickle%2C+M.&amp;rft.au=McNickle%2C+M.&amp;rft.date=25+April+2012&amp;rft.pub=HIMSS+Media&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.healthcareitnews.com%2Fnews%2F8-common-questions-about-hl7&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Cari11-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Cari11_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Morin, J.&#32;(4 January 2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/caristix.com\/blog\/2011\/01\/will-hl7-v3-adoption-take-off-in-2011\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Will HL7 V3 Adoption Take Off in 2011? 5 Points and 1 Caveat\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Caristix Blog<\/i>.&#32;Caristix<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/caristix.com\/blog\/2011\/01\/will-hl7-v3-adoption-take-off-in-2011\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/caristix.com\/blog\/2011\/01\/will-hl7-v3-adoption-take-off-in-2011\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Will+HL7+V3+Adoption+Take+Off+in+2011%3F+5+Points+and+1+Caveat&amp;rft.atitle=Caristix+Blog&amp;rft.aulast=Morin%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Morin%2C+J.&amp;rft.date=4+January+2011&amp;rft.pub=Caristix&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcaristix.com%2Fblog%2F2011%2F01%2Fwill-hl7-v3-adoption-take-off-in-2011%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HI11-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HI11_11-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Grieve, G.&#32;(15 August 2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.healthintersections.com.au\/?p=476\" target=\"_blank\">\"HL7 needs a fresh look because V3 has failed\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Health Intersections Blog<\/i>.&#32;Health Intersections Pty. Ltd<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.healthintersections.com.au\/?p=476\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.healthintersections.com.au\/?p=476<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=HL7+needs+a+fresh+look+because+V3+has+failed&amp;rft.atitle=Health+Intersections+Blog&amp;rft.aulast=Grieve%2C+G.&amp;rft.au=Grieve%2C+G.&amp;rft.date=15+August+2011&amp;rft.pub=Health+Intersections+Pty.+Ltd&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.healthintersections.com.au%2F%3Fp%3D476&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FHIR12-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FHIR12_12-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">McKenzie, L.&#32;(February 2012).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140109022012\/http:\/\/www.healthcareimc.com\/node\/515\" target=\"_blank\">\"HL7\u2019s Next Generation Standard is Coming: Keep Calm, Carry On\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Healthcare Information Management &amp; Communications Canada<\/i>&#32;<b>26<\/b>&#32;(1).&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.healthcareimc.com\/node\/515\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 09 January 2014<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140109022012\/http:\/\/www.healthcareimc.com\/node\/515\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140109022012\/http:\/\/www.healthcareimc.com\/node\/515<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=HL7%E2%80%99s+Next+Generation+Standard+is+Coming%3A+Keep+Calm%2C+Carry+On&amp;rft.jtitle=Healthcare+Information+Management+%26+Communications+Canada&amp;rft.aulast=McKenzie%2C+L.&amp;rft.au=McKenzie%2C+L.&amp;rft.date=February+2012&amp;rft.volume=26&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20140109022012%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.healthcareimc.com%2Fnode%2F515&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HL7StandardFHIR-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HL7StandardFHIR_13-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Brull, R.&#32;(26 March 2013).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170716071425\/http:\/\/healthstandards.com\/blog\/2013\/03\/26\/hl7-fhir\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"5 Things to Know About HL7 FHIR\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Health Standards Blog<\/i>.&#32;Health Standards.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/healthstandards.com\/blog\/2013\/03\/26\/hl7-fhir\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 16 July 2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170716071425\/http:\/\/healthstandards.com\/blog\/2013\/03\/26\/hl7-fhir\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170716071425\/http:\/\/healthstandards.com\/blog\/2013\/03\/26\/hl7-fhir\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=5+Things+to+Know+About+HL7+FHIR&amp;rft.atitle=Health+Standards+Blog&amp;rft.aulast=Brull%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Brull%2C+R.&amp;rft.date=26+March+2013&amp;rft.pub=Health+Standards&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20170716071425%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fhealthstandards.com%2Fblog%2F2013%2F03%2F26%2Fhl7-fhir%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FHIRArgo-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FHIRArgo_14-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Kern, C.&#32;(12 December 2014).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.healthitoutcomes.com\/doc\/hl-advancing-fhir-0001\" target=\"_blank\">\"HL7 Advancing FHIR\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Health IT Outcomes<\/i>.&#32;Jameson Publishing<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.healthitoutcomes.com\/doc\/hl-advancing-fhir-0001\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.healthitoutcomes.com\/doc\/hl-advancing-fhir-0001<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=HL7+Advancing+FHIR&amp;rft.atitle=Health+IT+Outcomes&amp;rft.aulast=Kern%2C+C.&amp;rft.au=Kern%2C+C.&amp;rft.date=12+December+2014&amp;rft.pub=Jameson+Publishing&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.healthitoutcomes.com%2Fdoc%2Fhl-advancing-fhir-0001&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KimCreating05-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-KimCreating05_15-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Kim, K.&#32;(July 2005).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120910215044\/http:\/\/www.kathykim.com\/sitebuildercontent\/sitebuilderfiles\/ClinicalDataStandardsInHealthCare.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Creating Clinical Data Standards in Health Care: Five Case Studies\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;California HealthCare Foundation.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.kathykim.com\/sitebuildercontent\/sitebuilderfiles\/ClinicalDataStandardsInHealthCare.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 10 September 2012<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120910215044\/http:\/\/www.kathykim.com\/sitebuildercontent\/sitebuilderfiles\/ClinicalDataStandardsInHealthCare.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120910215044\/http:\/\/www.kathykim.com\/sitebuildercontent\/sitebuilderfiles\/ClinicalDataStandardsInHealthCare.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Creating+Clinical+Data+Standards+in+Health+Care%3A+Five+Case+Studies&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Kim%2C+K.&amp;rft.au=Kim%2C+K.&amp;rft.date=July+2005&amp;rft.pub=California+HealthCare+Foundation&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20120910215044%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.kathykim.com%2Fsitebuildercontent%2Fsitebuilderfiles%2FClinicalDataStandardsInHealthCare.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RIM-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-RIM_16-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/rim.cfm\" target=\"_blank\">\"HL7 Reference Information Model\"<\/a>.&#32;Health Level 7 International<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/rim.cfm\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/rim.cfm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=HL7+Reference+Information+Model&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Health+Level+7+International&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hl7.org%2Fimplement%2Fstandards%2Frim.cfm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ISO21731-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO21731_17-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/40399.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO\/HL7 21731:2006\"<\/a>.&#32;International Organization for Standardization<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/40399.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/40399.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO%2FHL7+21731%3A2006&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=International+Organization+for+Standardization&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fstandard%2F40399.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CDABook-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CDABook_18-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Boone, Keith W.&#32;(2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=rwa6DDB4jY8C&pg=PA17\" target=\"_blank\"><i>The CDA Book<\/i><\/a>.&#32;Springer Science &amp; Business Media.&#32;pp.&#160;17\u201321<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=rwa6DDB4jY8C&pg=PA17\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=rwa6DDB4jY8C&amp;pg=PA17<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+CDA+Book&amp;rft.aulast=Boone%2C+Keith+W.&amp;rft.au=Boone%2C+Keith+W.&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B17%E2%80%9321&amp;rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Drwa6DDB4jY8C%26pg%3DPA17&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ISO27932-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO27932_19-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/44429.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO\/HL7 27932:2009\"<\/a>.&#32;International Organization for Standardization<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/44429.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/44429.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO%2FHL7+27932%3A2009&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=International+Organization+for+Standardization&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fstandard%2F44429.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CCOWWiki-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CCOWWiki_20-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/wiki.hl7.org\/index.php?title=Product_CCOW\" target=\"_blank\">\"Product CCOW\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>HL7 Wiki<\/i>.&#32;Health Level 7 International.&#32;27 October 2010<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/wiki.hl7.org\/index.php?title=Product_CCOW\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/wiki.hl7.org\/index.php?title=Product_CCOW<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Product+CCOW&amp;rft.atitle=HL7+Wiki&amp;rft.date=27+October+2010&amp;rft.pub=Health+Level+7+International&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwiki.hl7.org%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3DProduct_CCOW&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FHIRPrinc-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FHIRPrinc_21-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141117041614\/https:\/\/wiki.hl7.org\/index.php?title=Fundamental_Principles_of_FHIR\" target=\"_blank\">\"Fundamental Principles of FHIR\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>HL7 Wiki<\/i>.&#32;Health Level 7 International.&#32;17 September 2014.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/wiki.hl7.org\/index.php?title=Fundamental_Principles_of_FHIR\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 17 November 2014<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141117041614\/https:\/\/wiki.hl7.org\/index.php?title=Fundamental_Principles_of_FHIR\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141117041614\/https:\/\/wiki.hl7.org\/index.php?title=Fundamental_Principles_of_FHIR<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Fundamental+Principles+of+FHIR&amp;rft.atitle=HL7+Wiki&amp;rft.date=17+September+2014&amp;rft.pub=Health+Level+7+International&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20141117041614%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fwiki.hl7.org%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3DFundamental_Principles_of_FHIR&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HL7Fast14-1-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HL7Fast14-1_22-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation news\">=HL7 International&#32;(February 2014).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/product_brief.cfm?product_id=343\" target=\"_blank\">\"HL7 Fast Healthcare Interoperability Resources Specification 'FHIR', Release 1\"<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/product_brief.cfm?product_id=343\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/product_brief.cfm?product_id=343<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=HL7+Fast+Healthcare+Interoperability+Resources+Specification+%27FHIR%27%2C+Release+1&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=%3DHL7+International&amp;rft.au=%3DHL7+International&amp;rft.date=February+2014&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hl7.org%2Fimplement%2Fstandards%2Fproduct_brief.cfm%3Fproduct_id%3D343&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-23\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">HL7 International&#32;(4 December 2014).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/documentcenter\/public\/pressreleases\/HL7_PRESS_20141204.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"HL7 Launches Joint Argonaut Project to Advance FHIR\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF)<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/documentcenter\/public\/pressreleases\/HL7_PRESS_20141204.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/documentcenter\/public\/pressreleases\/HL7_PRESS_20141204.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=HL7+Launches+Joint+Argonaut+Project+to+Advance+FHIR&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=HL7+International&amp;rft.au=HL7+International&amp;rft.date=4+December+2014&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hl7.org%2Fdocumentcenter%2Fpublic%2Fpressreleases%2FHL7_PRESS_20141204.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BraunsteinCanArgo15-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BraunsteinCanArgo15_24-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Braunstein, M.&#32;(26 January 2015).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/strategic-cio\/can-argonaut-project-make-exchanging-health-data-easier-\" target=\"_blank\">\"Can Argonaut Project Make Exchanging Health Data Easier?\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>InformationWeek<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/strategic-cio\/can-argonaut-project-make-exchanging-health-data-easier-\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/strategic-cio\/can-argonaut-project-make-exchanging-health-data-easier-<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Can+Argonaut+Project+Make+Exchanging+Health+Data+Easier%3F&amp;rft.atitle=InformationWeek&amp;rft.aulast=Braunstein%2C+M.&amp;rft.au=Braunstein%2C+M.&amp;rft.date=26+January+2015&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.informationweek.com%2Fstrategic-cio%2Fcan-argonaut-project-make-exchanging-health-data-easier-&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MurphyHealth16-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MurphyHealth16_25-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Murphy, K.&#32;(9 August 2016).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ehrintelligence.com\/news\/health-it-standard-fhir-ready-to-advance-interoperability\" target=\"_blank\">\"Health IT Standard FHIR Ready to Advance Interoperability\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>EHR Intelligence<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/ehrintelligence.com\/news\/health-it-standard-fhir-ready-to-advance-interoperability\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/ehrintelligence.com\/news\/health-it-standard-fhir-ready-to-advance-interoperability<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Health+IT+Standard+FHIR+Ready+to+Advance+Interoperability&amp;rft.atitle=EHR+Intelligence&amp;rft.aulast=Murphy%2C+K.&amp;rft.au=Murphy%2C+K.&amp;rft.date=9+August+2016&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fehrintelligence.com%2Fnews%2Fhealth-it-standard-fhir-ready-to-advance-interoperability&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MiliardHL717-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MiliardHL717_26-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Miliard, M.&#32;(22 March 2017).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.healthcareitnews.com\/news\/hl7-publishes-new-version-its-fhir-specification\" target=\"_blank\">\"HL7 publishes a new version of its FHIR specification\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Healthcare IT News<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.healthcareitnews.com\/news\/hl7-publishes-new-version-its-fhir-specification\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.healthcareitnews.com\/news\/hl7-publishes-new-version-its-fhir-specification<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=HL7+publishes+a+new+version+of+its+FHIR+specification&amp;rft.atitle=Healthcare+IT+News&amp;rft.aulast=Miliard%2C+M.&amp;rft.au=Miliard%2C+M.&amp;rft.date=22+March+2017&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.healthcareitnews.com%2Fnews%2Fhl7-publishes-new-version-its-fhir-specification&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SullivanHL7_19-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SullivanHL7_19_27-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Sullivan, T.&#32;(2 January 2019).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.healthcareitnews.com\/news\/hl7-releases-fhir-4\" target=\"_blank\">\"HL7 releases FHIR 4\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Healthcare IT News<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.healthcareitnews.com\/news\/hl7-releases-fhir-4\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.healthcareitnews.com\/news\/hl7-releases-fhir-4<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=HL7+releases+FHIR+4&amp;rft.atitle=Healthcare+IT+News&amp;rft.aulast=Sullivan%2C+T.&amp;rft.au=Sullivan%2C+T.&amp;rft.date=2+January+2019&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.healthcareitnews.com%2Fnews%2Fhl7-releases-fhir-4&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110012022\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.662 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.145 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 19515\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 124617\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 56291\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 18\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 40548\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 279.524 1 -total\n 88.38% 247.050 1 Template:Reflist\n 75.52% 211.084 28 Template:Citation\/core\n 69.22% 193.492 24 Template:Cite_web\n 13.47% 37.664 19 Template:Date\n 10.27% 28.701 2 Template:Cite_book\n 5.14% 14.376 48 Template:Citation\/make_link\n 4.76% 13.297 1 Template:Cite_journal\n 4.26% 11.894 1 Template:Cite_news\n 3.99% 11.141 1 Template:Citation\/identifier\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:3385-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110012020 and revision id 45463. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Level_7\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Level_7<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","e0bf845fb58d2bae05a846b47629e86f_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/f\/f8\/HL7_Reference_Information_Model.jpg"],"e0bf845fb58d2bae05a846b47629e86f_timestamp":1704907027,"b70673a0117c21576016cb7498867153_type":"article","b70673a0117c21576016cb7498867153_title":"Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act","b70673a0117c21576016cb7498867153_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act","b70673a0117c21576016cb7498867153_plaintext":"\n\nHealth Insurance Portability and Accountability ActFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search\nThe Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA) was enacted by the United States Congress and signed by President Bill Clinton in 1996. Its intended purpose was \"to improve portability and continuity of health insurance coverage in the group and individual markets; to combat waste, fraud, and abuse in health insurance and health care delivery; to promote the use of medical savings accounts; to improve access to long-term care services and coverage; [and] to simplify the administration of health insurance.\"&#91;1&#93;\n\nContents \n\n1 History \n\n1.1 Initial \n1.2 Amendments \n\n\n2 Structure \n\n2.1 Description \n\n\n3 Enforcement \n4 Assessed impact \n5 Audit guidelines and checklist \n6 Further reading \n7 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nInitial \nIn 1994, U.S. President Bill Clinton attempted to overhaul the national health care system but didn't receive the support he needed. In 1995, Senators Nancy Kassebaum (R-KS) and Edward Kennedy (D-MA) introduced a comparatively pared down proposal called the Health Insurance Reform Act of 1995 (S 11028), later referred to informally as the Kassebaum\/Kennedy Bill. The proposal called for health insurance portability for employees, medical savings accounts, increased deductibility of health insurance for the self-employed, and tax breaks for long-term care insurance.&#91;2&#93;&#91;3&#93; The legislation successfully made it out of the Senate Labor and Human Resources Committee on August 2, 1995&#91;4&#93;, only to be stalled \"because of opposition from conservative senators who shared industry concerns over the group-to-individual portability provisions.\"&#91;2&#93; \nWith desire to get some sort of health care reform legislation passed, Clinton referenced the stalled bill in his January 1996 State of the Union address on several occasions. Though some feared the ploy by Clinton would ultimately sink the bill, it inevitably resulted in bipartisan cooperation so no one side could take credit for the bill.&#91;4&#93; On February 7, 1996, the two parties agreed to further discuss the legislation in the House and Senate. This resulted in several events: the House of Representatives created an alternative bill (HR 3103) that drew on characteristics of S 11028, passing on March 28; the Senate passed a version of the original S 11028 on April 23 but without controversial attachments like medical savings accounts. However, differences between the House and Senate bills caused problems. \"The House bill, for example, included provisions allowing for medical savings accounts, a limit on monetary damages in medical malpractice lawsuits and a reduction in states' authority to regulate health insurance purchasing pools created by small businesses.\"&#91;2&#93; Additionally, a provision on mental health coverage was found on the Senate bill that was omitted from the House version. It took several weeks of debating to make concessions on these topics. \nA Republican-led compromise was offered on June 10, however debate raged on. It wasn't until a July 25 compromise between Kennedy and Ways and Means Committee Chairman Bill Archer (R-TX) on medical savings accounts that momentum shifted. Provisions on mental illness and medical malpractice were eventually dropped from the proposal on July 31, with both House and Senate agreeing on the final version on August 1 and August 2 respectively.&#91;2&#93; On August 21, 1996, the legislation was signed into law by President Clinton and codified as Public Law 104-191, the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA).&#91;5&#93;&#91;1&#93;\n\nAmendments \nThe administrative simplification provisions in HIPAA meant more work had to be done in regards to the legislation. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) began work on the HIPAA Privacy Rule in 1999, \"which set out detailed regulations regarding the types of uses and disclosures of personally identifiable health information that are permitted by the covered entities.\"&#91;6&#93; However, large volumes of comments and Executive branch changes in 2000 slowed the process down.&#91;6&#93; Several more years of corrections and requests for comments followed, culminating in the release of the Final Rule on August 14, 2002 as 45 CFR Part 160 and Subparts A and E of Part 164.&#91;7&#93; Most health plans were expected to be in compliance by April 14, 2003, though some exceptions existed.\nDespite the Privacy Rule, many still argued that the legislation wasn't suitable enough to prevent mishandling of personal health information and that it was impeding research.&#91;6&#93; These concerns mixed with few incidents of enforcement in the first few years after the 2003 compliance date prompted additional review by the HHS.&#91;8&#93; On February 16, 2006, HHS issued the Final Rule regarding HIPAA enforcement, to be effective March 16, 2006.&#91;9&#93; \nAdditional updates to the enforcement rule came with the Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act (HITECH) Act, enacted on February 17, 2009. The Act added \"several provisions that strengthen the civil and criminal enforcement of the HIPAA rules\" by adding categories of violations and tier levels of penalty amounts.&#91;10&#93; HIPAA and the HITECH statutes were further revised in January 2013 (effective March 26, 2013) \"to strengthen the privacy and security protection for individuals\u2019 health information,\" update the Breach Notification Rule, \"strengthen the privacy protections for genetic information,\" and revise other portions of HIPAA rules \"to improve their workability and effectiveness.\"&#91;11&#93;\n\nStructure \nHIPAA is divided into five titles, each with their own subtitles&#91;1&#93;:\nTitle I: Health Care Access, Portability, and Renewability\n\nSubtitle A - Group Market Rules\nSubtitle B - Individual Market Rules\nSubtitle C - General and Miscellaneous Provisions\nTitle II: Preventing Health Care Fraud and Abuse; Administrative Simplification; Medical Liability Reform\n\nSubtitle A - Fraud and Abuse Control Program\nSubtitle B - Revisions to Current Sanctions for Fraud and Abuse\nSubtitle C - Data Collection\nSubtitle D - Civil Monetary Penalties\nSubtitle E - Revisions to Criminal Law\nSubtitle F - Administrative Simplification\nSubtitle G - Duplication and Coordination of Medicare-Related Plans\nTitle III: Tax-Related Health Provisions\n\nSubtitle A - Medical Savings Accounts\nSubtitle B - Increase in Deduction for Health Insurance Costs of Self-Employed Individuals\nSubtitle C - Long-Term Care Services and Contracts\nSubtitle D - Treatment of Accelerated Death Benefits\nSubtitle E - State Insurance Pools\nSubtitle F - Organizations Subject to Section 833\nSubtitle G - IRA Distributions to the Unemployed\nSubtitle H - Organ and Tissue Donation Information Included With Income Tax Refund Payments\nTitle IV: Application and Enforcement of Group Health Plan Requirements\n\nSubtitle A - Application and Enforcement of Group Health Plan Requirements\nSubtitle B - Clarification of Certain Continuation Coverage Requirements\nTitle V: Revenue Offsets\n\nSubtitle A - Company-Owned Life Insurance\nSubtitle B - Treatment of Individuals Who Lose United States Citizenship\nSubtitle C - Repeal of Financial Institution Transition Rule to Interest Allocation Rules\nDescription \nTitle I of HIPAA contains three subtitles that protect health insurance coverage for workers and their families when they change or lose their jobs. \nTitle II of HIPAA contains seven subtitles. One of the most important for expanding HIPAA is Subtitle F, the Administrative Simplification (AS) provisions, requiring the establishment of national standards for electronic health care transactions and national identifiers for providers, health insurance plans, and employers. Title II also addresses the security and privacy of health data, with the intent of improving the efficiency and effectiveness of the nation's health care system by encouraging the widespread use of electronic data interchange in the U.S. health care system.\nTitle III of HIPAA modifies the Internal Revenue Code (IRC) to revise available tax deductions for health insurance, clarify how pre-tax money could be applied health payments, and regulate long-term care services and how they're contracted. Other tax-related issues like IRA distribution and organ donor tax refund payments are covered by this title, in total spread out over eight subtitles.\nTitle IV of HIPAA modifies both the IRC and the Public Health Service Act (PHSA) to describe requirements for and enforcement of how group health plans could legally manage and cover patients' pre-existing conditions as well as their continuation of coverage. This information is supplied over two subtitles.\nTitle V of HIPAA contains three subtitles that amend the IRC concerning miscellaneous issues such as interest deductions on loans related to company-owned life insurance, how individuals who lose their U.S. citizenship shall be treated tax-wise, and the removal of certain limitations on interest allocation.\n\nEnforcement \nOn February 16, 2006, HHS issued the Final Rule regarding HIPAA enforcement. It became effective on March 16, 2006. The Enforcement Rule set civil money penalties for violating HIPAA rules and established procedures for investigations and hearings for HIPAA violations. Before the enforcement rule, the deterrent effects of the legislation seemed negligible, with few prosecutions for violations.&#91;8&#93; Enforcement operations were ratcheted up further with the passage of the Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act (HITECH) in 2009, which greatly increased the financial penalties that could be applied to entities in non-compliance.&#91;12&#93;\nBy the end of 2014, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Resources (HHS) reported investigating 106,522 HIPAA complaints against national pharmacy chains, major health care centers, insurance groups, hospital chains and other small providers since April 2003. The HHS reported 23,314 of those cases had been resolved by requiring changes in privacy practice or by corrective action. 10,566 cases were investigated and found that HIPAA was followed correctly. Another 68,412 cases were found to be ineligible for enforcement because, for example, a violation occurred before HIPAA became effective, a case was withdrawn by the pursuer, or an activity did not actually violate the rules.&#91;13&#93;\nAccording to the HHS, the most commonly investigated compliance issue, by order of frequency, have been&#91;13&#93;:\n\nincorrectly used or revealed protected health information (PHI);\ninsufficient protection mechanisms for PHI;\ninsufficient mechanisms for patients to access their PHI;\ninsufficient administrative protections and tools for managing electronic PHI; and\nusage and disclosure of more PHI than minimally necessary.\nThe HHS also stated the entities most likely to be responsible for infractions, by order of frequency, have been&#91;13&#93;:\n\nprivate practices;\ngeneral hospitals;\noutpatient facilities;\npharmacies; and\nhealth plans (group health plans and health insurance issuers).\nAssessed impact \nThe enactment of HIPAA caused major changes in the way physicians and medical centers operate. The complex legalities and potentially stiff penalties associated with HIPAA, as well as the increase in paperwork and the cost of its implementation, were causes for concern among physicians and medical centers. Many of those concerns were expressed in an August 2006 paper published in the journal Annals of Internal Medicine.&#91;14&#93; It mentioned a University of Michigan study that demonstrated how the implementation of the HIPAA Privacy rule resulted in a drop from 96 percent to 34 percent in the proportion of follow-up surveys completed by study patients being followed after a heart attack.&#91;15&#93; \nBy 2013, views on the impact of HIPAA were mixed. Leon Rodriguez, director of the HHS' Office for Civil Rights said of HIPAA:\n\nWhereas many thought HIPAA would \"bankrupt\" healthcare, shut down research, and otherwise paralyze the industry, instead the industry has learned the benefits of the transaction and code set standards through the ease of electronic transactions. And the balance of the [HIPAA] Privacy and Security protections have paved the way to real benefits for consumers through greater access to quality care.&#91;12&#93; \nIn an article for the Houston Chronicle, writer and business consultant Lisa Dorward stated the following for patients requesting personal health information:\n\nDirect cost to patients is minimal; health care institutions can charge the patient only for copying and postage costs for delivery of the documents. On the other hand, costs to health care providers are high and can strain already overburdened budgets. Some clinics and hospitals have had to reconstruct or remodel existing registration areas to comply with HIPAA's privacy regulations.&#91;16&#93; \nWriting for the Loyola Consumer Law Review, attorney and legal writer Anna Colvert wrote:\n\nGenerally, HIPAA is considered a step in the right direction regarding patient privacy, and it has resulted in more descriptive and detailed privacy policies; however, it has not improved the online privacy practices of these organizations. While HIPAA is a solid foundation in protecting patients\u2019 healthcare information there is more work to be done...\"&#91;17&#93; \nA May 2013 Computerworld reported on a survey conducted by the Ponemon Institute that found 51 percent of respondents believed \"HIPAA compliance requirements can be a barrier to providing effective patient care\" and 59 percent \"cited the complexity of HIPAA requirements as a major barrier to modernizing the healthcare system.\"&#91;18&#93;\n\nAudit guidelines and checklist \nMain article: Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act\/Audit guidelines and checklist\nFor those auditing computer systems and IT environments for their compliance with the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act and other regulations, a set of guidelines and checklist items may be useful. \n\r\n\nClick the link above for the full set of guidelines and checklist items as they relate to HIPAA.\n\nFurther reading \n\"Public Law 104 - 191 - Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996\".&#32;U.S. Government Publishing Office.&#32;https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/app\/details\/PLAW-104publ191 . &#160; \n\"S. 1028 (104th): Health Insurance Reform Act of 1995\".&#32;GovTrack.us.&#32;Civic Impulse, LLC.&#32;https:\/\/www.govtrack.us\/congress\/bills\/104\/s1028 . &#160; \n\"Bill Makes Health Insurance \u2018Portable\u2019\".&#32;CQ Almanac 1996&#32;52: 6-28\u20136-39.&#32;1997.&#32;https:\/\/library.cqpress.com\/cqalmanac\/document.php?id=cqal96-1092479 . &#160; \nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 1.0 1.1 1.2 \"Public Law 104 - 191 - Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996\".&#32;U.S. Government Publishing Office.&#32;https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/app\/details\/PLAW-104publ191 .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 \"Bill Makes Health Insurance \u2018Portable\u2019\".&#32;CQ Almanac 1996&#32;52: 6-28\u20136-39.&#32;1997.&#32;http:\/\/library.cqpress.com\/cqalmanac\/document.php?id=cqal96-1092479 .&#32;Retrieved 12 February 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"S. 1028 (104th): Health Insurance Reform Act of 1995\".&#32;GovTrack.us.&#32;Civic Impulse, LLC.&#32;https:\/\/www.govtrack.us\/congress\/bills\/104\/s1028 .&#32;Retrieved 12 February 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 4.0 4.1 Hiebert-White, J.&#32;(September-October 1996).&#32;\"Who Won What in the Kassebaum\/Kennedy Struggle?\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Health Progress&#32;77&#32;(5).&#32;https:\/\/www.chausa.org\/docs\/default-source\/health-progress\/health-policy---who-won-what-in-the-kassebaumkennedy-struggle-pdf.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 12 February 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Starr, P.&#32;(22 August 1996).&#32;\"The Signing of the Kennedy-Kassebaum Bill\".&#32;The Electronic Policy Network.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 29 January 1998.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/19980129180414\/http:\/\/epn.org\/library\/signing.html .&#32;Retrieved 12 February 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 6.0 6.1 6.2 Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Health Research and the Privacy of Health Information: The HIPAA Privacy Rule&#32;(2009).&#32;Nass, S. J.; Levit, L. A.; Gostin, L. O..&#32;ed.&#32;Beyond the HIPAA Privacy Rule: Enhancing Privacy, Improving Health Through Research.&#32;National Academies Press.&#32;Bookshelf ID NBK9576.&#32;https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK9576\/ .&#32;Retrieved 12 February 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"The Privacy Rule\".&#32;U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.&#32;https:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/hipaa\/for-professionals\/privacy\/index.html .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 8.0 8.1 Stein, R.&#32;(5 June 2006).&#32;\"Medical Privacy Law Nets No Fines\".&#32;The Washington Post.&#32;https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/wp-dyn\/content\/article\/2006\/06\/04\/AR2006060400672.html .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"The HIPAA Enforcement Rule\".&#32;U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.&#32;https:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/hipaa\/for-professionals\/special-topics\/enforcement-rule\/index.html .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"HITECH Act Enforcement Interim Final Rule\".&#32;U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.&#32;https:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/hipaa\/for-professionals\/special-topics\/hitech-act-enforcement-interim-final-rule\/index.html .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Office for Civil Rights, Department of Health and Human Services&#32;(25 January 2013).&#32;\"Modifications to the HIPAA Privacy, Security, Enforcement, and Breach Notification Rules Under the Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act and the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act; Other Modifications to the HIPAA Rules\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Federal Register&#32;78&#32;(17).&#32;https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/content\/pkg\/FR-2013-01-25\/pdf\/2013-01073.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 12.0 12.1 Solove, D.J.&#32;(April 2013).&#32;\"HIPAA Turns 10: Analyzing the Past, Present and Future Impact\".&#32;Journal of AHIMA&#32;84&#32;(4): 22\u201328.&#32;https:\/\/library.ahima.org\/doc?oid=106325 .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 13.0 13.1 13.2 \"Enforcement Highlights\".&#32;U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.&#32;15 January 2015.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 11 February 2015.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150211170207\/http:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/ocr\/privacy\/hipaa\/enforcement\/highlights\/index.html .&#32;Retrieved 11 February 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Wilson, J.F.&#32;(2006).&#32;\"Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act Privacy Rule Causes Ongoing Concerns among Clinicians and Researchers\".&#32;Annals of Internal Medicine&#32;145&#32;(4): 313\u20136.&#32;doi:10.7326\/0003-4819-145-4-200608150-00019.&#32;PMID&#160;16908928. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Potential Impact of the HIPAA Privacy Rule on Data Collection in a Registry of Patients With Acute Coronary Syndrome\".&#32;Archives of Internal Medicine&#32;165&#32;(10): 1125\u20139.&#32;2005.&#32;doi:10.1001\/archinte.165.10.1125.&#32;PMID&#160;15911725. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Dorward, L..&#32;\"The Positive and Negative Effects of HIPAA Employment Laws\".&#32;Houston Chronicle.&#32;Hearst Newspapers, LLC.&#32;https:\/\/smallbusiness.chron.com\/positive-negative-effects-hipaa-employment-laws-18500.html .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Colvert, Anna&#32;(2013).&#32;\"HIPAA'S Influence on Consumers: Friend or Foe?\".&#32;Loyola Consumer Law Review&#32;25&#32;(4): 431\u2013447.&#32;https:\/\/lawecommons.luc.edu\/lclr\/vol25\/iss4\/6\/ .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Mearian, L.&#32;(7 May 2013).&#32;\"HIPAA rules, outdated tech cost U.S. hospitals $8.3B a year\".&#32;Computerworld.&#32;Computerworld, Inc.&#32;https:\/\/www.computerworld.com\/article\/2496995\/hipaa-rules--outdated-tech-cost-u-s--hospitals--8-3b-a-year.html .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act<\/a>\nCategories: Health informaticsHealth standardsRegulatory informationNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 8 January 2022, at 00:43.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 71,338 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","b70673a0117c21576016cb7498867153_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act rootpage-Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"floatright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:HIPAA_Screenshot.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"f43d76e7dcca207ca031bdff3314d856\"><img alt=\"HIPAA Screenshot.png\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/6\/66\/HIPAA_Screenshot.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a><\/div>\n<p>The <b>Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996<\/b> (<b>HIPAA<\/b>) was enacted by the United States Congress and signed by President Bill Clinton in 1996. Its intended purpose was \"to improve portability and continuity of health insurance coverage in the group and individual markets; to combat waste, fraud, and abuse in health insurance and health care delivery; to promote the use of medical savings accounts; to improve access to long-term care services and coverage; [and] to simplify the administration of health insurance.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HIPAAGPO_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HIPAAGPO-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Initial\">Initial<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In 1994, U.S. President Bill Clinton attempted to overhaul the national health care system but didn't receive the support he needed. In 1995, Senators Nancy Kassebaum (R-KS) and Edward Kennedy (D-MA) introduced a comparatively pared down proposal called the Health Insurance Reform Act of 1995 (S 11028), later referred to informally as the Kassebaum\/Kennedy Bill. The proposal called for health insurance portability for employees, medical savings accounts, increased deductibility of health insurance for the self-employed, and tax breaks for long-term care insurance.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CQHIPAAHist_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CQHIPAAHist-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11028Legal_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11028Legal-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The legislation successfully made it out of the Senate Labor and Human Resources Committee on August 2, 1995<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HiebertHIPAA_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HiebertHIPAA-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, only to be stalled \"because of opposition from conservative senators who shared industry concerns over the group-to-individual portability provisions.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CQHIPAAHist_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CQHIPAAHist-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>With desire to get some sort of health care reform legislation passed, Clinton referenced the stalled bill in his January 1996 State of the Union address on several occasions. Though some feared the ploy by Clinton would ultimately sink the bill, it inevitably resulted in bipartisan cooperation so no one side could take credit for the bill.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HiebertHIPAA_4-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HiebertHIPAA-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup> On February 7, 1996, the two parties agreed to further discuss the legislation in the House and Senate. This resulted in several events: the House of Representatives created an alternative bill (HR 3103) that drew on characteristics of S 11028, passing on March 28; the Senate passed a version of the original S 11028 on April 23 but without controversial attachments like medical savings accounts. However, differences between the House and Senate bills caused problems. \"The House bill, for example, included provisions allowing for medical savings accounts, a limit on monetary damages in medical malpractice lawsuits and a reduction in states' authority to regulate health insurance purchasing pools created by small businesses.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CQHIPAAHist_2-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CQHIPAAHist-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Additionally, a provision on mental health coverage was found on the Senate bill that was omitted from the House version. It took several weeks of debating to make concessions on these topics. \n<\/p><p>A Republican-led compromise was offered on June 10, however debate raged on. It wasn't until a July 25 compromise between Kennedy and Ways and Means Committee Chairman Bill Archer (R-TX) on medical savings accounts that momentum shifted. Provisions on mental illness and medical malpractice were eventually dropped from the proposal on July 31, with both House and Senate agreeing on the final version on August 1 and August 2 respectively.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CQHIPAAHist_2-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CQHIPAAHist-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> On August 21, 1996, the legislation was signed into law by President Clinton and codified as Public Law 104-191, the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-StarrHIPAA_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-StarrHIPAA-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HIPAAGPO_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HIPAAGPO-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Amendments\">Amendments<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The administrative simplification provisions in HIPAA meant more work had to be done in regards to the legislation. The <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/United_States_Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services\" title=\"United States Department of Health and Human Services\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"efa106bcbb93039b1a6c3c596daedec3\">U.S. Department of Health and Human Services<\/a> (HHS) began work on the HIPAA Privacy Rule in 1999, \"which set out detailed regulations regarding the types of uses and disclosures of personally identifiable health information that are permitted by the covered entities.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PrivRule_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PrivRule-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup> However, large volumes of comments and Executive branch changes in 2000 slowed the process down.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PrivRule_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PrivRule-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Several more years of corrections and requests for comments followed, culminating in the release of the Final Rule on August 14, 2002 as 45 CFR Part 160 and Subparts A and E of Part 164.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HHSFinalPriv_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HHSFinalPriv-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Most health plans were expected to be in compliance by April 14, 2003, though some exceptions existed.\n<\/p><p>Despite the Privacy Rule, many still argued that the legislation wasn't suitable enough to prevent mishandling of personal health information and that it was impeding research.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PrivRule_6-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PrivRule-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup> These concerns mixed with few incidents of enforcement in the first few years after the 2003 compliance date prompted additional review by the HHS.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SteinFines_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SteinFines-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup> On February 16, 2006, HHS issued the Final Rule regarding HIPAA enforcement, to be effective March 16, 2006.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HHSEnfo_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HHSEnfo-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>Additional updates to the enforcement rule came with the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Information_Technology_for_Economic_and_Clinical_Health_Act\" title=\"Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"89c9e20984bbda2e628b6d1d28ec3ad5\">Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act<\/a> (HITECH) Act, enacted on February 17, 2009. The Act added \"several provisions that strengthen the civil and criminal enforcement of the HIPAA rules\" by adding categories of violations and tier levels of penalty amounts.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HHSHITECH_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HHSHITECH-10\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup> HIPAA and the HITECH statutes were further revised in January 2013 (effective March 26, 2013) \"to strengthen the privacy and security protection for individuals\u2019 health information,\" update the Breach Notification Rule, \"strengthen the privacy protections for genetic information,\" and revise other portions of HIPAA rules \"to improve their workability and effectiveness.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FR01073_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FR01073-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Structure\">Structure<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>HIPAA is divided into five titles, each with their own subtitles<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HIPAAGPO_1-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HIPAAGPO-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p><p><b>Title I<\/b>: Health Care Access, Portability, and Renewability\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>Subtitle A - Group Market Rules<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle B - Individual Market Rules<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle C - General and Miscellaneous Provisions<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p><b>Title II<\/b>: Preventing Health Care Fraud and Abuse; Administrative Simplification; Medical Liability Reform\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>Subtitle A - Fraud and Abuse Control Program<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle B - Revisions to Current Sanctions for Fraud and Abuse<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle C - Data Collection<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle D - Civil Monetary Penalties<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle E - Revisions to Criminal Law<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle F - Administrative Simplification<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle G - Duplication and Coordination of Medicare-Related Plans<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p><b>Title III<\/b>: Tax-Related Health Provisions\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>Subtitle A - Medical Savings Accounts<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle B - Increase in Deduction for Health Insurance Costs of Self-Employed Individuals<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle C - Long-Term Care Services and Contracts<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle D - Treatment of Accelerated Death Benefits<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle E - State Insurance Pools<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle F - Organizations Subject to Section 833<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle G - IRA Distributions to the Unemployed<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle H - Organ and Tissue Donation Information Included With Income Tax Refund Payments<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p><b>Title IV<\/b>: Application and Enforcement of Group Health Plan Requirements\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>Subtitle A - Application and Enforcement of Group Health Plan Requirements<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle B - Clarification of Certain Continuation Coverage Requirements<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p><b>Title V<\/b>: Revenue Offsets\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>Subtitle A - Company-Owned Life Insurance<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle B - Treatment of Individuals Who Lose United States Citizenship<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle C - Repeal of Financial Institution Transition Rule to Interest Allocation Rules<\/dd><\/dl>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Description\">Description<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Title I of HIPAA contains three subtitles that protect health insurance coverage for workers and their families when they change or lose their jobs. \n<\/p><p>Title II of HIPAA contains seven subtitles. One of the most important for expanding HIPAA is Subtitle F, the Administrative Simplification (AS) provisions, requiring the establishment of national standards for electronic health care transactions and national identifiers for providers, health insurance plans, and employers. Title II also addresses the security and privacy of health data, with the intent of improving the efficiency and effectiveness of the nation's health care system by encouraging the widespread use of electronic data interchange in the U.S. health care system.\n<\/p><p>Title III of HIPAA modifies the Internal Revenue Code (IRC) to revise available tax deductions for health insurance, clarify how pre-tax money could be applied health payments, and regulate long-term care services and how they're contracted. Other tax-related issues like IRA distribution and organ donor tax refund payments are covered by this title, in total spread out over eight subtitles.\n<\/p><p>Title IV of HIPAA modifies both the IRC and the Public Health Service Act (PHSA) to describe requirements for and enforcement of how group health plans could legally manage and cover patients' pre-existing conditions as well as their continuation of coverage. This information is supplied over two subtitles.\n<\/p><p>Title V of HIPAA contains three subtitles that amend the IRC concerning miscellaneous issues such as interest deductions on loans related to company-owned life insurance, how individuals who lose their U.S. citizenship shall be treated tax-wise, and the removal of certain limitations on interest allocation.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Enforcement\">Enforcement<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>On February 16, 2006, HHS issued the Final Rule regarding HIPAA enforcement. It became effective on March 16, 2006. The Enforcement Rule set civil money penalties for violating HIPAA rules and established procedures for investigations and hearings for HIPAA violations. Before the enforcement rule, the deterrent effects of the legislation seemed negligible, with few prosecutions for violations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SteinFines_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SteinFines-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Enforcement operations were ratcheted up further with the passage of the Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act (HITECH) in 2009, which greatly increased the financial penalties that could be applied to entities in non-compliance.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Solove10_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Solove10-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>By the end of 2014, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Resources (HHS) reported investigating 106,522 HIPAA complaints against national pharmacy chains, major health care centers, insurance groups, hospital chains and other small providers since April 2003. The HHS reported 23,314 of those cases had been resolved by requiring changes in privacy practice or by corrective action. 10,566 cases were investigated and found that HIPAA was followed correctly. Another 68,412 cases were found to be ineligible for enforcement because, for example, a violation occurred before HIPAA became effective, a case was withdrawn by the pursuer, or an activity did not actually violate the rules.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HHSEnforceArch_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HHSEnforceArch-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>According to the HHS, the most commonly investigated compliance issue, by order of frequency, have been<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HHSEnforceArch_13-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HHSEnforceArch-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>incorrectly used or revealed protected health information (PHI);<\/li>\n<li>insufficient protection mechanisms for PHI;<\/li>\n<li>insufficient mechanisms for patients to access their PHI;<\/li>\n<li>insufficient administrative protections and tools for managing electronic PHI; and<\/li>\n<li>usage and disclosure of more PHI than minimally necessary.<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>The HHS also stated the entities most likely to be responsible for infractions, by order of frequency, have been<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HHSEnforceArch_13-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HHSEnforceArch-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>private practices;<\/li>\n<li>general hospitals;<\/li>\n<li>outpatient facilities;<\/li>\n<li>pharmacies; and<\/li>\n<li>health plans (group health plans and health insurance issuers).<\/li><\/ol>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Assessed_impact\">Assessed impact<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The enactment of HIPAA caused major changes in the way physicians and medical centers operate. The complex legalities and potentially stiff penalties associated with HIPAA, as well as the increase in paperwork and the cost of its implementation, were causes for concern among physicians and medical centers. Many of those concerns were expressed in an August 2006 paper published in the journal <i>Annals of Internal Medicine<\/i>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WilsonAnnals_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WilsonAnnals-14\">&#91;14&#93;<\/a><\/sup> It mentioned a University of Michigan study that demonstrated how the implementation of the HIPAA Privacy rule resulted in a drop from 96 percent to 34 percent in the proportion of follow-up surveys completed by study patients being followed after a heart attack.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Armstrong_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Armstrong-15\">&#91;15&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>By 2013, views on the impact of HIPAA were mixed. Leon Rodriguez, director of the HHS' Office for Civil Rights said of HIPAA:\n<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>Whereas many thought HIPAA would \"bankrupt\" healthcare, shut down research, and otherwise paralyze the industry, instead the industry has learned the benefits of the transaction and code set standards through the ease of electronic transactions. And the balance of the [HIPAA] Privacy and Security protections have paved the way to real benefits for consumers through greater access to quality care.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Solove10_12-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Solove10-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/p><\/blockquote> \n<p>In an article for the <i>Houston Chronicle<\/i>, writer and business consultant Lisa Dorward stated the following for patients requesting personal health information:\n<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>Direct cost to patients is minimal; health care institutions can charge the patient only for copying and postage costs for delivery of the documents. On the other hand, costs to health care providers are high and can strain already overburdened budgets. Some clinics and hospitals have had to reconstruct or remodel existing registration areas to comply with HIPAA's privacy regulations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DorwardHIPAA_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DorwardHIPAA-16\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/p><\/blockquote> \n<p>Writing for the <i>Loyola Consumer Law Review<\/i>, attorney and legal writer Anna Colvert wrote:\n<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>Generally, HIPAA is considered a step in the right direction regarding patient privacy, and it has resulted in more descriptive and detailed privacy policies; however, it has not improved the online privacy practices of these organizations. While HIPAA is a solid foundation in protecting patients\u2019 healthcare information there is more work to be done...\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Colvert_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Colvert-17\">&#91;17&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/p><\/blockquote> \n<p>A May 2013 <i>Computerworld<\/i> reported on a survey conducted by the Ponemon Institute that found 51 percent of respondents believed \"HIPAA compliance requirements can be a barrier to providing effective patient care\" and 59 percent \"cited the complexity of HIPAA requirements as a major barrier to modernizing the healthcare system.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Mearian_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Mearian-18\">&#91;18&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Audit_guidelines_and_checklist\">Audit guidelines and checklist<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"rellink relarticle mainarticle\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\/Audit_guidelines_and_checklist\" title=\"Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act\/Audit guidelines and checklist\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"696695ca2ef0d0aa853c4e3efba250c4\">Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act\/Audit guidelines and checklist<\/a><\/div>\n<p>For those auditing computer systems and IT environments for their compliance with the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act and other regulations, a set of guidelines and checklist items may be useful. \n<br \/>\n<\/p><p>Click the link above for the full set of guidelines and checklist items as they relate to HIPAA.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/app\/details\/PLAW-104publ191\" target=\"_blank\">\"Public Law 104 - 191 - Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Government Publishing Office<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/app\/details\/PLAW-104publ191\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/app\/details\/PLAW-104publ191<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Public+Law+104+-+191+-+Health+Insurance+Portability+and+Accountability+Act+of+1996&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Government+Publishing+Office&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.govinfo.gov%2Fapp%2Fdetails%2FPLAW-104publ191&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.govtrack.us\/congress\/bills\/104\/s1028\" target=\"_blank\">\"S. 1028 (104th): Health Insurance Reform Act of 1995\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>GovTrack.us<\/i>.&#32;Civic Impulse, LLC<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.govtrack.us\/congress\/bills\/104\/s1028\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.govtrack.us\/congress\/bills\/104\/s1028<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=S.+1028+%28104th%29%3A+Health+Insurance+Reform+Act+of+1995&amp;rft.atitle=GovTrack.us&amp;rft.pub=Civic+Impulse%2C+LLC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.govtrack.us%2Fcongress%2Fbills%2F104%2Fs1028&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation Journal\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/library.cqpress.com\/cqalmanac\/document.php?id=cqal96-1092479\" target=\"_blank\">\"Bill Makes Health Insurance \u2018Portable\u2019\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>CQ Almanac 1996<\/i>&#32;<b>52<\/b>: 6-28\u20136-39.&#32;1997<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/library.cqpress.com\/cqalmanac\/document.php?id=cqal96-1092479\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/library.cqpress.com\/cqalmanac\/document.php?id=cqal96-1092479<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Bill+Makes+Health+Insurance+%E2%80%98Portable%E2%80%99&amp;rft.jtitle=CQ+Almanac+1996&amp;rft.date=1997&amp;rft.volume=52&amp;rft.pages=6-28%E2%80%936-39&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibrary.cqpress.com%2Fcqalmanac%2Fdocument.php%3Fid%3Dcqal96-1092479&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-HIPAAGPO-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HIPAAGPO_1-0\">1.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HIPAAGPO_1-1\">1.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HIPAAGPO_1-2\">1.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/app\/details\/PLAW-104publ191\" target=\"_blank\">\"Public Law 104 - 191 - Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Government Publishing Office<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/app\/details\/PLAW-104publ191\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/app\/details\/PLAW-104publ191<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Public+Law+104+-+191+-+Health+Insurance+Portability+and+Accountability+Act+of+1996&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Government+Publishing+Office&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.govinfo.gov%2Fapp%2Fdetails%2FPLAW-104publ191&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CQHIPAAHist-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CQHIPAAHist_2-0\">2.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CQHIPAAHist_2-1\">2.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CQHIPAAHist_2-2\">2.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CQHIPAAHist_2-3\">2.3<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/library.cqpress.com\/cqalmanac\/document.php?id=cqal96-1092479\" target=\"_blank\">\"Bill Makes Health Insurance \u2018Portable\u2019\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>CQ Almanac 1996<\/i>&#32;<b>52<\/b>: 6-28\u20136-39.&#32;1997<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/library.cqpress.com\/cqalmanac\/document.php?id=cqal96-1092479\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/library.cqpress.com\/cqalmanac\/document.php?id=cqal96-1092479<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 12 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Bill+Makes+Health+Insurance+%E2%80%98Portable%E2%80%99&amp;rft.jtitle=CQ+Almanac+1996&amp;rft.date=1997&amp;rft.volume=52&amp;rft.pages=6-28%E2%80%936-39&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibrary.cqpress.com%2Fcqalmanac%2Fdocument.php%3Fid%3Dcqal96-1092479&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-11028Legal-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-11028Legal_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.govtrack.us\/congress\/bills\/104\/s1028\" target=\"_blank\">\"S. 1028 (104th): Health Insurance Reform Act of 1995\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>GovTrack.us<\/i>.&#32;Civic Impulse, LLC<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.govtrack.us\/congress\/bills\/104\/s1028\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.govtrack.us\/congress\/bills\/104\/s1028<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 12 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=S.+1028+%28104th%29%3A+Health+Insurance+Reform+Act+of+1995&amp;rft.atitle=GovTrack.us&amp;rft.pub=Civic+Impulse%2C+LLC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.govtrack.us%2Fcongress%2Fbills%2F104%2Fs1028&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HiebertHIPAA-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HiebertHIPAA_4-0\">4.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HiebertHIPAA_4-1\">4.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Hiebert-White, J.&#32;(September-October 1996).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.chausa.org\/docs\/default-source\/health-progress\/health-policy---who-won-what-in-the-kassebaumkennedy-struggle-pdf.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Who Won What in the Kassebaum\/Kennedy Struggle?\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;<i>Health Progress<\/i>&#32;<b>77<\/b>&#32;(5)<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.chausa.org\/docs\/default-source\/health-progress\/health-policy---who-won-what-in-the-kassebaumkennedy-struggle-pdf.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.chausa.org\/docs\/default-source\/health-progress\/health-policy---who-won-what-in-the-kassebaumkennedy-struggle-pdf.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 12 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Who+Won+What+in+the+Kassebaum%2FKennedy+Struggle%3F&amp;rft.jtitle=Health+Progress&amp;rft.aulast=Hiebert-White%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Hiebert-White%2C+J.&amp;rft.date=September-October+1996&amp;rft.volume=77&amp;rft.issue=5&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.chausa.org%2Fdocs%2Fdefault-source%2Fhealth-progress%2Fhealth-policy---who-won-what-in-the-kassebaumkennedy-struggle-pdf.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-StarrHIPAA-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-StarrHIPAA_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Starr, P.&#32;(22 August 1996).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/19980129180414\/http:\/\/epn.org\/library\/signing.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Signing of the Kennedy-Kassebaum Bill\"<\/a>.&#32;The Electronic Policy Network.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/epn.org\/library\/signing.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 29 January 1998<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/19980129180414\/http:\/\/epn.org\/library\/signing.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/19980129180414\/http:\/\/epn.org\/library\/signing.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 12 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+Signing+of+the+Kennedy-Kassebaum+Bill&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Starr%2C+P.&amp;rft.au=Starr%2C+P.&amp;rft.date=22+August+1996&amp;rft.pub=The+Electronic+Policy+Network&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F19980129180414%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fepn.org%2Flibrary%2Fsigning.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PrivRule-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-PrivRule_6-0\">6.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-PrivRule_6-1\">6.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-PrivRule_6-2\">6.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Health Research and the Privacy of Health Information: The HIPAA Privacy Rule&#32;(2009).&#32;Nass, S. J.; Levit, L. A.; Gostin, L. O..&#32;ed.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK9576\/\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Beyond the HIPAA Privacy Rule: Enhancing Privacy, Improving Health Through Research<\/i><\/a>.&#32;National Academies Press.&#32;Bookshelf ID NBK9576<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK9576\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK9576\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 12 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Beyond+the+HIPAA+Privacy+Rule%3A+Enhancing+Privacy%2C+Improving+Health+Through+Research&amp;rft.aulast=Institute+of+Medicine+%28US%29+Committee+on+Health+Research+and+the+Privacy+of+Health+Information%3A+The+HIPAA+Privacy+Rule&amp;rft.au=Institute+of+Medicine+%28US%29+Committee+on+Health+Research+and+the+Privacy+of+Health+Information%3A+The+HIPAA+Privacy+Rule&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.pub=National+Academies+Press&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK9576%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HHSFinalPriv-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HHSFinalPriv_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/hipaa\/for-professionals\/privacy\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Privacy Rule\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Department of Health and Human Services<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/hipaa\/for-professionals\/privacy\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/hipaa\/for-professionals\/privacy\/index.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+Privacy+Rule&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Department+of+Health+and+Human+Services&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hhs.gov%2Fhipaa%2Ffor-professionals%2Fprivacy%2Findex.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SteinFines-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SteinFines_8-0\">8.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SteinFines_8-1\">8.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Stein, R.&#32;(5 June 2006).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/wp-dyn\/content\/article\/2006\/06\/04\/AR2006060400672.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Medical Privacy Law Nets No Fines\"<\/a>.&#32;The Washington Post<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/wp-dyn\/content\/article\/2006\/06\/04\/AR2006060400672.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/wp-dyn\/content\/article\/2006\/06\/04\/AR2006060400672.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Medical+Privacy+Law+Nets+No+Fines&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Stein%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Stein%2C+R.&amp;rft.date=5+June+2006&amp;rft.pub=The+Washington+Post&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2006%2F06%2F04%2FAR2006060400672.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HHSEnfo-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HHSEnfo_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/hipaa\/for-professionals\/special-topics\/enforcement-rule\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"The HIPAA Enforcement Rule\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Department of Health and Human Services<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/hipaa\/for-professionals\/special-topics\/enforcement-rule\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/hipaa\/for-professionals\/special-topics\/enforcement-rule\/index.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+HIPAA+Enforcement+Rule&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Department+of+Health+and+Human+Services&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hhs.gov%2Fhipaa%2Ffor-professionals%2Fspecial-topics%2Fenforcement-rule%2Findex.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HHSHITECH-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HHSHITECH_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/hipaa\/for-professionals\/special-topics\/hitech-act-enforcement-interim-final-rule\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"HITECH Act Enforcement Interim Final Rule\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Department of Health and Human Services<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/hipaa\/for-professionals\/special-topics\/hitech-act-enforcement-interim-final-rule\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/hipaa\/for-professionals\/special-topics\/hitech-act-enforcement-interim-final-rule\/index.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=HITECH+Act+Enforcement+Interim+Final+Rule&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Department+of+Health+and+Human+Services&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hhs.gov%2Fhipaa%2Ffor-professionals%2Fspecial-topics%2Fhitech-act-enforcement-interim-final-rule%2Findex.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FR01073-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FR01073_11-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Office for Civil Rights, Department of Health and Human Services&#32;(25 January 2013).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/content\/pkg\/FR-2013-01-25\/pdf\/2013-01073.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Modifications to the HIPAA Privacy, Security, Enforcement, and Breach Notification Rules Under the Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act and the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act; Other Modifications to the HIPAA Rules\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;<i>Federal Register<\/i>&#32;<b>78<\/b>&#32;(17)<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/content\/pkg\/FR-2013-01-25\/pdf\/2013-01073.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/content\/pkg\/FR-2013-01-25\/pdf\/2013-01073.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Modifications+to+the+HIPAA+Privacy%2C+Security%2C+Enforcement%2C+and+Breach+Notification+Rules+Under+the+Health+Information+Technology+for+Economic+and+Clinical+Health+Act+and+the+Genetic+Information+Nondiscrimination+Act%3B+Other+Modifications+to+the+HIPAA+Rules&amp;rft.jtitle=Federal+Register&amp;rft.aulast=Office+for+Civil+Rights%2C+Department+of+Health+and+Human+Services&amp;rft.au=Office+for+Civil+Rights%2C+Department+of+Health+and+Human+Services&amp;rft.date=25+January+2013&amp;rft.volume=78&amp;rft.issue=17&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.govinfo.gov%2Fcontent%2Fpkg%2FFR-2013-01-25%2Fpdf%2F2013-01073.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Solove10-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Solove10_12-0\">12.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Solove10_12-1\">12.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Solove, D.J.&#32;(April 2013).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/library.ahima.org\/doc?oid=106325\" target=\"_blank\">\"HIPAA Turns 10: Analyzing the Past, Present and Future Impact\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Journal of AHIMA<\/i>&#32;<b>84<\/b>&#32;(4): 22\u201328<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/library.ahima.org\/doc?oid=106325\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/library.ahima.org\/doc?oid=106325<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=HIPAA+Turns+10%3A+Analyzing+the+Past%2C+Present+and+Future+Impact&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+AHIMA&amp;rft.aulast=Solove%2C+D.J.&amp;rft.au=Solove%2C+D.J.&amp;rft.date=April+2013&amp;rft.volume=84&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=22%E2%80%9328&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibrary.ahima.org%2Fdoc%3Foid%3D106325&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HHSEnforceArch-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HHSEnforceArch_13-0\">13.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HHSEnforceArch_13-1\">13.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HHSEnforceArch_13-2\">13.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150211170207\/http:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/ocr\/privacy\/hipaa\/enforcement\/highlights\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Enforcement Highlights\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.&#32;15 January 2015.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/ocr\/privacy\/hipaa\/enforcement\/highlights\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 11 February 2015<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150211170207\/http:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/ocr\/privacy\/hipaa\/enforcement\/highlights\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150211170207\/http:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/ocr\/privacy\/hipaa\/enforcement\/highlights\/index.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 11 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Enforcement+Highlights&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=15+January+2015&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Department+of+Health+and+Human+Services&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20150211170207%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.hhs.gov%2Focr%2Fprivacy%2Fhipaa%2Fenforcement%2Fhighlights%2Findex.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WilsonAnnals-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-WilsonAnnals_14-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Wilson, J.F.&#32;(2006).&#32;\"Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act Privacy Rule Causes Ongoing Concerns among Clinicians and Researchers\".&#32;<i>Annals of Internal Medicine<\/i>&#32;<b>145<\/b>&#32;(4): 313\u20136.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.7326%2F0003-4819-145-4-200608150-00019\" target=\"_blank\">10.7326\/0003-4819-145-4-200608150-00019<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/16908928\" target=\"_blank\">16908928<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Health+Insurance+Portability+and+Accountability+Act+Privacy+Rule+Causes+Ongoing+Concerns+among+Clinicians+and+Researchers&amp;rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Internal+Medicine&amp;rft.aulast=Wilson%2C+J.F.&amp;rft.au=Wilson%2C+J.F.&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.volume=145&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=313%E2%80%936&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.7326%2F0003-4819-145-4-200608150-00019&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/16908928&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Armstrong-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Armstrong_15-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">\"Potential Impact of the HIPAA Privacy Rule on Data Collection in a Registry of Patients With Acute Coronary Syndrome\".&#32;<i>Archives of Internal Medicine<\/i>&#32;<b>165<\/b>&#32;(10): 1125\u20139.&#32;2005.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1001%2Farchinte.165.10.1125\" target=\"_blank\">10.1001\/archinte.165.10.1125<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/15911725\" target=\"_blank\">15911725<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Potential+Impact+of+the+HIPAA+Privacy+Rule+on+Data+Collection+in+a+Registry+of+Patients+With+Acute+Coronary+Syndrome&amp;rft.jtitle=Archives+of+Internal+Medicine&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.volume=165&amp;rft.issue=10&amp;rft.pages=1125%E2%80%939&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1001%2Farchinte.165.10.1125&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/15911725&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DorwardHIPAA-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-DorwardHIPAA_16-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Dorward, L..&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/smallbusiness.chron.com\/positive-negative-effects-hipaa-employment-laws-18500.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Positive and Negative Effects of HIPAA Employment Laws\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Houston Chronicle<\/i>.&#32;Hearst Newspapers, LLC<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/smallbusiness.chron.com\/positive-negative-effects-hipaa-employment-laws-18500.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/smallbusiness.chron.com\/positive-negative-effects-hipaa-employment-laws-18500.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+Positive+and+Negative+Effects+of+HIPAA+Employment+Laws&amp;rft.atitle=Houston+Chronicle&amp;rft.aulast=Dorward%2C+L.&amp;rft.au=Dorward%2C+L.&amp;rft.pub=Hearst+Newspapers%2C+LLC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsmallbusiness.chron.com%2Fpositive-negative-effects-hipaa-employment-laws-18500.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Colvert-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Colvert_17-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Colvert, Anna&#32;(2013).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/lawecommons.luc.edu\/lclr\/vol25\/iss4\/6\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"HIPAA'S Influence on Consumers: Friend or Foe?\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Loyola Consumer Law Review<\/i>&#32;<b>25<\/b>&#32;(4): 431\u2013447<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/lawecommons.luc.edu\/lclr\/vol25\/iss4\/6\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/lawecommons.luc.edu\/lclr\/vol25\/iss4\/6\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=HIPAA%27S+Influence+on+Consumers%3A+Friend+or+Foe%3F&amp;rft.jtitle=Loyola+Consumer+Law+Review&amp;rft.aulast=Colvert%2C+Anna&amp;rft.au=Colvert%2C+Anna&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.volume=25&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=431%E2%80%93447&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flawecommons.luc.edu%2Flclr%2Fvol25%2Fiss4%2F6%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Mearian-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Mearian_18-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Mearian, L.&#32;(7 May 2013).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.computerworld.com\/article\/2496995\/hipaa-rules--outdated-tech-cost-u-s--hospitals--8-3b-a-year.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"HIPAA rules, outdated tech cost U.S. hospitals $8.3B a year\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Computerworld<\/i>.&#32;Computerworld, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.computerworld.com\/article\/2496995\/hipaa-rules--outdated-tech-cost-u-s--hospitals--8-3b-a-year.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.computerworld.com\/article\/2496995\/hipaa-rules--outdated-tech-cost-u-s--hospitals--8-3b-a-year.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=HIPAA+rules%2C+outdated+tech+cost+U.S.+hospitals+%248.3B+a+year&amp;rft.atitle=Computerworld&amp;rft.aulast=Mearian%2C+L.&amp;rft.au=Mearian%2C+L.&amp;rft.date=7+May+2013&amp;rft.pub=Computerworld%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerworld.com%2Farticle%2F2496995%2Fhipaa-rules--outdated-tech-cost-u-s--hospitals--8-3b-a-year.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171706\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.619 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.097 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 14081\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 97187\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 38266\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 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Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","b70673a0117c21576016cb7498867153_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/6\/66\/HIPAA_Screenshot.png"],"b70673a0117c21576016cb7498867153_timestamp":1704907025,"64bdae1dc17c40c28e0c560396a6ae35_type":"article","64bdae1dc17c40c28e0c560396a6ae35_title":"Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments","64bdae1dc17c40c28e0c560396a6ae35_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments","64bdae1dc17c40c28e0c560396a6ae35_plaintext":"\n\nClinical Laboratory Improvement AmendmentsFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search \nThe Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments (CLIA) of 1988 is a United States federal statute and regulatory standards program that applies to all clinical laboratory testing performed on humans in the United States, except clinical trials and basic research.&#91;1&#93; \n\r\n\n\nContents \n\n1 History \n2 CLIA program \n3 CLIA waived tests \n\n3.1 List of tests \n\n\n4 See also \n5 Further reading \n6 External links \n7 Notes \n8 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nOn December 5, 1967, the U.S. enacted Public Law 90-174, which included in Section 5 the \"Clinical Laboratories Improvement Act of 1967.\" CLIA '67 set regulations on the licensing of clinical laboratories and the movement of samples in and out of them across state lines. Laboratories would be eligible for a full, partial, or exempt CLIA-67 license, depending on the laboratory's conducted tests.&#91;2&#93; \nHowever, by the mid-1980s the relevancy of CLIA '67 to a vastly changed procedural and technological clinical laboratory landscape began to be questioned. The Office of the Assistant Secretary for Health for Planning and Evaluation (ASPE) of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services commissioned a study to assess the effectiveness of federal regulations affecting clinical laboratories and their goal of protecting the public health. On April 8, 1986, the Final Report on Assessment of Clinical Laboratory Regulations by Michael L. Kenney and Don P. Greenberg was submitted to the ASPE.&#91;3&#93;\n\nThe analysis found that many federal regulations are technically obsolescent and many may be operationally unnecessary as a result of changing laboratory technology and changed federal reimbursement policies. Among changes recommended by the HHS-funded analysis are: (a) the regulatory classification system based upon physical location of laboratories is no longer appropriate and should be replaced with a classification system reflecting laboratory functions; (b) a single, uniform set of federal regulations should be developed that covers all civilian laboratories receiving federal reimbursement or operating in interstate commerce; (c) a revised federal regulatory system should emphasize measures of performance such as personnel and inspection requirements; and (d) clinical laboratory regulations should be based upon objective data to the maximum extent possible.&#91;3&#93;\nOn August 5, 1988, a new set of proposed regulations were put forth by the Health Care Financing Administration as Medicare, Medicaid and CLIA Programs; Revision of the Clinical Laboratory Regulations for the Medicare, Medicaid, and Clinical Laboratories Improvement Act of 1967 Programs. The proposal aspired \"to remove outdated, obsolete and redundant requirements, make provision for new technologies, place increased reliance on outcome measures of performance, and emphasize the responsibilities and duties of personnel rather than the formal credentialing requirements and detailed personnel standards in existing regulations.\"&#91;4&#93; This ultimately led to the proposal becoming law on October 31, 1988 under Public Law 100-578 as the Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments of 1988.&#91;5&#93; \nRegulations for implementing CLIA continued to be developed afterwards, with the Department of Health and Human Services considering thousands of comments to the proposed regulations. The final regulations were published February 28, 1992, set to be effective on September 1 of the same year. The new CLIA '88 put into place regulations concerning test complexity, certification, proficiency testing, patient test management, personnel requirements, quality assurance, and other processes in the clinical laboratory.&#91;6&#93; However, phase-in effective dates were extended on several occasions afterwards: on December 6, 1994 in the Federal Register (59 FR 62606), May 12, 1997 in the Federal Register (62 FR 25855), October 14, 1998 in the Federal Register (63 FR 55031), and December 29, 2000 in the Federal Register (65 FR 82941).&#91;7&#93;\nOn January 24, 2003, the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services submitted their final rule (68 FR 3639), effective April 24, 2003, affecting QC requirements for laboratories and qualification requirements for lab directors. The final rule also made revisions to 42 CFR 493, including the renaming, reorganizing, and consolidation of similar requirements into one section, the deletion of duplicate requirements, and the rewording of the requirements to better clarify their original intent. It also addressed requirements regarding the entire testing process, making those requirement better correlate with the workflow of a lab specimen in the laboratory, from acquisition to reporting of results, including the subdivision of testing into pre-analytic, analytic, and post-analytic phases.&#91;7&#93;&#91;8&#93;\nIn the fall of 2019, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Director of Laboratory Systems Reynolds Salerno requested comments from its Clinical Laboratory Improvement Advisory Committee (CLIAC), as well as from the public, in regards to how CLIA regulations should be revised. \u201cIt\u2019s a dramatic step for the government to ask the laboratory community how to revise the CLIA regulations,\u201d Salerno told Dark Daily.&#91;9&#93; During the November CLIAC meeting, attendees reviewed CLIAC's 23 recommendations it had made prior (April 2019) in regards to updates to CLIA, grouped into CLIA personnel requirement changes, nontraditional test workflow (big data- and machine learning-driven) changes, and changes related to next-generation sequencing testing, workflows, and best practices.&#91;10&#93;&#91;11&#93;\n\nCLIA program \nThe CLIA program sets standards and issues certificates for clinical laboratory testing. CLIA defines a clinical laboratory as any facility which performs laboratory testing on specimens derived from humans for the purpose of providing information for:\n\ndiagnosis, prevention, or treatment of disease or impairment.\nhealth assessments.\nThe CLIA program is designed to ensure the accuracy, reliability, and timeliness of test results regardless of where the test was performed. Each specific laboratory system, assay, and examination is graded for level of complexity by assigning scores of \"1,\" \"2,\" or \"3\" for each of seven criteria. A test scored as a \"1\" is the lowest level of complexity, while a test scored \"3\" indicates the highest level. A score of \"2\" is assigned when the characteristics for a particular test are ranked primarily between low- and high-level in description.&#91;12&#93;\nThe seven criteria for categorization are:\n\nKnowledge\nTraining and experience\nReagents and materials preparation\nCharacteristics of operational steps\nCalibration, quality control, and proficiency testing materials\nTest system troubleshooting and equipment maintenance\nInterpretation and judgment\nThe Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) has the primary responsibility for the operation of the CLIA program. Within CMS, the program is implemented by the Center for Medicaid and State Operations, Survey and Certification Group, and the Division of Laboratory Services.\nThe CLIA Program is funded by user fees collected from over 317,000 laboratories&#91;13&#93;, most located in the United States.&#91;14&#93;\n\nCLIA waived tests \nUnder CLIA, tests and test systems that meet risk, error, and complexity requirements are issued a CLIA certificate of waiver.&#91;15&#93;&#91;14&#93; In its 2017 document Administrative Procedures for CLIA Categorization - Guidance for Industry and Food and Drug Administration Staff, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) advises its staff that a medical testing device originally rated moderately complex could receive a waiver \"if the device is simple to use and the sponsor demonstrates in studies conducted at the intended use sites that the test is accurate and poses an insignificant risk of erroneous results.\"&#91;16&#93;\nWhile a waived test is deemed to have an acceptably low level of risk, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reminds administrators and recipients of such tests that no test is 100 percent safe&#91;15&#93;:\n\nAlthough CLIA requires that waived tests must be simple and have a low risk for erroneous results, this does not mean that waived tests are completely error-proof. Errors can occur anywhere in the testing process, particularly when the manufacturer's instructions are not followed and when testing personnel are not familiar with all aspects of the test system. Some waived tests have potential for serious health impacts if performed incorrectly... To decrease the risk of erroneous results, the test needs to be performed correctly, by trained personnel and in an environment where good laboratory practices are followed. \nIn November 2007, the CLIA waiver provisions were revised by the United States Congress to make it clear that tests approved by the FDA for home use automatically qualify for CLIA waiver.&#91;17&#93;\n\nList of tests \nA list of tests categorized by the FDA as waived since 2000 can be found at the FDA website. As of January 2022, the list includes slightly more than 4,600 unique approved CLIA-waived test devices.\n\nSee also \nCenters for Medicare and Medicaid Services\nClinical laboratory\nFurther reading \nKenney, Michael L.&#32;(February 1987).&#32;\"Quality Assurance in Changing Times: Proposals for Reform and Research in the Clinical Laboratory Field\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Clinical Chemistry&#32;33&#32;(2): 328\u2013336.&#32;doi:10.1093\/clinchem\/33.2.328.&#32;PMID&#160;3542302.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 24 March 2014.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140324170132\/http:\/\/www.clinchem.org\/content\/33\/2\/328.full.pdf . &#160; \nExternal links \n42 CFR 493 at the U.S. Government Printing Office\nCLIA Law &amp; Regulations at CDC\nChronology of CLIA Related Documents in the Federal Register &amp; Code of Federal Regulations\nNotes \nA couple elements of this article are reused from the Wikipedia article.\n\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 \"Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments (CLIA)\".&#32;Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services.&#32;26 March 2020.&#32;https:\/\/www.cms.gov\/regulations-and-guidance\/legislation\/clia .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Public Law 90-174\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;United States Statutes at Large, Volume 81.&#32;1967.&#32;https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/content\/pkg\/STATUTE-81\/pdf\/STATUTE-81-Pg533.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 3.0 3.1 Kenney, M.L.&#32;(1987).&#32;\"Quality Assurance in Changing Times: Proposals for Reform and Research in the Clinical Laboratory Field\".&#32;Clinical Chemistry&#32;33&#32;(2): 328\u201336.&#32;doi:10.1093\/clinchem\/33.2.328.&#32;PMID&#160;3542302. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Singer, Donald C.; Upton, Ronald P.&#32;(1993).&#32;\"Appendix F: Proposed Revision of the Clinical Laboratory Regulations for Medicare, Medicaid, and Clinical Laboratories Improvement Act of 1967 - Department of Health and Human Services: Health Care Financing Administration\".&#32;Guidelines for Laboratory Quality Auditing.&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp.&#160;273\u2013402.&#32;ISBN&#160;9780824787844.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.ca\/books?id=tTm3hfom96sC&amp;pg=PA273&amp;lpg=PA273 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Public Law 100-578\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;United States Statutes at Large, Volume 102.&#32;1988.&#32;https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/content\/pkg\/STATUTE-102\/pdf\/STATUTE-102-Pg2903.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Regulations for Implementing the Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments of 1988: A Summary\".&#32;Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report&#32;41&#32;(RR-2): 1\u201317.&#32;28 February 1992.&#32;PMID&#160;1538689.&#32;https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/mmwr\/preview\/mmwrhtml\/00016177.htm .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 7.0 7.1 \"Medicare, Medicaid, and CLIA Programs; Laboratory Requirements Relating to Quality Systems and Certain Personnel Qualifications; Final Rule\".&#32;Federal Register&#32;68&#32;(16): 3639\u20133714.&#32;24 January 2003.&#32;PMID&#160;12545998.&#32;https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/content\/pkg\/FR-2003-01-24\/html\/03-1230.htm .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Clinical Laboratory Improvement Act (CLIA) - Legislative History\".&#32;New Mexico Department of Health.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 09 March 2014.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140309070758\/http:\/\/dhi.health.state.nm.us\/CLIA\/clia_history.php .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Burns, J.&#32;(16 October 2019).&#32;\"Federal Advisory Committee Seeks Public Comments on Revising CLIA Regulations, says Keynote Speaker at 13th Annual Lab Quality Confab in Atlanta\".&#32;Dark Daily.&#32;https:\/\/www.darkdaily.com\/2019\/10\/16\/federal-advisory-committee-seeks-public-comments-on-revising-clia-regulations-says-keynote-speaker-at-13th-annual-lab-quality-confab-in-atlanta\/ .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Clinical Laboratory Improvement Advisory Committee&#32;(7 November 2019).&#32;\"CLIAC Summary Report November 6\u20137, 2019, Atlanta, Georgia\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.&#32;https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/cliac\/docs\/summary\/cliac0919_summary.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Clinical Laboratory Improvement Advisory Committee&#32;(1 October 2019).&#32;\"Clinical Laboratory Improvement Advisory Committee (CLIAC) Recommendations Table\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.&#32;https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/cliac\/docs\/CLIAC_RecommendationsTable_10012019.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"CLIA Categorizations\".&#32;U.S. Food and Drug Administration.&#32;25 February 2020.&#32;https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/medical-devices\/ivd-regulatory-assistance\/clia-categorizations .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"CLIA Update \u2013 October 2021 - Laboratories by Type of Facility\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services.&#32;October 2021.&#32;https:\/\/www.cms.gov\/Regulations-and-Guidance\/Legislation\/CLIA\/downloads\/factype.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 14.0 14.1 \"CLIA Program and Medicare Laboratory Services\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services.&#32;October 2018.&#32;https:\/\/www.cms.gov\/Outreach-and-Education\/Medicare-Learning-Network-MLN\/MLNProducts\/downloads\/CLIABrochure.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 15.0 15.1 \"Waived Tests\".&#32;Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.&#32;16 December 2019.&#32;https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/labquality\/waived-tests.html .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Administrative Procedures for CLIA Categorization - Guidance for Industry and Food and Drug Administration Staff\".&#32;U.S. Food and Drug Administration.&#32;October 2017.&#32;https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/regulatory-information\/search-fda-guidance-documents\/administrative-procedures-clia-categorization .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"IVD Regulatory Assistance - CLIA Waivers\".&#32;U.S. Food and Drug Administration.&#32;19 June 2009.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 02 February 2020.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120202233933\/http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/medicaldevices\/deviceregulationandguidance\/ivdregulatoryassistance\/ucm124202.htm .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments<\/a>\nCategories: Health standardsRegulatory informationNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 8 January 2022, at 00:35.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 55,906 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","64bdae1dc17c40c28e0c560396a6ae35_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments rootpage-Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:252px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:CLIA_Logo.gif\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"95937dc5e763206f7c10a9d5e85eb6d9\"><img alt=\"CLIA Logo.gif\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/8\/8b\/CLIA_Logo.gif\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"250\" height=\"250\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:CLIA_Logo.gif\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"95937dc5e763206f7c10a9d5e85eb6d9\"><\/a><\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>The <b>Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments<\/b> (<b>CLIA<\/b>) of 1988 is a United States federal statute and regulatory standards program that applies to all <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Clinical_laboratory\" title=\"Clinical laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"307bcdf1bdbcd1bb167cee435b7a5463\">clinical laboratory<\/a> testing performed on humans in the United States, except clinical trials and basic research.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CMSAboutCLIA_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CMSAboutCLIA-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>On December 5, 1967, the U.S. enacted Public Law 90-174, which included in Section 5 the \"Clinical Laboratories Improvement Act of 1967.\" CLIA '67 set regulations on the licensing of clinical laboratories and the movement of samples in and out of them across state lines. Laboratories would be eligible for a full, partial, or exempt CLIA-67 license, depending on the laboratory's conducted tests.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CLIA67Doc_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CLIA67Doc-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>However, by the mid-1980s the relevancy of CLIA '67 to a vastly changed procedural and technological clinical laboratory landscape began to be questioned. The Office of the Assistant Secretary for Health for Planning and Evaluation (ASPE) of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services commissioned a study to assess the effectiveness of federal regulations affecting clinical laboratories and their goal of protecting the public health. On April 8, 1986, the <i>Final Report on Assessment of Clinical Laboratory Regulations<\/i> by Michael L. Kenney and Don P. Greenberg was submitted to the ASPE.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KenneyQACLIA_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KenneyQACLIA-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>The analysis found that many federal regulations are technically obsolescent and many may be operationally unnecessary as a result of changing laboratory technology and changed federal reimbursement policies. Among changes recommended by the HHS-funded analysis are: (a) the regulatory classification system based upon physical location of laboratories is no longer appropriate and should be replaced with a classification system reflecting laboratory functions; (b) a single, uniform set of federal regulations should be developed that covers all civilian laboratories receiving federal reimbursement or operating in interstate commerce; (c) a revised federal regulatory system should emphasize measures of performance such as personnel and inspection requirements; and (d) clinical laboratory regulations should be based upon objective data to the maximum extent possible.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KenneyQACLIA_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KenneyQACLIA-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>On August 5, 1988, a new set of proposed regulations were put forth by the Health Care Financing Administration as <i>Medicare, Medicaid and CLIA Programs; Revision of the Clinical Laboratory Regulations for the Medicare, Medicaid, and Clinical Laboratories Improvement Act of 1967 Programs<\/i>. The proposal aspired \"to remove outdated, obsolete and redundant requirements, make provision for new technologies, place increased reliance on outcome measures of performance, and emphasize the responsibilities and duties of personnel rather than the formal credentialing requirements and detailed personnel standards in existing regulations.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SingerGLQA_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SingerGLQA-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup> This ultimately led to the proposal becoming law on October 31, 1988 under Public Law 100-578 as the <i>Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments of 1988<\/i>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CLIA88Doc_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CLIA88Doc-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>Regulations for implementing CLIA continued to be developed afterwards, with the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/United_States_Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services\" title=\"United States Department of Health and Human Services\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"efa106bcbb93039b1a6c3c596daedec3\">Department of Health and Human Services<\/a> considering thousands of comments to the proposed regulations. The final regulations were published February 28, 1992, set to be effective on September 1 of the same year. The new CLIA '88 put into place regulations concerning test complexity, certification, proficiency testing, patient test management, personnel requirements, quality assurance, and other processes in the clinical laboratory.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MMERFeb2892_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MMERFeb2892-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup> However, phase-in effective dates were extended on several occasions afterwards: on December 6, 1994 in the Federal Register (59 FR 62606), May 12, 1997 in the Federal Register (62 FR 25855), October 14, 1998 in the Federal Register (63 FR 55031), and December 29, 2000 in the Federal Register (65 FR 82941).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-68FR3639_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-68FR3639-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>On January 24, 2003, the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Centers_for_Medicare_and_Medicaid_Services\" title=\"Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"654b4449e4816e190325b420c264df1a\">Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services<\/a> submitted their final rule (68 FR 3639), effective April 24, 2003, affecting QC requirements for laboratories and qualification requirements for lab directors. The final rule also made revisions to 42 CFR 493, including the renaming, reorganizing, and consolidation of similar requirements into one section, the deletion of duplicate requirements, and the rewording of the requirements to better clarify their original intent. It also addressed requirements regarding the entire testing process, making those requirement better correlate with the workflow of a lab specimen in the laboratory, from acquisition to reporting of results, including the subdivision of testing into pre-analytic, analytic, and post-analytic phases.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-68FR3639_7-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-68FR3639-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NewMexH_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NewMexH-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In the fall of 2019, the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention\" title=\"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"176aa9c9513251c328d864d1e724e814\">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention<\/a>'s Director of Laboratory Systems Reynolds Salerno requested comments from its Clinical Laboratory Improvement Advisory Committee (CLIAC), as well as from the public, in regards to how CLIA regulations should be revised. \u201cIt\u2019s a dramatic step for the government to ask the laboratory community how to revise the CLIA regulations,\u201d Salerno told Dark Daily.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BurnsFederal19_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BurnsFederal19-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup> During the November CLIAC meeting, attendees reviewed CLIAC's 23 recommendations it had made prior (April 2019) in regards to updates to CLIA, grouped into CLIA personnel requirement changes, nontraditional test workflow (big data- and machine learning-driven) changes, and changes related to next-generation sequencing testing, workflows, and best practices.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CLIACSumm19_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CLIACSumm19-10\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CLIACClinical19_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CLIACClinical19-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"CLIA_program\">CLIA program<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The CLIA program sets standards and issues certificates for clinical laboratory testing. CLIA defines a clinical laboratory as any facility which performs <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33\">laboratory<\/a> testing on specimens derived from humans for the purpose of providing information for:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>diagnosis, prevention, or treatment of disease or impairment.<\/li>\n<li>health assessments.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>The CLIA program is designed to ensure the accuracy, reliability, and timeliness of test results regardless of where the test was performed. Each specific laboratory system, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Assay\" title=\"Assay\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea17cf4415e898e1838538495235ef71\">assay<\/a>, and examination is graded for level of complexity by assigning scores of \"1,\" \"2,\" or \"3\" for each of seven criteria. A test scored as a \"1\" is the lowest level of complexity, while a test scored \"3\" indicates the highest level. A score of \"2\" is assigned when the characteristics for a particular test are ranked primarily between low- and high-level in description.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FDAIVDReg_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FDAIVDReg-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The seven criteria for categorization are:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>Knowledge<\/li>\n<li>Training and experience<\/li>\n<li>Reagents and materials preparation<\/li>\n<li>Characteristics of operational steps<\/li>\n<li>Calibration, quality control, and proficiency testing materials<\/li>\n<li>Test system troubleshooting and equipment maintenance<\/li>\n<li>Interpretation and judgment<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Centers_for_Medicare_and_Medicaid_Services\" title=\"Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"654b4449e4816e190325b420c264df1a\">Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services<\/a> (CMS) has the primary responsibility for the operation of the CLIA program. Within CMS, the program is implemented by the Center for Medicaid and State Operations, Survey and Certification Group, and the Division of Laboratory Services.\n<\/p><p>The CLIA Program is funded by user fees collected from over 317,000 laboratories<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CLIADec13_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CLIADec13-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, most located in the United States.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CLIABroch_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CLIABroch-14\">&#91;14&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"CLIA_waived_tests\">CLIA waived tests<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Under CLIA, tests and test systems that meet risk, error, and complexity requirements are issued a CLIA certificate of waiver.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CDCWaived_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CDCWaived-15\">&#91;15&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CLIABroch_14-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CLIABroch-14\">&#91;14&#93;<\/a><\/sup> In its 2017 document <i>Administrative Procedures for CLIA Categorization - Guidance for Industry and Food and Drug Administration Staff<\/i>, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) advises its staff that a medical testing device originally rated moderately complex could receive a waiver \"if the device is simple to use and the sponsor demonstrates in studies conducted at the intended use sites that the test is accurate and poses an insignificant risk of erroneous results.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-APCC_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-APCC-16\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>While a waived test is deemed to have an acceptably low level of risk, the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention\" title=\"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"176aa9c9513251c328d864d1e724e814\">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention<\/a> (CDC) reminds administrators and recipients of such tests that no test is 100 percent safe<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CDCWaived_15-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CDCWaived-15\">&#91;15&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>Although CLIA requires that waived tests must be simple and have a low risk for erroneous results, this does not mean that waived tests are completely error-proof. Errors can occur anywhere in the testing process, particularly when the manufacturer's instructions are not followed and when testing personnel are not familiar with all aspects of the test system. Some waived tests have potential for serious health impacts if performed incorrectly... To decrease the risk of erroneous results, the test needs to be performed correctly, by trained personnel and in an environment where good laboratory practices are followed. <\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>In November 2007, the CLIA waiver provisions were revised by the United States Congress to make it clear that tests approved by the FDA for home use automatically qualify for CLIA waiver.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FDAWaivers_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FDAWaivers-17\">&#91;17&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"List_of_tests\">List of tests<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A list of tests categorized by the FDA as waived since 2000 can be found at the <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfClia\/testswaived.cfm\" target=\"_blank\">FDA website<\/a>. As of January 2022, the list includes slightly more than 4,600 unique approved CLIA-waived test devices.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Centers_for_Medicare_and_Medicaid_Services\" title=\"Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"654b4449e4816e190325b420c264df1a\">Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Clinical_laboratory\" title=\"Clinical laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"307bcdf1bdbcd1bb167cee435b7a5463\">Clinical laboratory<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation Journal\">Kenney, Michael L.&#32;(February 1987).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140324170132\/http:\/\/www.clinchem.org\/content\/33\/2\/328.full.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Quality Assurance in Changing Times: Proposals for Reform and Research in the Clinical Laboratory Field\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;<i>Clinical Chemistry<\/i>&#32;<b>33<\/b>&#32;(2): 328\u2013336.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1093%2Fclinchem%2F33.2.328\" target=\"_blank\">10.1093\/clinchem\/33.2.328<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/3542302\" target=\"_blank\">3542302<\/a>.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.clinchem.org\/content\/33\/2\/328.full.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 24 March 2014<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140324170132\/http:\/\/www.clinchem.org\/content\/33\/2\/328.full.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140324170132\/http:\/\/www.clinchem.org\/content\/33\/2\/328.full.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Quality+Assurance+in+Changing+Times%3A+Proposals+for+Reform+and+Research+in+the+Clinical+Laboratory+Field&amp;rft.jtitle=Clinical+Chemistry&amp;rft.aulast=Kenney%2C+Michael+L.&amp;rft.au=Kenney%2C+Michael+L.&amp;rft.date=February+1987&amp;rft.volume=33&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=328%E2%80%93336&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1093%2Fclinchem%2F33.2.328&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/3542302&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20140324170132%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.clinchem.org%2Fcontent%2F33%2F2%2F328.full.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/app\/details\/CFR-2011-title42-vol5\/CFR-2011-title42-vol5-part493\" target=\"_blank\">42 CFR 493 at the U.S. Government Printing Office<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/clia\/law-regulations.html\" target=\"_blank\">CLIA Law &amp; Regulations at CDC<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/clia\/clia-documents.html\" target=\"_blank\">Chronology of CLIA Related Documents in the Federal Register &amp; Code of Federal Regulations<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>A couple elements of this article are reused from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\" data-key=\"6082c2c0befe98aa562693faa1ddcedb\">the Wikipedia article<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-CMSAboutCLIA-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CMSAboutCLIA_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cms.gov\/regulations-and-guidance\/legislation\/clia\" target=\"_blank\">\"Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments (CLIA)\"<\/a>.&#32;Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services.&#32;26 March 2020<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cms.gov\/regulations-and-guidance\/legislation\/clia\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.cms.gov\/regulations-and-guidance\/legislation\/clia<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Clinical+Laboratory+Improvement+Amendments+%28CLIA%29&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=26+March+2020&amp;rft.pub=Centers+for+Medicare+and+Medicaid+Services&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cms.gov%2Fregulations-and-guidance%2Flegislation%2Fclia&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CLIA67Doc-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CLIA67Doc_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/content\/pkg\/STATUTE-81\/pdf\/STATUTE-81-Pg533.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Public Law 90-174\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;<i>United States Statutes at Large, Volume 81<\/i>.&#32;1967<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/content\/pkg\/STATUTE-81\/pdf\/STATUTE-81-Pg533.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/content\/pkg\/STATUTE-81\/pdf\/STATUTE-81-Pg533.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Public+Law+90-174&amp;rft.atitle=United+States+Statutes+at+Large%2C+Volume+81&amp;rft.date=1967&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.govinfo.gov%2Fcontent%2Fpkg%2FSTATUTE-81%2Fpdf%2FSTATUTE-81-Pg533.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KenneyQACLIA-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-KenneyQACLIA_3-0\">3.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-KenneyQACLIA_3-1\">3.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Kenney, M.L.&#32;(1987).&#32;\"Quality Assurance in Changing Times: Proposals for Reform and Research in the Clinical Laboratory Field\".&#32;<i>Clinical Chemistry<\/i>&#32;<b>33<\/b>&#32;(2): 328\u201336.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1093%2Fclinchem%2F33.2.328\" target=\"_blank\">10.1093\/clinchem\/33.2.328<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/3542302\" target=\"_blank\">3542302<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Quality+Assurance+in+Changing+Times%3A+Proposals+for+Reform+and+Research+in+the+Clinical+Laboratory+Field&amp;rft.jtitle=Clinical+Chemistry&amp;rft.aulast=Kenney%2C+M.L.&amp;rft.au=Kenney%2C+M.L.&amp;rft.date=1987&amp;rft.volume=33&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=328%E2%80%9336&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1093%2Fclinchem%2F33.2.328&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/3542302&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SingerGLQA-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SingerGLQA_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Singer, Donald C.; Upton, Ronald P.&#32;(1993).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.ca\/books?id=tTm3hfom96sC&pg=PA273&lpg=PA273\" target=\"_blank\">\"Appendix F: Proposed Revision of the Clinical Laboratory Regulations for Medicare, Medicaid, and Clinical Laboratories Improvement Act of 1967 - Department of Health and Human Services: Health Care Financing Administration\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Guidelines for Laboratory Quality Auditing<\/i>.&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp.&#160;273\u2013402.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9780824787844<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.ca\/books?id=tTm3hfom96sC&pg=PA273&lpg=PA273\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.ca\/books?id=tTm3hfom96sC&amp;pg=PA273&amp;lpg=PA273<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Appendix+F%3A+Proposed+Revision+of+the+Clinical+Laboratory+Regulations+for+Medicare%2C+Medicaid%2C+and+Clinical+Laboratories+Improvement+Act+of+1967+-+Department+of+Health+and+Human+Services%3A+Health+Care+Financing+Administration&amp;rft.atitle=Guidelines+for+Laboratory+Quality+Auditing&amp;rft.aulast=Singer%2C+Donald+C.%3B+Upton%2C+Ronald+P.&amp;rft.au=Singer%2C+Donald+C.%3B+Upton%2C+Ronald+P.&amp;rft.date=1993&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B273%E2%80%93402&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.isbn=9780824787844&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.ca%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtTm3hfom96sC%26pg%3DPA273%26lpg%3DPA273&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CLIA88Doc-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CLIA88Doc_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/content\/pkg\/STATUTE-102\/pdf\/STATUTE-102-Pg2903.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Public Law 100-578\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;<i>United States Statutes at Large, Volume 102<\/i>.&#32;1988<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/content\/pkg\/STATUTE-102\/pdf\/STATUTE-102-Pg2903.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/content\/pkg\/STATUTE-102\/pdf\/STATUTE-102-Pg2903.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Public+Law+100-578&amp;rft.atitle=United+States+Statutes+at+Large%2C+Volume+102&amp;rft.date=1988&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.govinfo.gov%2Fcontent%2Fpkg%2FSTATUTE-102%2Fpdf%2FSTATUTE-102-Pg2903.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MMERFeb2892-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MMERFeb2892_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/mmwr\/preview\/mmwrhtml\/00016177.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Regulations for Implementing the Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments of 1988: A Summary\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report<\/i>&#32;<b>41<\/b>&#32;(RR-2): 1\u201317.&#32;28 February 1992.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/1538689\" target=\"_blank\">1538689<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/mmwr\/preview\/mmwrhtml\/00016177.htm\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/mmwr\/preview\/mmwrhtml\/00016177.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Regulations+for+Implementing+the+Clinical+Laboratory+Improvement+Amendments+of+1988%3A+A+Summary&amp;rft.jtitle=Morbidity+and+Mortality+Weekly+Report&amp;rft.date=28+February+1992&amp;rft.volume=41&amp;rft.issue=RR-2&amp;rft.pages=1%E2%80%9317&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/1538689&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fmmwr%2Fpreview%2Fmmwrhtml%2F00016177.htm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-68FR3639-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-68FR3639_7-0\">7.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-68FR3639_7-1\">7.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/content\/pkg\/FR-2003-01-24\/html\/03-1230.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Medicare, Medicaid, and CLIA Programs; Laboratory Requirements Relating to Quality Systems and Certain Personnel Qualifications; Final Rule\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Federal Register<\/i>&#32;<b>68<\/b>&#32;(16): 3639\u20133714.&#32;24 January 2003.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/12545998\" target=\"_blank\">12545998<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/content\/pkg\/FR-2003-01-24\/html\/03-1230.htm\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/content\/pkg\/FR-2003-01-24\/html\/03-1230.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Medicare%2C+Medicaid%2C+and+CLIA+Programs%3B+Laboratory+Requirements+Relating+to+Quality+Systems+and+Certain+Personnel+Qualifications%3B+Final+Rule&amp;rft.jtitle=Federal+Register&amp;rft.date=24+January+2003&amp;rft.volume=68&amp;rft.issue=16&amp;rft.pages=3639%E2%80%933714&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/12545998&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.govinfo.gov%2Fcontent%2Fpkg%2FFR-2003-01-24%2Fhtml%2F03-1230.htm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NewMexH-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-NewMexH_8-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140309070758\/http:\/\/dhi.health.state.nm.us\/CLIA\/clia_history.php\" target=\"_blank\">\"Clinical Laboratory Improvement Act (CLIA) - Legislative History\"<\/a>.&#32;New Mexico Department of Health.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dhi.health.state.nm.us\/CLIA\/clia_history.php\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 09 March 2014<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140309070758\/http:\/\/dhi.health.state.nm.us\/CLIA\/clia_history.php\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140309070758\/http:\/\/dhi.health.state.nm.us\/CLIA\/clia_history.php<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Clinical+Laboratory+Improvement+Act+%28CLIA%29+-+Legislative+History&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=New+Mexico+Department+of+Health&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20140309070758%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fdhi.health.state.nm.us%2FCLIA%2Fclia_history.php&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BurnsFederal19-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BurnsFederal19_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Burns, J.&#32;(16 October 2019).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.darkdaily.com\/2019\/10\/16\/federal-advisory-committee-seeks-public-comments-on-revising-clia-regulations-says-keynote-speaker-at-13th-annual-lab-quality-confab-in-atlanta\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Federal Advisory Committee Seeks Public Comments on Revising CLIA Regulations, says Keynote Speaker at 13th Annual Lab Quality Confab in Atlanta\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Dark Daily<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.darkdaily.com\/2019\/10\/16\/federal-advisory-committee-seeks-public-comments-on-revising-clia-regulations-says-keynote-speaker-at-13th-annual-lab-quality-confab-in-atlanta\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.darkdaily.com\/2019\/10\/16\/federal-advisory-committee-seeks-public-comments-on-revising-clia-regulations-says-keynote-speaker-at-13th-annual-lab-quality-confab-in-atlanta\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Federal+Advisory+Committee+Seeks+Public+Comments+on+Revising+CLIA+Regulations%2C+says+Keynote+Speaker+at+13th+Annual+Lab+Quality+Confab+in+Atlanta&amp;rft.atitle=Dark+Daily&amp;rft.aulast=Burns%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Burns%2C+J.&amp;rft.date=16+October+2019&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.darkdaily.com%2F2019%2F10%2F16%2Ffederal-advisory-committee-seeks-public-comments-on-revising-clia-regulations-says-keynote-speaker-at-13th-annual-lab-quality-confab-in-atlanta%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CLIACSumm19-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CLIACSumm19_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Clinical Laboratory Improvement Advisory Committee&#32;(7 November 2019).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/cliac\/docs\/summary\/cliac0919_summary.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"CLIAC Summary Report November 6\u20137, 2019, Atlanta, Georgia\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Centers for Disease Control and Prevention<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/cliac\/docs\/summary\/cliac0919_summary.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/cliac\/docs\/summary\/cliac0919_summary.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=CLIAC+Summary+Report+November+6%E2%80%937%2C+2019%2C+Atlanta%2C+Georgia&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Clinical+Laboratory+Improvement+Advisory+Committee&amp;rft.au=Clinical+Laboratory+Improvement+Advisory+Committee&amp;rft.date=7+November+2019&amp;rft.pub=Centers+for+Disease+Control+and+Prevention&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fcliac%2Fdocs%2Fsummary%2Fcliac0919_summary.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CLIACClinical19-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CLIACClinical19_11-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Clinical Laboratory Improvement Advisory Committee&#32;(1 October 2019).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/cliac\/docs\/CLIAC_RecommendationsTable_10012019.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Clinical Laboratory Improvement Advisory Committee (CLIAC) Recommendations Table\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Centers for Disease Control and Prevention<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/cliac\/docs\/CLIAC_RecommendationsTable_10012019.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/cliac\/docs\/CLIAC_RecommendationsTable_10012019.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Clinical+Laboratory+Improvement+Advisory+Committee+%28CLIAC%29+Recommendations+Table&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Clinical+Laboratory+Improvement+Advisory+Committee&amp;rft.au=Clinical+Laboratory+Improvement+Advisory+Committee&amp;rft.date=1+October+2019&amp;rft.pub=Centers+for+Disease+Control+and+Prevention&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fcliac%2Fdocs%2FCLIAC_RecommendationsTable_10012019.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FDAIVDReg-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FDAIVDReg_12-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/medical-devices\/ivd-regulatory-assistance\/clia-categorizations\" target=\"_blank\">\"CLIA Categorizations\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Food and Drug Administration.&#32;25 February 2020<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/medical-devices\/ivd-regulatory-assistance\/clia-categorizations\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/medical-devices\/ivd-regulatory-assistance\/clia-categorizations<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=CLIA+Categorizations&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=25+February+2020&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Food+and+Drug+Administration&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fda.gov%2Fmedical-devices%2Fivd-regulatory-assistance%2Fclia-categorizations&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CLIADec13-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CLIADec13_13-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cms.gov\/Regulations-and-Guidance\/Legislation\/CLIA\/downloads\/factype.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"CLIA Update \u2013 October 2021 - Laboratories by Type of Facility\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services.&#32;October 2021<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cms.gov\/Regulations-and-Guidance\/Legislation\/CLIA\/downloads\/factype.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.cms.gov\/Regulations-and-Guidance\/Legislation\/CLIA\/downloads\/factype.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=CLIA+Update+%E2%80%93+October+2021+-+Laboratories+by+Type+of+Facility&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=October+2021&amp;rft.pub=Centers+for+Medicare+and+Medicaid+Services&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cms.gov%2FRegulations-and-Guidance%2FLegislation%2FCLIA%2Fdownloads%2Ffactype.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CLIABroch-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CLIABroch_14-0\">14.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CLIABroch_14-1\">14.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cms.gov\/Outreach-and-Education\/Medicare-Learning-Network-MLN\/MLNProducts\/downloads\/CLIABrochure.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"CLIA Program and Medicare Laboratory Services\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services.&#32;October 2018<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cms.gov\/Outreach-and-Education\/Medicare-Learning-Network-MLN\/MLNProducts\/downloads\/CLIABrochure.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.cms.gov\/Outreach-and-Education\/Medicare-Learning-Network-MLN\/MLNProducts\/downloads\/CLIABrochure.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=CLIA+Program+and+Medicare+Laboratory+Services&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=October+2018&amp;rft.pub=Centers+for+Medicare+and+Medicaid+Services&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cms.gov%2FOutreach-and-Education%2FMedicare-Learning-Network-MLN%2FMLNProducts%2Fdownloads%2FCLIABrochure.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CDCWaived-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CDCWaived_15-0\">15.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CDCWaived_15-1\">15.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/labquality\/waived-tests.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Waived Tests\"<\/a>.&#32;Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.&#32;16 December 2019<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/labquality\/waived-tests.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/labquality\/waived-tests.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Waived+Tests&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=16+December+2019&amp;rft.pub=Centers+for+Disease+Control+and+Prevention&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Flabquality%2Fwaived-tests.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-APCC-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-APCC_16-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/regulatory-information\/search-fda-guidance-documents\/administrative-procedures-clia-categorization\" target=\"_blank\">\"Administrative Procedures for CLIA Categorization - Guidance for Industry and Food and Drug Administration Staff\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Food and Drug Administration.&#32;October 2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/regulatory-information\/search-fda-guidance-documents\/administrative-procedures-clia-categorization\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/regulatory-information\/search-fda-guidance-documents\/administrative-procedures-clia-categorization<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Administrative+Procedures+for+CLIA+Categorization+-+Guidance+for+Industry+and+Food+and+Drug+Administration+Staff&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=October+2017&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Food+and+Drug+Administration&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fda.gov%2Fregulatory-information%2Fsearch-fda-guidance-documents%2Fadministrative-procedures-clia-categorization&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FDAWaivers-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FDAWaivers_17-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120202233933\/http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/medicaldevices\/deviceregulationandguidance\/ivdregulatoryassistance\/ucm124202.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"IVD Regulatory Assistance - CLIA Waivers\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Food and Drug Administration.&#32;19 June 2009.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/medicaldevices\/deviceregulationandguidance\/ivdregulatoryassistance\/ucm124202.htm\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 02 February 2020<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120202233933\/http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/medicaldevices\/deviceregulationandguidance\/ivdregulatoryassistance\/ucm124202.htm\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120202233933\/http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/medicaldevices\/deviceregulationandguidance\/ivdregulatoryassistance\/ucm124202.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=IVD+Regulatory+Assistance+-+CLIA+Waivers&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=19+June+2009&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Food+and+Drug+Administration&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20120202233933%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.fda.gov%2Fmedicaldevices%2Fdeviceregulationandguidance%2Fivdregulatoryassistance%2Fucm124202.htm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240109181902\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.401 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.536 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 12700\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 95865\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 40863\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 18\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 28616\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 439.138 1 -total\n 71.75% 315.082 18 Template:Citation\/core\n 71.38% 313.460 1 Template:Reflist\n 37.95% 166.671 13 Template:Cite_web\n 35.24% 154.752 4 Template:Cite_journal\n 16.74% 73.515 7 Template:Citation\/identifier\n 11.34% 49.778 1 Template:Cite_book\n 11.30% 49.621 13 Template:Date\n 5.61% 24.651 25 Template:Citation\/make_link\n 4.05% 17.766 7 Template:Only_in_print\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:4907-0!canonical and timestamp 20240109181901 and revision id 45460. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","64bdae1dc17c40c28e0c560396a6ae35_images":["https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/8\/8b\/CLIA_Logo.gif"],"64bdae1dc17c40c28e0c560396a6ae35_timestamp":1704907025,"74b64479a39bee791aacc4605b78a061_type":"article","74b64479a39bee791aacc4605b78a061_title":"ASTM E1578","74b64479a39bee791aacc4605b78a061_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ASTM_E1578","74b64479a39bee791aacc4605b78a061_plaintext":"\n\nASTM E1578From LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchASTM E1578 (titled Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics) is an active standard developed by ASTM International, specifically Subcommittee E13.15 on Analytical Data. According to a 2012 press release from the committee, the standard exists primarily because \"the use of electronic laboratory notebooks, cloud computing, and the adoption of lean principles has lead to an evolution in the use of LIMS and related analytics currently employed across laboratory environments.\"&#91;1&#93; \nAs of January 2022&#91;update&#93;, seven goals are associates with the standard as it relates to laboratory information management systems and other laboratory informatics applications&#91;2&#93;:\n\nto provide educational material to those new to laboratory informatics\nto provide educational material to those already applying laboratory informatics to laboratories and associated areas\nto provide educational material to those who develop and distribute laboratory informatics applications and instrumentation\nto describe and recommend a standardized body of terminology to both developers and users\nto describe and recommend a body of requirements that are essential to system functions\nto provide recommendations for tasks and documentation secondarily related to laboratory informatics, including costing, implementation, and training\nto provide recommendations for integrating laboratory informatics applications and processes into workflow\nHistory \nThe standard was previously released as E1578-93 (1993), E1578-93(1999) (1999), E1578-06 (2006), and E1578-13 (2013).&#91;2&#93; ASTM E1578 not only covers applications of informatics to general laboratories but also to environmental, life science, medical, industrial, and public sector labs. The 2018 update brought with it new insights into laboratory informatics tools and how to integrate them into laboratory workflow, and with other hardware and software. And though relatively in their infancy in laboratory application, the revision added content about the application of the internet of things (IoT), artificial intelligence (AI), and smart objects to the laboratory.&#91;2&#93;&#91;3&#93;\n\nExternal links \nASTM E1578-18 at ASTM International\nReferences \n\n\u2191 \"ASTM Molecular Spectroscopy Committee Invites Participation in Revision of Laboratory Information Management Systems Standard\".&#32;ASTM International.&#32;7 March 2012.&#32;https:\/\/newsroom.astm.org\/astm-molecular-spectroscopy-committee-invites-participation-revision-laboratory-information .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 2.0 2.1 2.2 \"ASTM E1578-18 Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics\".&#32;ASTM International.&#32;23 August 2019.&#32;https:\/\/www.astm.org\/e1578-18.html .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Jones, J.&#32;(2018).&#32;\"ASTM 1578 (Scope &amp; Elements of Laboratory Informatics)\".&#32;MindMeister.&#32;https:\/\/cdn2.mindmeister.com\/943721819\/astm-e1578-scope-elements-of-laboratory-informatics?fullscreen=1 .&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ASTM_E1578\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ASTM_E1578<\/a>\nCategories: Articles containing potentially dated statements from January 2022All articles containing potentially dated statementsDesign and development standardsLaboratory informatics standardsNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 1 April 2022, at 19:10.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 11,410 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","74b64479a39bee791aacc4605b78a061_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-ASTM_E1578 rootpage-ASTM_E1578 skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">ASTM E1578<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p><b>ASTM E1578<\/b> (titled <i>Standard Guide for <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">Laboratory Informatics<\/a><\/i>) is an active standard developed by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ASTM_International\" title=\"ASTM International\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dfeafbac63fa786e77b472c3f86d07ed\">ASTM International<\/a>, specifically Subcommittee E13.15 on Analytical Data. According to a 2012 press release from the committee, the standard exists primarily because \"the use of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Electronic laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f\">electronic laboratory notebooks<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cloud_computing\" title=\"Cloud computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fcfe5882eaa018d920cedb88398b604f\">cloud computing<\/a>, and the adoption of lean principles has lead to an evolution in the use of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"LIMS\" data-key=\"21b7bfebbba300be00cdbb84cddb338d\">LIMS<\/a> and related analytics currently employed across <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33\">laboratory<\/a> environments.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASTME13.15_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASTME13.15-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>As of January 2022<sup class=\"plainlinks noprint asof-tag update\" style=\"display:none;\"><\/sup>, seven goals are associates with the standard as it relates to laboratory information management systems and other laboratory informatics applications<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASTME1578_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASTME1578-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>to provide educational material to those new to laboratory informatics<\/li>\n<li>to provide educational material to those already applying laboratory informatics to laboratories and associated areas<\/li>\n<li>to provide educational material to those who develop and distribute laboratory informatics applications and instrumentation<\/li>\n<li>to describe and recommend a standardized body of terminology to both developers and users<\/li>\n<li>to describe and recommend a body of requirements that are essential to system functions<\/li>\n<li>to provide recommendations for tasks and documentation secondarily related to laboratory informatics, including costing, implementation, and training<\/li>\n<li>to provide recommendations for integrating laboratory informatics applications and processes into workflow<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The standard was previously released as E1578-93 (1993), E1578-93(1999) (1999), E1578-06 (2006), and E1578-13 (2013).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASTME1578_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASTME1578-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> ASTM E1578 not only covers applications of informatics to general laboratories but also to environmental, life science, medical, industrial, and public sector labs. The 2018 update brought with it new insights into laboratory informatics tools and how to integrate them into laboratory <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow\" title=\"Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8\">workflow<\/a>, and with other hardware and software. And though relatively in their infancy in laboratory application, the revision added content about the application of the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Internet_of_things\" title=\"Internet of things\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"13e0b826fa1770fe4bea72e3cb942f0f\">internet of things<\/a> (IoT), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c45a597361ca47e1cd8112af676276e\">artificial intelligence<\/a> (AI), and smart objects to the laboratory.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASTME1578_2-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASTME1578-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-JonesASTME1578_18_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-JonesASTME1578_18-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.astm.org\/e1578-18.html\" target=\"_blank\">ASTM E1578-18 at ASTM International<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-ASTME13.15-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ASTME13.15_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/newsroom.astm.org\/astm-molecular-spectroscopy-committee-invites-participation-revision-laboratory-information\" target=\"_blank\">\"ASTM Molecular Spectroscopy Committee Invites Participation in Revision of Laboratory Information Management Systems Standard\"<\/a>.&#32;ASTM International.&#32;7 March 2012<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/newsroom.astm.org\/astm-molecular-spectroscopy-committee-invites-participation-revision-laboratory-information\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/newsroom.astm.org\/astm-molecular-spectroscopy-committee-invites-participation-revision-laboratory-information<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ASTM+Molecular+Spectroscopy+Committee+Invites+Participation+in+Revision+of+Laboratory+Information+Management+Systems+Standard&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=7+March+2012&amp;rft.pub=ASTM+International&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnewsroom.astm.org%2Fastm-molecular-spectroscopy-committee-invites-participation-revision-laboratory-information&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ASTM_E1578\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ASTME1578-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ASTME1578_2-0\">2.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ASTME1578_2-1\">2.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ASTME1578_2-2\">2.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.astm.org\/e1578-18.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"ASTM E1578-18 Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics\"<\/a>.&#32;ASTM International.&#32;23 August 2019<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.astm.org\/e1578-18.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.astm.org\/e1578-18.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ASTM+E1578-18+Standard+Guide+for+Laboratory+Informatics&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=23+August+2019&amp;rft.pub=ASTM+International&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.astm.org%2Fe1578-18.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ASTM_E1578\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-JonesASTME1578_18-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-JonesASTME1578_18_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Jones, J.&#32;(2018).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/cdn2.mindmeister.com\/943721819\/astm-e1578-scope-elements-of-laboratory-informatics?fullscreen=1\" target=\"_blank\">\"ASTM 1578 (Scope &amp; Elements of Laboratory Informatics)\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>MindMeister<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/cdn2.mindmeister.com\/943721819\/astm-e1578-scope-elements-of-laboratory-informatics?fullscreen=1\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/cdn2.mindmeister.com\/943721819\/astm-e1578-scope-elements-of-laboratory-informatics?fullscreen=1<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ASTM+1578+%28Scope+%26+Elements+of+Laboratory+Informatics%29&amp;rft.atitle=MindMeister&amp;rft.aulast=Jones%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Jones%2C+J.&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcdn2.mindmeister.com%2F943721819%2Fastm-e1578-scope-elements-of-laboratory-informatics%3Ffullscreen%3D1&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ASTM_E1578\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110122303\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.073 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.090 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 2198\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 14435\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 6107\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 17\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 1\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 4676\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 68.794 1 -total\n 59.31% 40.804 3 Template:Cite_web\n 50.12% 34.480 3 Template:Citation\/core\n 31.58% 21.726 1 Template:As_of\n 23.75% 16.340 1 Template:DMCA\n 18.87% 12.983 1 Template:Dated_maintenance_category\n 12.27% 8.443 3 Template:Date\n 9.92% 6.823 1 Template:FULLROOTPAGENAME\n 6.81% 4.682 4 Template:Citation\/make_link\n 5.07% 3.485 1 Template:Ns_has_subpages\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:6343-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110122303 and revision id 47181. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ASTM_E1578\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ASTM_E1578<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","74b64479a39bee791aacc4605b78a061_images":[],"74b64479a39bee791aacc4605b78a061_timestamp":1704907025,"da3478a32653a38e3e11b3f6d479cdb4_type":"article","da3478a32653a38e3e11b3f6d479cdb4_title":"ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board","da3478a32653a38e3e11b3f6d479cdb4_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board","da3478a32653a38e3e11b3f6d479cdb4_plaintext":"\n\nANSI-ASQ National Accreditation BoardFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchThe ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board (ANAB) is an international non-profit, non-governmental, independent organization and accrediting body that provides accreditation and training services for numerous types of laboratories. ANAB offers accreditation programs and training courses for the communications, energy, environmental, food and beverage, forensic, and manufacturing industries.&#91;1&#93;&#91;2&#93; Over the years, the organization has also acquired other accrediting organizations such as Forensic Quality Services, Inc. (FQS) and Laboratory Accreditation Bureau (L-A-B), adding their accreditation programs to ANAB's offerings.&#91;3&#93;&#91;4&#93;\n\nContents \n\n1 History \n2 Clarification of accreditation offerings \n3 Accreditation and compliance \n4 External links \n5 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nANAB's predecessor was the Registrar Accreditation Board (RAB), founded on November 13, 1989&#91;5&#93; as an affiliate of the American Society for Quality Control (ASQC; later just the ASQ) \"to develop a program to evaluate the quality of services offered by [quality system] registrars.\"&#91;6&#93;&#91;7&#93; Teaming up with the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), RAB began development of the American National Accreditation Program for Registrars of Quality Systems sometime between 1990 and December 1991.&#91;8&#93;&#91;6&#93; RAB would eventually get certified by the NQA (National Quality Assurance) and begin offering an ISO 9000 auditor certification program in 1992.&#91;6&#93;&#91;9&#93; \nNeeds changed, however, and RAB was replaced by the ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board on January 1, 2005. As a partnership between ANSI and the ASQ, the restructuring was done for several reasons: \"to comply with a new international requirement that a national accreditation body be a legal entity,\" and to split off auditor certification and training activities from its original management systems accreditation services.&#91;5&#93;&#91;9&#93; The organization would later add accreditation services for testing and calibration labs, judged to be missing component by the company, through the acquisition of Assured Calibration and Laboratory Accreditation Select Services (ACLASS) in October 2007.&#91;10&#93;&#91;11&#93; ANAB expanded their laboratory accreditation services further with the acquisition of Forensic Quality Services, Inc. (FQS) in November 2011, expanding into realm of forensic testing and inspection.&#91;3&#93;&#91;5&#93; However, with all these offerings, the company realized \"the use of three different brands has caused confusion in the marketplace.\" ANAB announced in November 2014 that it would be \"operating as a single brand\" under the ANAB label beginning in January 2015.&#91;5&#93;&#91;12&#93;\nIn December 2015, ANAB announced it had made another acquisition, this time agreeing to take on the Accreditation Services Bureau (A-S-B) d.b.a. Laboratory Accreditation Bureau (L-A-B) in order to expand its testing and calibration laboratory accreditation services. Despite its November 2014 announcement of brand integration, however, ANAB stated that it at least initially \"will maintain the L-A-B brand and L-A-B customers will continue to be accredited under the L-A-B symbol.\"&#91;4&#93;\nOn April 22, 2016, ANAB announced yet another acquisition, this time signing \"an affiliation agreement with The American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors\/Laboratory Accreditation Board (ASCLD\/LAB), merging ASCLD\/LAB into ANAB.\"&#91;13&#93; ANAB stated that with the merger ASCLD\/LAB employees would be kept, the ASCLD\/LAB brand would be maintained, and \"current ASCLD\/LAB customers will continue to be accredited under the ASCLD\/LAB accreditation symbol.\"&#91;13&#93;\n\nClarification of accreditation offerings \nPer ANAB's decision in 2014 to unify brands, the ACLASS testing and calibration lab accreditation programs and the FQS forensic accreditation lab\/crime unit programs were essentially moved under the ANAB accreditation program brand, beginning on January 1, 2015.&#91;5&#93;&#91;12&#93; For example, the former FQS ISO\/IEC 17020 program is now the ANAB ISO\/IEC 17020 Accreditation Program for Forensic Inspection Agencies&#91;14&#93;, and the FQS ISO\/IEC 17025 program is the ANAB ISO\/IEC 17025 Accreditation Program for Forensic Testing Laboratories.&#91;15&#93;\nThe exception to this appears to be the accreditation programs offered by L-A-B, acquired in December 2015. Covering areas of accreditation such as the energy, environmental, food and beverage, forensic science, and manufacturing industries, the L-A-B accreditation programs will remain under the L-A-B brand and symbol.&#91;4&#93;&#91;16&#93;\n\nAccreditation and compliance \nANAB offers tens of different accreditation programs for laboratories and testing centers, each with their own varying requirements.&#91;17&#93; Application review, on-site assessments, quality review, and, if necessary, corrective action resolutions are conducted before the final review and accreditation decision. The ANAB website does not make it clear, but the accreditation likely lasts for two years&#91;18&#93; as long as the lab remains compliant and maintains obligations such as notification of significant changes to primary policies, resources, organization, and legal ownership.\nAfter acceptance, ANAB will use the renewal assessment process to ensure a lab's compliance with the body's accreditation standards. In the unusual case of a laboratory failing to pay fees, provide audit and certification staticis, or comply with any of the body's other accreditation requirements, ANAB may choose to place the lab on suspension. Once on suspension, the affected lab must satisfy certain conditions before being able to again operate and eventually be reinstated, though the reinstatement process may vary slightly by infraction or accreditation program.&#91;19&#93; In extreme cases of non-compliance, ANAB can also choose to completely withdraw the lab's accreditation.&#91;20&#93;Template:Broken link\n\nExternal links \nANAB accreditation programs\nANAB training programs\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 \"ANAB ANSI National Accreditation Board\".&#32;ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board.&#32;https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/ .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ANAB Training Institute\".&#32;ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board.&#32;https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/training .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 3.0 3.1 ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board&#32;(29 November 2011).&#32;\"ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board Acquires FQS\".&#32;Quality Digest.&#32;https:\/\/www.qualitydigest.com\/inside\/quality-insider-news\/ansi-asq-national-accreditation-board-acquires-fqs-112911.html .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 4.0 4.1 4.2 ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board&#32;(28 December 2015).&#32;\"ANAB Acquires Laboratory Accreditation Bureau\".&#32;Thomas.&#32;https:\/\/news.thomasnet.com\/companystory\/anab-acquires-laboratory-accreditation-bureau-20052541\/ .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board&#32;(13 November 2014).&#32;\"ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board to Move to Single ANAB Brand\".&#32;ANSI.&#32;https:\/\/www.ansi.org\/news\/standards-news\/all-news\/2014\/12\/ansiasq-national-accreditation-board-to-move-to-single-anab-brand-15 .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 6.0 6.1 6.2 Breitenberg, Maureen&#32;(1993).&#32;Questions and Answers on Quality, the ISO 9000 Standard Series, Quality System Registration, and Related Issues.&#32;National Institute of Standards and Technology.&#32;ISBN&#160;9780788104091.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=gqUgJU9-Z-AC&amp;pg=PA14 .&#32;Retrieved 10 February 2016 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Stratton, John H.&#32;(1992).&#32;\"What is the Registrar Accreditation Board?\".&#32;Quality Progress&#32;25&#32;(1): 67\u201369.&#32;https:\/\/asq.org\/quality-progress\/articles\/what-is-the-registrar-accreditation-board?id=73d6c5ab25cc475e8fa6a8a83e3a1883 .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Lofgren, George; Fortlage, Pail; Stranak, Barbara et al.&#32;(1995).&#32;\"Registrar Accreditation Board: Working to serve U.S. business and industry\".&#32;Annual Quality Congress&#32;49: 425\u2013433.&#32;https:\/\/asq.org\/quality-resources\/articles\/registrar-accreditation-board-working-to-serve-us-business-and-industry?id=67ec804e077a43fd90dc3b2c8b27a16a .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 9.0 9.1 Charantimath, Poornima M..&#32;\"Chapter 18: Quality Audit\".&#32;Total Quality Management&#32;(2nd ed.).&#32;Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd.&#32;pp.&#160;546\u2013572.&#32;ISBN&#160;9788131732625.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=h7US1hlgV_IC&amp;pg=PA566 .&#32;Retrieved 10 February 2016 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"How and Why ANAB Came to Be\".&#32;ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board.&#32;25 March 2009.&#32;http:\/\/anab.org\/about-anab\/history\/ .&#32;Retrieved 10 February 2016 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Wang, Wego&#32;(2010).&#32;Reverse Engineering: Technology of Reinvention.&#32;Boca Raton, Florida:&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp.&#160;357.&#32;ISBN&#160;9781439806319.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=z3J8lrFKBJsC&amp;pg=PA15 .&#32;Retrieved 10 February 2016 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 12.0 12.1 ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board&#32;(13 January 2015).&#32;\"ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board Moves to the Single ANAB Brand\".&#32;Vimeo, LLC.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 06 February 2016.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160206225118\/https:\/\/vimeo.com\/116691772 .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 13.0 13.1 \"ANAB and ASCLD\/LAB Merge Forensics Operations\".&#32;American National Standards Institute.&#32;22 April 2016.&#32;https:\/\/www.ansi.org\/news\/standards-news\/all-news\/2016\/04\/anab-and-ascldlab-merge-forensics-operations-22 .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ISO\/IEC 17020 Inspection Body Accreditation: How It Works\".&#32;ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board.&#32;https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/inspection-body-accreditation .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ISO\/IEC 17025 Forensic Accreditation\".&#32;ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board.&#32;https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/en\/forensic-accreditation\/iso-iec-17025-forensic-labs .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"L-A-B Recognition\".&#32;Lab Accreditation Bureau.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 05 March 2016.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160305224323\/http:\/\/l-a-b.com\/about-lab\/lab-recognition\/ .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ANAB Home\".&#32;ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board.&#32;https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/ .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2016 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Frequently Asked Questions about the Contracting of On-site Assessments\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Florida Health.&#32;http:\/\/www.floridahealth.gov\/programs-and-services\/public-health-laboratories\/laboratory-services\/environmental-laboratory-certification\/env-lab-cert-faq.html .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Accreditation Rule 11\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board.&#32;1 January 2014.&#32;pp. 2.&#32;http:\/\/complaints.anab.org\/media\/45826\/ar11.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 15 February 2016 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Guidance on Use of the ACLASS and FQS Accreditation Symbol and ILAC Laboratory Combined MRA Mark\".&#32;ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board.&#32;1 August 2012.&#32;http:\/\/search.anab.org\/media\/2024\/aclass-fqs-guidance-symbol-mra-mark-usage.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 15 February 2016 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board<\/a>\nCategory: Accrediting organizationsNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 8 January 2022, at 00:13.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 14,066 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","da3478a32653a38e3e11b3f6d479cdb4_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board rootpage-ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>The <b>ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board<\/b> (<b>ANAB<\/b>) is an international non-profit, non-governmental, independent organization and accrediting body that provides accreditation and training services for numerous types of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33\">laboratories<\/a>. ANAB offers accreditation programs and training courses for the communications, energy, environmental, food and beverage, forensic, and manufacturing industries.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ANABAccredProgs_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ANABAccredProgs-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ANABTrainProgs_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ANABTrainProgs-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Over the years, the organization has also acquired other accrediting organizations such as Forensic Quality Services, Inc. (FQS) and Laboratory Accreditation Bureau (L-A-B), adding their accreditation programs to ANAB's offerings.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FQSAcq_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FQSAcq-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LABAcq_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LABAcq-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>ANAB's predecessor was the Registrar Accreditation Board (RAB), founded on November 13, 1989<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ANABSingle14_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ANABSingle14-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup> as an affiliate of the American Society for Quality Control (ASQC; later just the ASQ) \"to develop a program to evaluate the quality of services offered by [quality system] registrars.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BreitenbergQuest93_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BreitenbergQuest93-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-StrattonWhat92_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-StrattonWhat92-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Teaming up with the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/American_National_Standards_Institute\" title=\"American National Standards Institute\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9a3da6ae9a20adfa068187109b058ff4\">American National Standards Institute<\/a> (ANSI), RAB began development of the American National Accreditation Program for Registrars of Quality Systems sometime between 1990 and December 1991.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LofgrenReg95_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LofgrenReg95-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BreitenbergQuest93_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BreitenbergQuest93-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup> RAB would eventually get certified by the NQA (National Quality Assurance) and begin offering an <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_9000\" title=\"ISO 9000\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53ace2d12e80a7d890ce881bc6fe244a\">ISO 9000<\/a> auditor certification program in 1992.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BreitenbergQuest93_6-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BreitenbergQuest93-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CharantimathTotal11_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CharantimathTotal11-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>Needs changed, however, and RAB was replaced by the ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board on January 1, 2005. As a partnership between ANSI and the ASQ, the restructuring was done for several reasons: \"to comply with a new international requirement that a national accreditation body be a legal entity,\" and to split off auditor certification and training activities from its original management systems accreditation services.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ANABSingle14_5-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ANABSingle14-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CharantimathTotal11_9-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CharantimathTotal11-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The organization would later add accreditation services for testing and calibration labs, judged to be missing component by the company, through the acquisition of Assured Calibration and Laboratory Accreditation Select Services (ACLASS) in October 2007.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ANABHist_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ANABHist-10\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WangRev10_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WangRev10-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup> ANAB expanded their laboratory accreditation services further with the acquisition of Forensic Quality Services, Inc. (FQS) in November 2011, expanding into realm of forensic testing and inspection.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FQSAcq_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FQSAcq-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ANABSingle14_5-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ANABSingle14-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup> However, with all these offerings, the company realized \"the use of three different brands has caused confusion in the marketplace.\" ANAB announced in November 2014 that it would be \"operating as a single brand\" under the ANAB label beginning in January 2015.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ANABSingle14_5-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ANABSingle14-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ANABSingle2Vid_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ANABSingle2Vid-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In December 2015, ANAB announced it had made another acquisition, this time agreeing to take on the Accreditation Services Bureau (A-S-B) d.b.a. Laboratory Accreditation Bureau (L-A-B) in order to expand its testing and calibration laboratory accreditation services. Despite its November 2014 announcement of brand integration, however, ANAB stated that it at least initially \"will maintain the L-A-B brand and L-A-B customers will continue to be accredited under the L-A-B symbol.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LABAcq_4-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LABAcq-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>On April 22, 2016, ANAB announced yet another acquisition, this time signing \"an affiliation agreement with <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/The_American_Society_of_Crime_Laboratory_Directors\/Laboratory_Accreditation_Board\" title=\"The American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors\/Laboratory Accreditation Board\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f364a7d9dca831de0caaaba41cf0b7ea\">The American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors\/Laboratory Accreditation Board<\/a> (ASCLD\/LAB), merging ASCLD\/LAB into ANAB.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ANSIANAB16_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ANSIANAB16-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup> ANAB stated that with the merger ASCLD\/LAB employees would be kept, the ASCLD\/LAB brand would be maintained, and \"current ASCLD\/LAB customers will continue to be accredited under the ASCLD\/LAB accreditation symbol.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ANSIANAB16_13-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ANSIANAB16-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Clarification_of_accreditation_offerings\">Clarification of accreditation offerings<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Per ANAB's decision in 2014 to unify brands, the ACLASS testing and calibration lab accreditation programs and the FQS forensic accreditation lab\/crime unit programs were essentially moved under the ANAB accreditation program brand, beginning on January 1, 2015.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ANABSingle14_5-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ANABSingle14-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ANABSingle2Vid_12-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ANABSingle2Vid-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup> For example, the former FQS ISO\/IEC 17020 program is now the ANAB ISO\/IEC 17020 Accreditation Program for Forensic Inspection Agencies<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ANAB17020Forensics_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ANAB17020Forensics-14\">&#91;14&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, and the FQS <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_17025\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 17025\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a89cebb34370dd860cce86881cbf29c\">ISO\/IEC 17025<\/a> program is the ANAB ISO\/IEC 17025 Accreditation Program for Forensic Testing Laboratories.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ANAB17025Forensics_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ANAB17025Forensics-15\">&#91;15&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The exception to this appears to be the accreditation programs offered by L-A-B, acquired in December 2015. Covering areas of accreditation such as the energy, environmental, food and beverage, forensic science, and manufacturing industries, the L-A-B accreditation programs will remain under the L-A-B brand and symbol.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LABAcq_4-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LABAcq-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LABRecog_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LABRecog-16\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Accreditation_and_compliance\">Accreditation and compliance<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>ANAB offers tens of different accreditation programs for laboratories and testing centers, each with their own varying requirements.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ANABAccredProgsGen_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ANABAccredProgsGen-17\">&#91;17&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Application review, on-site assessments, quality review, and, if necessary, corrective action resolutions are conducted before the final review and accreditation decision. The ANAB website does not make it clear, but the accreditation likely lasts for two years<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ANABOnsite_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ANABOnsite-18\">&#91;18&#93;<\/a><\/sup> as long as the lab remains compliant and maintains obligations such as notification of significant changes to primary policies, resources, organization, and legal ownership.\n<\/p><p>After acceptance, ANAB will use the renewal assessment process to ensure a lab's compliance with the body's accreditation standards. In the unusual case of a laboratory failing to pay fees, provide audit and certification staticis, or comply with any of the body's other accreditation requirements, ANAB may choose to place the lab on suspension. Once on suspension, the affected lab must satisfy certain conditions before being able to again operate and eventually be reinstated, though the reinstatement process may vary slightly by infraction or accreditation program.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ANABRule11_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ANABRule11-19\">&#91;19&#93;<\/a><\/sup> In extreme cases of non-compliance, ANAB can also choose to completely withdraw the lab's accreditation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ANABSymbol_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ANABSymbol-20\">&#91;20&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">ANAB accreditation programs<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/training\" target=\"_blank\">ANAB training programs<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-ANABAccredProgs-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ANABAccredProgs_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"ANAB ANSI National Accreditation Board\"<\/a>.&#32;ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ANAB+ANSI+National+Accreditation+Board&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=ANSI-ASQ+National+Accreditation+Board&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fanab.ansi.org%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ANABTrainProgs-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ANABTrainProgs_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/training\" target=\"_blank\">\"ANAB Training Institute\"<\/a>.&#32;ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/training\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/training<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ANAB+Training+Institute&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=ANSI-ASQ+National+Accreditation+Board&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fanab.ansi.org%2Ftraining&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FQSAcq-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-FQSAcq_3-0\">3.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-FQSAcq_3-1\">3.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board&#32;(29 November 2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.qualitydigest.com\/inside\/quality-insider-news\/ansi-asq-national-accreditation-board-acquires-fqs-112911.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board Acquires FQS\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Quality Digest<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.qualitydigest.com\/inside\/quality-insider-news\/ansi-asq-national-accreditation-board-acquires-fqs-112911.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.qualitydigest.com\/inside\/quality-insider-news\/ansi-asq-national-accreditation-board-acquires-fqs-112911.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ANSI-ASQ+National+Accreditation+Board+Acquires+FQS&amp;rft.atitle=Quality+Digest&amp;rft.aulast=ANSI-ASQ+National+Accreditation+Board&amp;rft.au=ANSI-ASQ+National+Accreditation+Board&amp;rft.date=29+November+2011&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.qualitydigest.com%2Finside%2Fquality-insider-news%2Fansi-asq-national-accreditation-board-acquires-fqs-112911.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LABAcq-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LABAcq_4-0\">4.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LABAcq_4-1\">4.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LABAcq_4-2\">4.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board&#32;(28 December 2015).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/news.thomasnet.com\/companystory\/anab-acquires-laboratory-accreditation-bureau-20052541\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"ANAB Acquires Laboratory Accreditation Bureau\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Thomas<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/news.thomasnet.com\/companystory\/anab-acquires-laboratory-accreditation-bureau-20052541\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/news.thomasnet.com\/companystory\/anab-acquires-laboratory-accreditation-bureau-20052541\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ANAB+Acquires+Laboratory+Accreditation+Bureau&amp;rft.atitle=Thomas&amp;rft.aulast=ANSI-ASQ+National+Accreditation+Board&amp;rft.au=ANSI-ASQ+National+Accreditation+Board&amp;rft.date=28+December+2015&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.thomasnet.com%2Fcompanystory%2Fanab-acquires-laboratory-accreditation-bureau-20052541%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ANABSingle14-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ANABSingle14_5-0\">5.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ANABSingle14_5-1\">5.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ANABSingle14_5-2\">5.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ANABSingle14_5-3\">5.3<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ANABSingle14_5-4\">5.4<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board&#32;(13 November 2014).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ansi.org\/news\/standards-news\/all-news\/2014\/12\/ansiasq-national-accreditation-board-to-move-to-single-anab-brand-15\" target=\"_blank\">\"ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board to Move to Single ANAB Brand\"<\/a>.&#32;ANSI<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ansi.org\/news\/standards-news\/all-news\/2014\/12\/ansiasq-national-accreditation-board-to-move-to-single-anab-brand-15\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.ansi.org\/news\/standards-news\/all-news\/2014\/12\/ansiasq-national-accreditation-board-to-move-to-single-anab-brand-15<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ANSI-ASQ+National+Accreditation+Board+to+Move+to+Single+ANAB+Brand&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=ANSI-ASQ+National+Accreditation+Board&amp;rft.au=ANSI-ASQ+National+Accreditation+Board&amp;rft.date=13+November+2014&amp;rft.pub=ANSI&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ansi.org%2Fnews%2Fstandards-news%2Fall-news%2F2014%2F12%2Fansiasq-national-accreditation-board-to-move-to-single-anab-brand-15&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BreitenbergQuest93-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-BreitenbergQuest93_6-0\">6.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-BreitenbergQuest93_6-1\">6.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-BreitenbergQuest93_6-2\">6.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Breitenberg, Maureen&#32;(1993).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=gqUgJU9-Z-AC&pg=PA14\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Questions and Answers on Quality, the ISO 9000 Standard Series, Quality System Registration, and Related Issues<\/i><\/a>.&#32;National Institute of Standards and Technology.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9780788104091<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=gqUgJU9-Z-AC&pg=PA14\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=gqUgJU9-Z-AC&amp;pg=PA14<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 10 February 2016<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Questions+and+Answers+on+Quality%2C+the+ISO+9000+Standard+Series%2C+Quality+System+Registration%2C+and+Related+Issues&amp;rft.aulast=Breitenberg%2C+Maureen&amp;rft.au=Breitenberg%2C+Maureen&amp;rft.date=1993&amp;rft.pub=National+Institute+of+Standards+and+Technology&amp;rft.isbn=9780788104091&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgqUgJU9-Z-AC%26pg%3DPA14&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-StrattonWhat92-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-StrattonWhat92_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Stratton, John H.&#32;(1992).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/asq.org\/quality-progress\/articles\/what-is-the-registrar-accreditation-board?id=73d6c5ab25cc475e8fa6a8a83e3a1883\" target=\"_blank\">\"What is the Registrar Accreditation Board?\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Quality Progress<\/i>&#32;<b>25<\/b>&#32;(1): 67\u201369<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/asq.org\/quality-progress\/articles\/what-is-the-registrar-accreditation-board?id=73d6c5ab25cc475e8fa6a8a83e3a1883\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/asq.org\/quality-progress\/articles\/what-is-the-registrar-accreditation-board?id=73d6c5ab25cc475e8fa6a8a83e3a1883<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=What+is+the+Registrar+Accreditation+Board%3F&amp;rft.jtitle=Quality+Progress&amp;rft.aulast=Stratton%2C+John+H.&amp;rft.au=Stratton%2C+John+H.&amp;rft.date=1992&amp;rft.volume=25&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=67%E2%80%9369&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fasq.org%2Fquality-progress%2Farticles%2Fwhat-is-the-registrar-accreditation-board%3Fid%3D73d6c5ab25cc475e8fa6a8a83e3a1883&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LofgrenReg95-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LofgrenReg95_8-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Lofgren, George; Fortlage, Pail; Stranak, Barbara et al.&#32;(1995).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/asq.org\/quality-resources\/articles\/registrar-accreditation-board-working-to-serve-us-business-and-industry?id=67ec804e077a43fd90dc3b2c8b27a16a\" target=\"_blank\">\"Registrar Accreditation Board: Working to serve U.S. business and industry\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Annual Quality Congress<\/i>&#32;<b>49<\/b>: 425\u2013433<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/asq.org\/quality-resources\/articles\/registrar-accreditation-board-working-to-serve-us-business-and-industry?id=67ec804e077a43fd90dc3b2c8b27a16a\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/asq.org\/quality-resources\/articles\/registrar-accreditation-board-working-to-serve-us-business-and-industry?id=67ec804e077a43fd90dc3b2c8b27a16a<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Registrar+Accreditation+Board%3A+Working+to+serve+U.S.+business+and+industry&amp;rft.jtitle=Annual+Quality+Congress&amp;rft.aulast=Lofgren%2C+George%3B+Fortlage%2C+Pail%3B+Stranak%2C+Barbara+et+al.&amp;rft.au=Lofgren%2C+George%3B+Fortlage%2C+Pail%3B+Stranak%2C+Barbara+et+al.&amp;rft.date=1995&amp;rft.volume=49&amp;rft.pages=425%E2%80%93433&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fasq.org%2Fquality-resources%2Farticles%2Fregistrar-accreditation-board-working-to-serve-us-business-and-industry%3Fid%3D67ec804e077a43fd90dc3b2c8b27a16a&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CharantimathTotal11-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CharantimathTotal11_9-0\">9.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CharantimathTotal11_9-1\">9.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Charantimath, Poornima M..&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=h7US1hlgV_IC&pg=PA566\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 18: Quality Audit\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Total Quality Management<\/i>&#32;(2nd ed.).&#32;Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd.&#32;pp.&#160;546\u2013572.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9788131732625<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=h7US1hlgV_IC&pg=PA566\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=h7US1hlgV_IC&amp;pg=PA566<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 10 February 2016<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+18%3A+Quality+Audit&amp;rft.atitle=Total+Quality+Management&amp;rft.aulast=Charantimath%2C+Poornima+M.&amp;rft.au=Charantimath%2C+Poornima+M.&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B546%E2%80%93572&amp;rft.edition=2nd&amp;rft.pub=Dorling+Kindersley+%28India%29+Pvt.+Ltd&amp;rft.isbn=9788131732625&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dh7US1hlgV_IC%26pg%3DPA566&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ANABHist-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ANABHist_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/anab.org\/about-anab\/history\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"How and Why ANAB Came to Be\"<\/a>.&#32;ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board.&#32;25 March 2009<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/anab.org\/about-anab\/history\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/anab.org\/about-anab\/history\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 10 February 2016<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=How+and+Why+ANAB+Came+to+Be&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=25+March+2009&amp;rft.pub=ANSI-ASQ+National+Accreditation+Board&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fanab.org%2Fabout-anab%2Fhistory%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WangRev10-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-WangRev10_11-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Wang, Wego&#32;(2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=z3J8lrFKBJsC&pg=PA15\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Reverse Engineering: Technology of Reinvention<\/i><\/a>.&#32;Boca Raton, Florida:&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp.&#160;357.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781439806319<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=z3J8lrFKBJsC&pg=PA15\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=z3J8lrFKBJsC&amp;pg=PA15<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 10 February 2016<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Reverse+Engineering%3A+Technology+of+Reinvention&amp;rft.aulast=Wang%2C+Wego&amp;rft.au=Wang%2C+Wego&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B357&amp;rft.place=Boca+Raton%2C+Florida&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.isbn=9781439806319&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz3J8lrFKBJsC%26pg%3DPA15&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ANABSingle2Vid-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ANABSingle2Vid_12-0\">12.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ANABSingle2Vid_12-1\">12.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board&#32;(13 January 2015).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160206225118\/https:\/\/vimeo.com\/116691772\" target=\"_blank\">\"ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board Moves to the Single ANAB Brand\"<\/a>.&#32;Vimeo, LLC.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/vimeo.com\/116691772\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 06 February 2016<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160206225118\/https:\/\/vimeo.com\/116691772\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160206225118\/https:\/\/vimeo.com\/116691772<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ANSI-ASQ+National+Accreditation+Board+Moves+to+the+Single+ANAB+Brand&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=ANSI-ASQ+National+Accreditation+Board&amp;rft.au=ANSI-ASQ+National+Accreditation+Board&amp;rft.date=13+January+2015&amp;rft.pub=Vimeo%2C+LLC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20160206225118%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fvimeo.com%2F116691772&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ANSIANAB16-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ANSIANAB16_13-0\">13.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ANSIANAB16_13-1\">13.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ansi.org\/news\/standards-news\/all-news\/2016\/04\/anab-and-ascldlab-merge-forensics-operations-22\" target=\"_blank\">\"ANAB and ASCLD\/LAB Merge Forensics Operations\"<\/a>.&#32;American National Standards Institute.&#32;22 April 2016<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ansi.org\/news\/standards-news\/all-news\/2016\/04\/anab-and-ascldlab-merge-forensics-operations-22\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.ansi.org\/news\/standards-news\/all-news\/2016\/04\/anab-and-ascldlab-merge-forensics-operations-22<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ANAB+and+ASCLD%2FLAB+Merge+Forensics+Operations&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=22+April+2016&amp;rft.pub=American+National+Standards+Institute&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ansi.org%2Fnews%2Fstandards-news%2Fall-news%2F2016%2F04%2Fanab-and-ascldlab-merge-forensics-operations-22&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ANAB17020Forensics-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ANAB17020Forensics_14-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/inspection-body-accreditation\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO\/IEC 17020 Inspection Body Accreditation: How It Works\"<\/a>.&#32;ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/inspection-body-accreditation\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/inspection-body-accreditation<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO%2FIEC+17020+Inspection+Body+Accreditation%3A+How+It+Works&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=ANSI-ASQ+National+Accreditation+Board&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fanab.ansi.org%2Finspection-body-accreditation&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ANAB17025Forensics-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ANAB17025Forensics_15-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/en\/forensic-accreditation\/iso-iec-17025-forensic-labs\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO\/IEC 17025 Forensic Accreditation\"<\/a>.&#32;ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/en\/forensic-accreditation\/iso-iec-17025-forensic-labs\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/en\/forensic-accreditation\/iso-iec-17025-forensic-labs<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO%2FIEC+17025+Forensic+Accreditation&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=ANSI-ASQ+National+Accreditation+Board&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fanab.ansi.org%2Fen%2Fforensic-accreditation%2Fiso-iec-17025-forensic-labs&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LABRecog-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LABRecog_16-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160305224323\/http:\/\/l-a-b.com\/about-lab\/lab-recognition\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"L-A-B Recognition\"<\/a>.&#32;Lab Accreditation Bureau.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/l-a-b.com\/about-lab\/lab-recognition\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 05 March 2016<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160305224323\/http:\/\/l-a-b.com\/about-lab\/lab-recognition\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160305224323\/http:\/\/l-a-b.com\/about-lab\/lab-recognition\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=L-A-B+Recognition&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Lab+Accreditation+Bureau&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20160305224323%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fl-a-b.com%2Fabout-lab%2Flab-recognition%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ANABAccredProgsGen-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ANABAccredProgsGen_17-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"ANAB Home\"<\/a>.&#32;ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2016<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ANAB+Home&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=ANSI-ASQ+National+Accreditation+Board&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fanab.ansi.org%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ANABOnsite-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ANABOnsite_18-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.floridahealth.gov\/programs-and-services\/public-health-laboratories\/laboratory-services\/environmental-laboratory-certification\/env-lab-cert-faq.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Frequently Asked Questions about the Contracting of On-site Assessments\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Florida Health<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.floridahealth.gov\/programs-and-services\/public-health-laboratories\/laboratory-services\/environmental-laboratory-certification\/env-lab-cert-faq.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.floridahealth.gov\/programs-and-services\/public-health-laboratories\/laboratory-services\/environmental-laboratory-certification\/env-lab-cert-faq.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Frequently+Asked+Questions+about+the+Contracting+of+On-site+Assessments&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Florida+Health&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.floridahealth.gov%2Fprograms-and-services%2Fpublic-health-laboratories%2Flaboratory-services%2Fenvironmental-laboratory-certification%2Fenv-lab-cert-faq.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ANABRule11-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ANABRule11_19-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/complaints.anab.org\/media\/45826\/ar11.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Accreditation Rule 11\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board.&#32;1 January 2014.&#32;pp. 2<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/complaints.anab.org\/media\/45826\/ar11.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/complaints.anab.org\/media\/45826\/ar11.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 February 2016<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Accreditation+Rule+11&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=1+January+2014&amp;rft.pages=pp.+2&amp;rft.pub=ANSI-ASQ+National+Accreditation+Board&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcomplaints.anab.org%2Fmedia%2F45826%2Far11.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ANABSymbol-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ANABSymbol_20-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/search.anab.org\/media\/2024\/aclass-fqs-guidance-symbol-mra-mark-usage.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Guidance on Use of the ACLASS and FQS Accreditation Symbol and ILAC Laboratory Combined MRA Mark\"<\/a>.&#32;ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board.&#32;1 August 2012<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/search.anab.org\/media\/2024\/aclass-fqs-guidance-symbol-mra-mark-usage.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/search.anab.org\/media\/2024\/aclass-fqs-guidance-symbol-mra-mark-usage.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 February 2016<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Guidance+on+Use+of+the+ACLASS+and+FQS+Accreditation+Symbol+and+ILAC+Laboratory+Combined+MRA+Mark&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=1+August+2012&amp;rft.pub=ANSI-ASQ+National+Accreditation+Board&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsearch.anab.org%2Fmedia%2F2024%2Faclass-fqs-guidance-symbol-mra-mark-usage.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171705\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.279 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.320 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 13200\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 88700\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 35185\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 18\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 32483\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 273.307 1 -total\n 99.19% 271.097 1 Template:Reflist\n 71.64% 195.788 20 Template:Citation\/core\n 54.18% 148.091 15 Template:Cite_web\n 20.73% 56.666 3 Template:Cite_book\n 9.84% 26.902 8 Template:Date\n 9.79% 26.748 2 Template:Cite_journal\n 7.10% 19.397 3 Template:Citation\/identifier\n 5.09% 13.917 25 Template:Citation\/make_link\n 1.89% 5.161 6 Template:Hide_in_print\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:7953-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171704 and revision id 45458. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","da3478a32653a38e3e11b3f6d479cdb4_images":[],"da3478a32653a38e3e11b3f6d479cdb4_timestamp":1704907024,"f6e16cb8df3738dee667b175cc486cef_type":"article","f6e16cb8df3738dee667b175cc486cef_title":"40 CFR Part 3","f6e16cb8df3738dee667b175cc486cef_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/40_CFR_Part_3","f6e16cb8df3738dee667b175cc486cef_plaintext":"\n\n40 CFR Part 3From LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchThe Title 40 Code of Federal Regulations Part 3 (40 CFR Part 3) \u2014 sometimes referred to as the Cross-Media Electronic Reporting Rule (CROMERR) \u2014 provides for electronic reporting (in lieu of a paper document) to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Within this part, requirements are created to ensure that electronic reporting to the EPA is enacted in a satisfactory way to satisfy federal or authorized program reporting requirements, including those requiring an electronic signature.&#91;1&#93;\n\nContents \n\n1 History \n2 Structure \n\n2.1 Subpart A \n2.2 Subpart B \n2.3 Subpart C \n2.4 Subpart D \n\n\n3 Central Data Exchange \n4 Further reading \n5 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nOn August 31, 2001, the EPA \"published a notice of proposed rulemaking, announcing the goal of making electronic reporting and electronic recordkeeping available under EPA regulatory programs.\"&#91;2&#93; However, the EPA had been working on plans related to such a proposal (referred to as Cross-Media Electronic Reporting) well before, stating in its review of its final rule that the process actually \"reflects more than ten years of interaction with stakeholders,\" including \"electronic reporting pilot projects conducted with state agency partners, including the States of Pennsylvania, New York, Arizona, and several others.\"&#91;2&#93; This also involved collaboration with more than half of U.S. states in May 1997 on the State Electronic Commerce\/Electronic Data Interchange Steering Committee (SEES) and a series of conferences starting in 1999 to acquire stakeholders' thoughts. Public commenting closed on February 27, 2002, with the EPA receiving 184 collection of written comments. The EPA made additional adjustments to the proposal, which culminated in a final version of CROMERR that was codified into Title 40 as Part 3 on October 13, 2005 and made effective January 11, 2006.&#91;2&#93;\nOn December 24, 2008, minor adjustments were made to CROMERR that extended compliance dates for existing systems making the transition to electronic filing to the EPA.&#91;3&#93;\n\nStructure \nThe structure of Part 3 is as follows:\nSubpart A \u2014 General Provisions\n\n\u00a7 3.1 Who does this part apply to?\n\u00a7 3.2 How does this part provide for electronic reporting?\n\u00a7 3.3 What definitions are applicable to this part?\n\u00a7 3.4 How does this part affect enforcement and compliance provisions of Title 40?\nSubpart B \u2014 Electronic Reporting to EPA\n\n\u00a7 3.10 What are the requirements for electronic reporting to EPA?\n\u00a7 3.20 How will EPA provide notice of changes to the Central Data Exchange?\nSubpart C \u2014 [Reserved]\nSubpart D \u2014 Electronic Reporting Under EPA-Authorized State, Tribe, and Local Programs\n\n\u00a7 3.1000 How does a state, tribe, or local government revise or modify its authorized program to allow electronic reporting?\n\u00a7 3.2000 What are the requirements authorized state, tribe, and local programs' reporting systems must meet?\nAppendix 1 to Part 3 Priority Reports\nSubpart A \nThis is essentially the preamble of the regulations, explaining to what and who the regulations apply as well as how they'll apply. Definitions of common terms appearing in the regulations can also be found here, including a description of electronic signature devices.\n\nSubpart B \nThis section covers the requirements applicable to electronic record formats and their submission to the EPA's Central Data Exchange (CDX) or other related EPA systems. It also provides guidelines on how the EPA will notify CDX users of hardware and software changes that affect transmission.\n\nSubpart C \nSubpart C is blank, \"reserved for future EPA electronic recordkeeping requirements.\"&#91;2&#93;\n\nSubpart D \nThis final section provides in-depth requirements for revising state, local, and tribal government programs for electronic submissions as well as outlining the reporting system requirements. In particular it lays out a list of requirements for data generated from electronic document receiving systems, including security, audit trail, quality control, and electronic signatures.\n\nCentral Data Exchange \nThe EPA's Central Data Exchange (CDX) is used by EPA offices, local and state governments, private industries, and Indian tribes required to submit environmental data related to more than 60 programs in the United States, including the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program, the RadNet program, and the Verify engine and vehicle compliance program.&#91;4&#93;&#91;5&#93; The EPA touts CDX as an important component of operations as well as meeting 40 CFR Part 3 compliance, claiming reductions in reporting burdens, cost, and data transfer times as well as increases in data quality and compliance.&#91;6&#93;\nAs of mid-February 2015, the CDX had more than 296,000 registered users submitting data to 63 data feeds, with 10 additional data flows in development.&#91;7&#93;\n\nFurther reading \nEPA CROMERR portal\nCROMERR Fact Sheet (PDF)\n\"Cross-Media Electronic Reporting\".&#32;Federal Register.&#32;OFR\/GPO.&#32;13 October 2005.&#32;https:\/\/www.federalregister.gov\/documents\/2005\/10\/13\/05-19601\/cross-media-electronic-reporting . &#160; \n\"CROMERR 101: Fundamentals for States, Tribes, and Local Governments\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.&#32;https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/sites\/production\/files\/2015-08\/documents\/cromerr_101_course_summary.pdf . &#160; \nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 \"Electronic Code of Federal Regulations - Title 40: Protection of Environment - Part 3: Cross-media Electronic Reporting\".&#32;U.S. Government Printing Office.&#32;13 April 2020.&#32;https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-40\/part-3 .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 \"Cross-Media Electronic Reporting\".&#32;Federal Register.&#32;OFR\/GPO.&#32;13 October 2005.&#32;https:\/\/www.federalregister.gov\/documents\/2005\/10\/13\/05-19601\/cross-media-electronic-reporting .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"CROMERR 101: Fundamentals for States, Tribes, and Local Governments\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.&#32;August 2015.&#32;https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/2015-08\/documents\/cromerr_101_course_summary.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"About CDX\".&#32;U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.&#32;https:\/\/cdx.epa.gov\/About\/AboutRegulation .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Production Data Flows\".&#32;U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 17 October 2014.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141017114023\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/projects\/production.htm .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"CDX Benefits\".&#32;U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 21 February 2015.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150221135646\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/benefits\/index.htm .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Central Data Exchange\".&#32;U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 09 February 2015.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150209185915\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/ .&#32;Retrieved 09 February 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/40_CFR_Part_3\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/40_CFR_Part_3<\/a>\nCategory: Regulatory informationNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 19 January 2022, at 20:45.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 12,512 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","f6e16cb8df3738dee667b175cc486cef_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-40_CFR_Part_3 rootpage-40_CFR_Part_3 skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">40 CFR Part 3<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>The <b>Title 40 Code of Federal Regulations Part 3<\/b> (<b>40 CFR Part 3<\/b>) \u2014 sometimes referred to as the Cross-Media Electronic Reporting Rule (CROMERR) \u2014 provides for electronic reporting (in lieu of a paper document) to the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency\" title=\"United States Environmental Protection Agency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"877b052e12328aa52f6f7c3f2d56f99a\">U.S. Environmental Protection Agency<\/a> (EPA). Within this part, requirements are created to ensure that electronic reporting to the EPA is enacted in a satisfactory way to satisfy federal or authorized program reporting requirements, including those requiring an electronic signature.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>On August 31, 2001, the EPA \"published a notice of proposed rulemaking, announcing the goal of making electronic reporting and electronic recordkeeping available under EPA regulatory programs.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-70FR59848_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-70FR59848-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> However, the EPA had been working on plans related to such a proposal (referred to as Cross-Media Electronic Reporting) well before, stating in its review of its final rule that the process actually \"reflects more than ten years of interaction with stakeholders,\" including \"electronic reporting pilot projects conducted with state agency partners, including the States of Pennsylvania, New York, Arizona, and several others.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-70FR59848_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-70FR59848-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> This also involved collaboration with more than half of U.S. states in May 1997 on the State Electronic Commerce\/Electronic Data Interchange Steering Committee (SEES) and a series of conferences starting in 1999 to acquire stakeholders' thoughts. Public commenting closed on February 27, 2002, with the EPA receiving 184 collection of written comments. The EPA made additional adjustments to the proposal, which culminated in a final version of CROMERR that was codified into Title 40 as Part 3 on October 13, 2005 and made effective January 11, 2006.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-70FR59848_2-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-70FR59848-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>On December 24, 2008, minor adjustments were made to CROMERR that extended compliance dates for existing systems making the transition to electronic filing to the EPA.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CROMERRTrain_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CROMERRTrain-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Structure\">Structure<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The structure of Part 3 is as follows:\n<\/p><p><b>Subpart A \u2014 General Provisions<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>\u00a7 3.1 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-40\/part-3\" target=\"_blank\">Who does this part apply to?<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 3.2 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-40\/part-3\" target=\"_blank\">How does this part provide for electronic reporting?<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 3.3 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-40\/part-3\" target=\"_blank\">What definitions are applicable to this part?<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 3.4 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-40\/part-3\" target=\"_blank\">How does this part affect enforcement and compliance provisions of Title 40?<\/a><\/dd><\/dl>\n<p><b>Subpart B \u2014 Electronic Reporting to EPA<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>\u00a7 3.10 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-40\/part-3\" target=\"_blank\">What are the requirements for electronic reporting to EPA?<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 3.20 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-40\/part-3\" target=\"_blank\">How will EPA provide notice of changes to the Central Data Exchange?<\/a><\/dd><\/dl>\n<p><b>Subpart C \u2014 [Reserved]<\/b>\n<\/p><p><b>Subpart D \u2014 Electronic Reporting Under EPA-Authorized State, Tribe, and Local Programs<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>\u00a7 3.1000 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-40\/part-3\" target=\"_blank\">How does a state, tribe, or local government revise or modify its authorized program to allow electronic reporting?<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 3.2000 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-40\/part-3\" target=\"_blank\">What are the requirements authorized state, tribe, and local programs' reporting systems must meet?<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>Appendix 1 to Part 3 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-40\/part-3\" target=\"_blank\">Priority Reports<\/a><\/dd><\/dl>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Subpart_A\">Subpart A<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This is essentially the preamble of the regulations, explaining to what and who the regulations apply as well as how they'll apply. Definitions of common terms appearing in the regulations can also be found here, including a description of electronic signature devices.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Subpart_B\">Subpart B<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This section covers the requirements applicable to electronic record formats and their submission to the EPA's Central Data Exchange (CDX) or other related EPA systems. It also provides guidelines on how the EPA will notify CDX users of hardware and software changes that affect transmission.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Subpart_C\">Subpart C<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Subpart C is blank, \"reserved for future EPA electronic recordkeeping requirements.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-70FR59848_2-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-70FR59848-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Subpart_D\">Subpart D<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This final section provides in-depth requirements for revising state, local, and tribal government programs for electronic submissions as well as outlining the reporting system requirements. In particular it lays out a list of requirements for data generated from electronic document receiving systems, including security, audit trail, quality control, and electronic signatures.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Central_Data_Exchange\">Central Data Exchange<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The EPA's Central Data Exchange (CDX) is used by EPA offices, local and state governments, private industries, and Indian tribes required to submit environmental data related to more than 60 programs in the United States, including the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program, the RadNet program, and the Verify engine and vehicle compliance program.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CDXAbout_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CDXAbout-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CDXProd_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CDXProd-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The EPA touts CDX as an important component of operations as well as meeting 40 CFR Part 3 compliance, claiming reductions in reporting burdens, cost, and data transfer times as well as increases in data quality and compliance.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CDXBenis_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CDXBenis-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>As of mid-February 2015, the CDX had more than 296,000 registered users submitting data to 63 data feeds, with 10 additional data flows in development.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CDXArchFeb15_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CDXArchFeb15-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cromerr\" target=\"_blank\">EPA CROMERR portal<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/nepis.epa.gov\/Exe\/ZyPURL.cgi?Dockey=P10072YW.TXT\" target=\"_blank\">CROMERR Fact Sheet<\/a> (PDF)<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.federalregister.gov\/documents\/2005\/10\/13\/05-19601\/cross-media-electronic-reporting\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cross-Media Electronic Reporting\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Federal Register<\/i>.&#32;OFR\/GPO.&#32;13 October 2005<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.federalregister.gov\/documents\/2005\/10\/13\/05-19601\/cross-media-electronic-reporting\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.federalregister.gov\/documents\/2005\/10\/13\/05-19601\/cross-media-electronic-reporting<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Cross-Media+Electronic+Reporting&amp;rft.atitle=Federal+Register&amp;rft.date=13+October+2005&amp;rft.pub=OFR%2FGPO&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.federalregister.gov%2Fdocuments%2F2005%2F10%2F13%2F05-19601%2Fcross-media-electronic-reporting&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:40_CFR_Part_3\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/sites\/production\/files\/2015-08\/documents\/cromerr_101_course_summary.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"CROMERR 101: Fundamentals for States, Tribes, and Local Governments\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;U.S. Environmental Protection Agency<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/sites\/production\/files\/2015-08\/documents\/cromerr_101_course_summary.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/sites\/production\/files\/2015-08\/documents\/cromerr_101_course_summary.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=CROMERR+101%3A+Fundamentals+for+States%2C+Tribes%2C+and+Local+Governments&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Environmental+Protection+Agency&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fsites%2Fproduction%2Ffiles%2F2015-08%2Fdocuments%2Fcromerr_101_course_summary.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:40_CFR_Part_3\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-40\/part-3\" target=\"_blank\">\"Electronic Code of Federal Regulations - Title 40: Protection of Environment - Part 3: Cross-media Electronic Reporting\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Government Printing Office.&#32;13 April 2020<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-40\/part-3\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-40\/part-3<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Electronic+Code+of+Federal+Regulations+-+Title+40%3A+Protection+of+Environment+-+Part+3%3A+Cross-media+Electronic+Reporting&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=13+April+2020&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Government+Printing+Office&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ecfr.gov%2Fcurrent%2Ftitle-40%2Fpart-3&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:40_CFR_Part_3\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-70FR59848-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-70FR59848_2-0\">2.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-70FR59848_2-1\">2.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-70FR59848_2-2\">2.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-70FR59848_2-3\">2.3<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.federalregister.gov\/documents\/2005\/10\/13\/05-19601\/cross-media-electronic-reporting\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cross-Media Electronic Reporting\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Federal Register<\/i>.&#32;OFR\/GPO.&#32;13 October 2005<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.federalregister.gov\/documents\/2005\/10\/13\/05-19601\/cross-media-electronic-reporting\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.federalregister.gov\/documents\/2005\/10\/13\/05-19601\/cross-media-electronic-reporting<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Cross-Media+Electronic+Reporting&amp;rft.atitle=Federal+Register&amp;rft.date=13+October+2005&amp;rft.pub=OFR%2FGPO&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.federalregister.gov%2Fdocuments%2F2005%2F10%2F13%2F05-19601%2Fcross-media-electronic-reporting&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:40_CFR_Part_3\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CROMERRTrain-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CROMERRTrain_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/2015-08\/documents\/cromerr_101_course_summary.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"CROMERR 101: Fundamentals for States, Tribes, and Local Governments\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.&#32;August 2015<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/2015-08\/documents\/cromerr_101_course_summary.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/2015-08\/documents\/cromerr_101_course_summary.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=CROMERR+101%3A+Fundamentals+for+States%2C+Tribes%2C+and+Local+Governments&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=August+2015&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Environmental+Protection+Agency&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2F2015-08%2Fdocuments%2Fcromerr_101_course_summary.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:40_CFR_Part_3\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CDXAbout-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CDXAbout_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/cdx.epa.gov\/About\/AboutRegulation\" target=\"_blank\">\"About CDX\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Environmental Protection Agency<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/cdx.epa.gov\/About\/AboutRegulation\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/cdx.epa.gov\/About\/AboutRegulation<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=About+CDX&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Environmental+Protection+Agency&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcdx.epa.gov%2FAbout%2FAboutRegulation&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:40_CFR_Part_3\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CDXProd-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CDXProd_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141017114023\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/projects\/production.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Production Data Flows\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/projects\/production.htm\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 17 October 2014<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141017114023\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/projects\/production.htm\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141017114023\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/projects\/production.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Production+Data+Flows&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Environmental+Protection+Agency&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20141017114023%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fcdx%2Fprojects%2Fproduction.htm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:40_CFR_Part_3\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CDXBenis-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CDXBenis_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150221135646\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/benefits\/index.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"CDX Benefits\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/benefits\/index.htm\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 21 February 2015<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150221135646\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/benefits\/index.htm\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150221135646\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/benefits\/index.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=CDX+Benefits&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Environmental+Protection+Agency&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20150221135646%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fcdx%2Fbenefits%2Findex.htm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:40_CFR_Part_3\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CDXArchFeb15-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CDXArchFeb15_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150209185915\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Central Data Exchange\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 09 February 2015<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150209185915\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150209185915\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 09 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Central+Data+Exchange&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Environmental+Protection+Agency&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20150209185915%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fcdx%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:40_CFR_Part_3\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171704\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.135 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.156 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5777\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 35228\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 15857\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 18\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 9960\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time 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Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/40_CFR_Part_3\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/40_CFR_Part_3<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","f6e16cb8df3738dee667b175cc486cef_images":[],"f6e16cb8df3738dee667b175cc486cef_timestamp":1704907024,"0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a_type":"article","0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a_title":"21 CFR Part 11","0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11","0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a_plaintext":"\n\n21 CFR Part 11From LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchThe Title 21 Code of Federal Regulations Part 11 (21 CFR Part 11) provides compliance information regarding the U.S. Food and Drug Administration's (FDA) guidelines on electronic records and electronic signatures. Within this part, requirements are created to help ensure security, integrity, and confidentially of electronic records and to ensure electronic signatures are as legally binding as hand-written signatures.&#91;1&#93;\nPractically speaking, Part 11 requires drug makers, medical device manufacturers, biotech and biologics companies, contract research organizations, and other FDA-regulated industries, with some specific exceptions, to implement controls, including audits, system validations, audit trails, electronic signatures, and documentation for closed and open software and systems involved in processing specific electronic data. This primarily includes data to be maintained by the FDA predicate rules and data used to demonstrate compliance to a predicate rule. (A predicate rule is any requirement set forth in the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act, the Public Health Service Act, or any FDA regulation other than Part 11.&#91;2&#93;) The rule also applies to submissions made to the FDA in electronic format, but not to paper submissions by electronic methods, though paper submissions may eventually be prohibited by the FDA.&#91;3&#93;\n\nContents \n\n1 History \n2 Structure \n\n2.1 Subpart A \n2.2 Subpart B \n2.3 Subpart C \n\n\n3 Audit guidelines and checklist \n4 Further reading \n5 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nBy the early 1990s, food and drug manufacturers approached the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) about the possibility of electronic submissions with electronic signatures. However, at that time the government did not allow for digital signatures. In July 1992, the FDA began soliciting comments about the process of using electronic signatures.&#91;4&#93;\nIn March 1997, the FDA issued Part 11 regulations which, in the words of the FDA, were \"intended to permit the widest possible use of electronic technology, compatible with FDA's responsibility to protect the public health.\"&#91;2&#93; Various keynote speeches by FDA insiders early in the 21st century (in addition to compliance guides and draft guidance documents)&#91;2&#93; as well as strong efforts by the FDA to motivate industry to move to e-filing&#91;5&#93; resulted in many companies like Eli Lilly&#91;6&#93;, Agilent Technologies&#91;7&#93;, and other businesses rapidly being forced to change their methods and systems to adapt to the new standards.&#91;2&#93;&#91;8&#93;\nHowever, many entities expressed concerns about the Title 11 conditions, including concerns the regulations would \"unnecessarily restrict\" the use of technology, add significant compliance costs beyond what was intended, and stifle technological innovation while reducing public health benefit.&#91;2&#93; In November 2002, the FDA released the guidance document \"Guidance for Industry 21 CFR Part 11; Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures, Electronic Copies of Electronic Records\" to the public for commenting.&#91;9&#93; On February 3, 2003, the FDA withdrew that document, stating \"we wanted to minimize industry time spent reviewing and commenting on the draft guidance when that draft guidance may no longer represent our approach under the [current good manufacturing practice] initiative,\" adding it would afterwards \"intend to exercise enforcement discretion with regard to certain Part 11 requirements.\"&#91;2&#93; Further guidance documents were withdrawn later that month, culminating in a final guidance document in August 2003 stating the government body would re-examine Part 11 and make necessary changes.&#91;2&#93;&#91;10&#93; However, the FDA reiterated despite its retraction of the guidance documents \"21 CFR Part 11 is not going away, and neither is the agency's demand for electronic record integrity.\"&#91;11&#93; The retraction of guidance and change in policy, however, led many IT members in the pharmaceutical and life sciences industry in late 2004 to state one of the key problems they face as the lack of clear guidelines from the FDA about what is required for compliance.&#91;12&#93;\nThe FDA had indicated it would produce a revised version of Part 11 by the end of 2006, after its Third Annual FDA Information Management Summit had concluded.&#91;13&#93; Those revisions never arrived, and little in the way of updates on the topic arrived.&#91;14&#93; On July 8, 2010, the FDA announced it would begin to audit facilities working with drugs \"in an effort to evaluate industry's compliance and understanding of Part 11 in light of the enforcement discretion,\"&#91;15&#93; leaving some to wonder if this was an indicator the regulation and\/or its guidance would finally see a revision.&#91;16&#93;&#91;17&#93;\nWith an increase in violations of data integrity in current good manufacturing practice (CGMP) inspections in the mid-2010s, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration eventually issued draft guidance in April 2016 for implementing the data integrity requirements of 21 CFR Parts 210\u2013212, as well as clarifying how electronic signature and record-keeping requirements in 21 CFR Part 11 apply.&#91;18&#93; That guidance was finalized in December 2018, encouraging firms to \"implement meaningful and effective strategies to manage their data integrity risks based on their process understanding and knowledge management of technologies and business models.\"&#91;19&#93;\n\nStructure \nThe structure of Part 11 is as follows:\nSubpart A \u2014 General Provisions\n\n\u00a7 11.1 Scope\n\u00a7 11.2 Implementation\n\u00a7 11.3 Definitions\nSubpart B \u2014 Electronic Records\n\n\u00a7 11.10 Controls for closed systems\n\u00a7 11.30 Controls for open systems\n\u00a7 11.50 Signature manifestations\n\u00a7 11.70 Signature\/record linking\nSubpart C \u2014 Electronic Signatures\n\n\u00a7 11.100 General requirements\n\u00a7 11.200 Electronic signature components and controls\n\u00a7 11.300 Controls for identification codes\/passwords\nSubpart A \nThis is essentially the preamble of the regulations, explaining to what and who the regulations apply as well as how they'll apply. Definitions of common terms appearing in the regulations can also be found here, including a clarification in the difference between a digital and electronic signature.\n\nSubpart B \nThis section covers the requirements applicable to electronic records and their management. Several requirements are addressed, including \"how to ensure the authenticity, integrity, and, when appropriate, the confidentiality of electronic records\"; what content a signature should contain; and how electronic records and their signatures should be linked. It also covers topics like system validation, data traceability, audit control, and version control. \n\nSubpart C \nThis final section addresses the requirements specific to electronic signatures and their use. General requirements for electronic signatures, their components and controls, and password controls are all addressed. Additionally, this section addresses requirements for more advanced biometric-based signatures.\n\nAudit guidelines and checklist \nMain article: 21 CFR Part 11\/Audit guidelines and checklist\nFor those auditing computer systems and IT environments for their compliance with 21 CFR Part 11 and other regulations, a set of guidelines and checklist items may be useful. \n\r\n\nClick the link above for the full set of guidelines and checklist items.\n\nFurther reading \n\"Electronic Code of Federal Regulations - Title 21: Food and Drugs - Part 11: Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures\".&#32;U.S. Government Printing Office.&#32;https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-21\/part-11 . &#160; \n\"CFR - Code of Federal Regulations - Title 21 - Part 11 Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures\".&#32;U.S. Food and Drug Administration.&#32;https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/cfrsearch.cfm?cfrpart=11 . &#160; \nHuber, L.&#32;(15 November 2012).&#32;\"Tutorial: 21 CFR Part 11 - Electronic Records and Electronic Signatures\".&#32;LabCompliance.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 03 January 2020.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180103191244\/http:\/\/www.labcompliance.com\/tutorial\/part11\/ . &#160; \nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 \"Electronic Code of Federal Regulations - Title 21: Food and Drugs - Part 11: Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures\".&#32;U.S. Government Printing Office.&#32;13 April 2020.&#32;https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-21\/part-11 .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 \"Part 11, Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures \u2014 Scope and Application\".&#32;U.S. Food and Drug Administration.&#32;August 2003.&#32;https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/regulatory-information\/search-fda-guidance-documents\/part-11-electronic-records-electronic-signatures-scope-and-application .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Huber, L.&#32;(15 November 2012).&#32;\"Tutorial: 21 CFR Part 11 - Electronic Records and Electronic Signatures\".&#32;LabCompliance.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 03 January 2020.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180103191244\/http:\/\/www.labcompliance.com\/tutorial\/part11\/ .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Jackson, W.&#32;(1 June 2000).&#32;\"FDA offers electronic option\".&#32;GCN.&#32;https:\/\/gcn.com\/2000\/06\/fda-offers-electronic-option\/276201\/ .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Greenemeier, L.&#32;(25 February 2002).&#32;\"FDA Moving To E-Filing\".&#32;InformationWeek.&#32;https:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/it-life\/fda-moving-to-e-filing .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Greenemeier, L.&#32;(18 February 2002).&#32;\"Lilly Cures Inefficiency With IT\".&#32;InformationWeek.&#32;https:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/it-life\/lilly-cures-inefficiency-with-it .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Agilent Introduces Security Pack for Analytical Laboratories\".&#32;Laboratory Network.&#32;20 June 2000.&#32;https:\/\/www.laboratorynetwork.com\/doc\/agilent-introduces-security-pack-for-analytic-0001 .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Harrold, D.&#32;(1 April 2002).&#32;\"'I'm from the Government, and I'm Here to Help You!'\".&#32;Control Engineering.&#32;https:\/\/www.controleng.com\/articles\/im-from-the-government-and-im-here-to-help-you\/ .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Control Engineering Staff&#32;(3 January 2003).&#32;\"FDA releases 21 CFR Part 11 guidance document\".&#32;Control Engineering.&#32;https:\/\/www.controleng.com\/articles\/fda-releases-21-cfr-part-11-guidance-document\/ .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"FDA plans to amend 21 CFR Part 11 rules\".&#32;Outsourcing-Pharma.&#32;4 September 2003.&#32;https:\/\/www.outsourcing-pharma.com\/Article\/2003\/09\/05\/FDA-plans-to-amend-21-CFR-Part-11-rules .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 June, T.M.&#32;(July 2003).&#32;\"Quality Assurance, Safety and 21 CFR Part 11: These three old friends are here to stay\".&#32;Quality Digest.&#32;https:\/\/www.qualitydigest.com\/july03\/articles\/04_article.shtml .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Complying with US Food and Drug Administration(FDA) data regulations is proving a struggle for IT departments in pharmaceutical and life science companies\".&#32;Storage Networking Solutions.&#32;17 November 2004.&#32;http:\/\/snseurope.info\/article\/12833\/Complying-with-US-Food-and-Drug-Administration(FDA)-data-regulations-is-proving-a-struggle-for-IT-departments-in-pharmaceutical-and-life-science-companies .&#32;Retrieved 06 April 2013 . &#160; &#91;dead link &#93; \n\n\u2191 Reymond, E.&#32;(24 October 2006).&#32;\"FDA to review electronic signature regulation\".&#32;Outsourcing-Pharma.&#32;https:\/\/www.outsourcing-pharma.com\/Article\/2006\/10\/24\/FDA-to-review-electronic-signature-regulation .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Miller, George&#32;(13 November 2009).&#32;\"Don't sweat the Part 11 stuff\".&#32;FierceBiotechIT.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 22 February 2010.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100222094358\/http:\/\/www.fiercebiotechit.com\/story\/dont-sweat-part-11-stuff\/2009-11-13 .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"FDA To Conduct Inspections Focusing on 21 CFR 11 (Part 11) requirements relating to human drugs\".&#32;U.S. FDA.&#32;8 July 2010.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 15 November 2017.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171115154911\/https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/AboutFDA\/CentersOffices\/OfficeofMedicalProductsandTobacco\/CDER\/ucm204012.htm .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Barsky, Emma; Grunbaum, Len&#32;(25 July 2010).&#32;\"Part 11: How Will FDA Enforce?\".&#32;GxP Perspectives.&#32;http:\/\/gxpperspectives.com\/2010\/07\/25\/part-11-how-will-fda-enforce\/ .&#32;Retrieved 06 April 2013 . &#160; &#91;dead link &#93; \n\n\u2191 Appel, Ken&#32;(28 July 2010).&#32;\"Audit Alert! - Clarity on e-Records: FDA to Re-Evaluate 21 CFR 11\".&#32;Pharmaceutical Processing.&#32;http:\/\/www.pharmpro.com\/blogs\/2010\/07\/audit-alert-clarity-e-records-fda-re-evaluate-21-cfr-11 .&#32;Retrieved 06 April 2013 . &#160; &#91;dead link &#93; \n\n\u2191 U.S. Food and Drug Administration&#32;(April 2016).&#32;\"Data Integrity and Compliance with CGMP Guidance for Industry - Draft Guidance\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;U.S. Food and Drug Administration.&#32;https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/files\/drugs\/published\/Data-Integrity-and-Compliance-With-Current-Good-Manufacturing-Practice-Guidance-for-Industry.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 U.S. Food and Drug Administration&#32;(December 2018).&#32;\"Data Integrity and Compliance With Drug CGMP Questions and Answers Guidance for Industry\".&#32;U.S. Food and Drug Administration.&#32;https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/regulatory-information\/search-fda-guidance-documents\/data-integrity-and-compliance-drug-cgmp-questions-and-answers-guidance-industry .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11<\/a>\nCategories: All articles with dead external linksArticles with dead external linksRegulatory informationNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 7 January 2022, at 23:27.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 59,238 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-21_CFR_Part_11 rootpage-21_CFR_Part_11 skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">21 CFR Part 11<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>The <b>Title 21 Code of Federal Regulations Part 11<\/b> (<b>21 CFR Part 11<\/b>) provides <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Regulatory_compliance\" title=\"Regulatory compliance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7dbc9be278a8efda25a4b592ee6ef0ca\">compliance<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d\">information<\/a> regarding the U.S. Food and Drug Administration's (FDA) guidelines on electronic records and . Within this part, requirements are created to help ensure security, integrity, and confidentially of electronic records and to ensure electronic signatures are as legally binding as hand-written signatures.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21CFR11.40ecfr_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21CFR11.40ecfr-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Practically speaking, Part 11 requires drug makers, medical device manufacturers, biotech and biologics companies, contract research organizations, and other FDA-regulated industries, with some specific exceptions, to implement controls, including audits, system validations, audit trails, electronic signatures, and documentation for closed and open software and systems involved in processing specific electronic data. This primarily includes data to be maintained by the FDA predicate rules and data used to demonstrate compliance to a predicate rule. (A predicate rule is any requirement set forth in the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act, the Public Health Service Act, or any FDA regulation other than Part 11.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RegInfo_Part11_FDA-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup>) The rule also applies to submissions made to the FDA in electronic format, but not to paper submissions by electronic methods, though paper submissions may eventually be prohibited by the FDA.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Tut21CFR11_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Tut21CFR11-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>By the early 1990s, food and drug manufacturers approached the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) about the possibility of electronic submissions with electronic signatures. However, at that time the government did not allow for digital signatures. In July 1992, the FDA began soliciting comments about the process of using electronic signatures.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GCN00Art_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GCN00Art-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In March 1997, the FDA issued Part 11 regulations which, in the words of the FDA, were \"intended to permit the widest possible use of electronic technology, compatible with FDA's responsibility to protect the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Public_health_informatics\" title=\"Public health informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0372a80f101e9f6fd00490dc1ebcedd\">public health<\/a>.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RegInfo_Part11_FDA-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Various keynote speeches by FDA insiders early in the 21st century (in addition to compliance guides and draft guidance documents)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RegInfo_Part11_FDA-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> as well as strong efforts by the FDA to motivate industry to move to e-filing<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IWEfilingFDA_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IWEfilingFDA-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup> resulted in many companies like Eli Lilly<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IWLillyPart11_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IWLillyPart11-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Agilent_Technologies,_Inc.\" title=\"Agilent Technologies, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dcea1a676a012bcbe3af9562dd17f8a0\">Agilent Technologies<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LabNetAgilent00_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LabNetAgilent00-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, and other businesses rapidly being forced to change their methods and systems to adapt to the new standards.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RegInfo_Part11_FDA-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CEPart11Art_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CEPart11Art-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>However, many entities expressed concerns about the Title 11 conditions, including concerns the regulations would \"unnecessarily restrict\" the use of technology, add significant compliance costs beyond what was intended, and stifle technological innovation while reducing public health benefit.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RegInfo_Part11_FDA-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> In November 2002, the FDA released the guidance document \"Guidance for Industry 21 CFR Part 11; Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures, Electronic Copies of Electronic Records\" to the public for commenting.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CEGuideDocFDA1_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CEGuideDocFDA1-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup> On February 3, 2003, the FDA withdrew that document, stating \"we wanted to minimize industry time spent reviewing and commenting on the draft guidance when that draft guidance may no longer represent our approach under the [current good manufacturing practice] initiative,\" adding it would afterwards \"intend to exercise enforcement discretion with regard to certain Part 11 requirements.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RegInfo_Part11_FDA-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Further guidance documents were withdrawn later that month, culminating in a final guidance document in August 2003 stating the government body would re-examine Part 11 and make necessary changes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RegInfo_Part11_FDA-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-inPharmaFDAFinal03_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-inPharmaFDAFinal03-10\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup> However, the FDA reiterated despite its retraction of the guidance documents \"21 CFR Part 11 is not going away, and neither is the agency's demand for electronic record integrity.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-QDPart11StillEnforced_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-QDPart11StillEnforced-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The retraction of guidance and change in policy, however, led many IT members in the pharmaceutical and life sciences industry in late 2004 to state one of the key problems they face as the lack of clear guidelines from the FDA about what is required for compliance.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SNSSurveyUKIT_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SNSSurveyUKIT-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The FDA had indicated it would produce a revised version of Part 11 by the end of 2006, after its Third Annual FDA <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Informatics_(academic_field)\" title=\"Informatics (academic field)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0391318826a5d9f9a1a1bcc88394739f\">Information Management<\/a> Summit had concluded.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-inPharmaFDA2006_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-inPharmaFDA2006-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Those revisions never arrived, and little in the way of updates on the topic arrived.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FBFDA09_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FBFDA09-14\">&#91;14&#93;<\/a><\/sup> On July 8, 2010, the FDA announced it would begin to audit facilities working with drugs \"in an effort to evaluate industry's compliance and understanding of Part 11 in light of the enforcement discretion,\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FDAAnnounceJul8_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FDAAnnounceJul8-15\">&#91;15&#93;<\/a><\/sup> leaving some to wonder if this was an indicator the regulation and\/or its guidance would finally see a revision.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GxPEnforce_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GxPEnforce-16\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PharmProcEnforce_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PharmProcEnforce-17\">&#91;17&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>With an increase in violations of data integrity in current good manufacturing practice (CGMP) inspections in the mid-2010s, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration eventually issued draft guidance in April 2016 for implementing the data integrity requirements of 21 CFR Parts 210\u2013212, as well as clarifying how electronic signature and record-keeping requirements in 21 CFR Part 11 apply.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FDAData16_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FDAData16-18\">&#91;18&#93;<\/a><\/sup> That guidance was finalized in December 2018, encouraging firms to \"implement meaningful and effective strategies to manage their data integrity risks based on their process understanding and knowledge management of technologies and business models.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FDAData18_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FDAData18-19\">&#91;19&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Structure\">Structure<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The structure of Part 11 is as follows:\n<\/p><p><b>Subpart A \u2014 General Provisions<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>\u00a7 11.1 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=11.1\" target=\"_blank\">Scope<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 11.2 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=11.2\" target=\"_blank\">Implementation<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 11.3 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=11.3\" target=\"_blank\">Definitions<\/a><\/dd><\/dl>\n<p><b>Subpart B \u2014 Electronic Records<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>\u00a7 11.10 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=11.10\" target=\"_blank\">Controls for closed systems<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 11.30 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=11.30\" target=\"_blank\">Controls for open systems<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 11.50 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=11.50\" target=\"_blank\">Signature manifestations<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 11.70 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=11.70\" target=\"_blank\">Signature\/record linking<\/a><\/dd><\/dl>\n<p><b>Subpart C \u2014 Electronic Signatures<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>\u00a7 11.100 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=11.100\" target=\"_blank\">General requirements<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 11.200 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=11.200\" target=\"_blank\">Electronic signature components and controls<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 11.300 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=11.300\" target=\"_blank\">Controls for identification codes\/passwords<\/a><\/dd><\/dl>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Subpart_A\">Subpart A<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This is essentially the preamble of the regulations, explaining to what and who the regulations apply as well as how they'll apply. Definitions of common terms appearing in the regulations can also be found here, including a clarification in the difference between a digital and electronic signature.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Subpart_B\">Subpart B<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This section covers the requirements applicable to electronic records and their management. Several requirements are addressed, including \"how to ensure the authenticity, integrity, and, when appropriate, the confidentiality of electronic records\"; what content a signature should contain; and how electronic records and their signatures should be linked. It also covers topics like system validation, data traceability, audit control, and version control. \n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Subpart_C\">Subpart C<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This final section addresses the requirements specific to electronic signatures and their use. General requirements for electronic signatures, their components and controls, and password controls are all addressed. Additionally, this section addresses requirements for more advanced biometric-based signatures.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Audit_guidelines_and_checklist\">Audit guidelines and checklist<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"rellink relarticle mainarticle\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\/Audit_guidelines_and_checklist\" title=\"21 CFR Part 11\/Audit guidelines and checklist\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe02b08755967e133508d460928f12c2\">21 CFR Part 11\/Audit guidelines and checklist<\/a><\/div>\n<p>For those auditing computer systems and IT environments for their compliance with 21 CFR Part 11 and other regulations, a set of guidelines and checklist items may be useful. \n<br \/>\n<\/p><p>Click the link above for the full set of guidelines and checklist items.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-21\/part-11\" target=\"_blank\">\"Electronic Code of Federal Regulations - Title 21: Food and Drugs - Part 11: Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Government Printing Office<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-21\/part-11\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-21\/part-11<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Electronic+Code+of+Federal+Regulations+-+Title+21%3A+Food+and+Drugs+-+Part+11%3A+Electronic+Records%3B+Electronic+Signatures&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Government+Printing+Office&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ecfr.gov%2Fcurrent%2Ftitle-21%2Fpart-11&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/cfrsearch.cfm?cfrpart=11\" target=\"_blank\">\"CFR - Code of Federal Regulations - Title 21 - Part 11 Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Food and Drug Administration<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/cfrsearch.cfm?cfrpart=11\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/cfrsearch.cfm?cfrpart=11<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=CFR+-+Code+of+Federal+Regulations+-+Title+21+-+Part+11+Electronic+Records%3B+Electronic+Signatures&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Food+and+Drug+Administration&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fscripts%2Fcdrh%2Fcfdocs%2Fcfcfr%2Fcfrsearch.cfm%3Fcfrpart%3D11&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation web\">Huber, L.&#32;(15 November 2012).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180103191244\/http:\/\/www.labcompliance.com\/tutorial\/part11\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Tutorial: 21 CFR Part 11 - Electronic Records and Electronic Signatures\"<\/a>.&#32;LabCompliance.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labcompliance.com\/tutorial\/part11\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 03 January 2020<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180103191244\/http:\/\/www.labcompliance.com\/tutorial\/part11\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180103191244\/http:\/\/www.labcompliance.com\/tutorial\/part11\/<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Tutorial%3A+21+CFR+Part+11+-+Electronic+Records+and+Electronic+Signatures&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Huber%2C+L.&amp;rft.au=Huber%2C+L.&amp;rft.date=15+November+2012&amp;rft.pub=LabCompliance&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20180103191244%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.labcompliance.com%2Ftutorial%2Fpart11%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-21CFR11.40ecfr-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-21CFR11.40ecfr_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-21\/part-11\" target=\"_blank\">\"Electronic Code of Federal Regulations - Title 21: Food and Drugs - Part 11: Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Government Printing Office.&#32;13 April 2020<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-21\/part-11\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-21\/part-11<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Electronic+Code+of+Federal+Regulations+-+Title+21%3A+Food+and+Drugs+-+Part+11%3A+Electronic+Records%3B+Electronic+Signatures&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=13+April+2020&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Government+Printing+Office&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ecfr.gov%2Fcurrent%2Ftitle-21%2Fpart-11&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RegInfo_Part11_FDA-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-0\">2.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-1\">2.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-2\">2.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-3\">2.3<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-4\">2.4<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-5\">2.5<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-6\">2.6<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/regulatory-information\/search-fda-guidance-documents\/part-11-electronic-records-electronic-signatures-scope-and-application\" target=\"_blank\">\"Part 11, Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures \u2014 Scope and Application\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Food and Drug Administration.&#32;August 2003<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/regulatory-information\/search-fda-guidance-documents\/part-11-electronic-records-electronic-signatures-scope-and-application\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/regulatory-information\/search-fda-guidance-documents\/part-11-electronic-records-electronic-signatures-scope-and-application<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Part+11%2C+Electronic+Records%3B+Electronic+Signatures+%E2%80%94+Scope+and+Application&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=August+2003&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Food+and+Drug+Administration&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fda.gov%2Fregulatory-information%2Fsearch-fda-guidance-documents%2Fpart-11-electronic-records-electronic-signatures-scope-and-application&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Tut21CFR11-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Tut21CFR11_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Huber, L.&#32;(15 November 2012).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180103191244\/http:\/\/www.labcompliance.com\/tutorial\/part11\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Tutorial: 21 CFR Part 11 - Electronic Records and Electronic Signatures\"<\/a>.&#32;LabCompliance.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labcompliance.com\/tutorial\/part11\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 03 January 2020<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180103191244\/http:\/\/www.labcompliance.com\/tutorial\/part11\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180103191244\/http:\/\/www.labcompliance.com\/tutorial\/part11\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Tutorial%3A+21+CFR+Part+11+-+Electronic+Records+and+Electronic+Signatures&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Huber%2C+L.&amp;rft.au=Huber%2C+L.&amp;rft.date=15+November+2012&amp;rft.pub=LabCompliance&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20180103191244%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.labcompliance.com%2Ftutorial%2Fpart11%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GCN00Art-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GCN00Art_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Jackson, W.&#32;(1 June 2000).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/gcn.com\/2000\/06\/fda-offers-electronic-option\/276201\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"FDA offers electronic option\"<\/a>.&#32;GCN<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/gcn.com\/2000\/06\/fda-offers-electronic-option\/276201\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/gcn.com\/2000\/06\/fda-offers-electronic-option\/276201\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=FDA+offers+electronic+option&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Jackson%2C+W.&amp;rft.au=Jackson%2C+W.&amp;rft.date=1+June+2000&amp;rft.pub=GCN&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgcn.com%2F2000%2F06%2Ffda-offers-electronic-option%2F276201%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-IWEfilingFDA-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-IWEfilingFDA_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Greenemeier, L.&#32;(25 February 2002).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/it-life\/fda-moving-to-e-filing\" target=\"_blank\">\"FDA Moving To E-Filing\"<\/a>.&#32;InformationWeek<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/it-life\/fda-moving-to-e-filing\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/it-life\/fda-moving-to-e-filing<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=FDA+Moving+To+E-Filing&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Greenemeier%2C+L.&amp;rft.au=Greenemeier%2C+L.&amp;rft.date=25+February+2002&amp;rft.pub=InformationWeek&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.informationweek.com%2Fit-life%2Ffda-moving-to-e-filing&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-IWLillyPart11-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-IWLillyPart11_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Greenemeier, L.&#32;(18 February 2002).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/it-life\/lilly-cures-inefficiency-with-it\" target=\"_blank\">\"Lilly Cures Inefficiency With IT\"<\/a>.&#32;InformationWeek<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/it-life\/lilly-cures-inefficiency-with-it\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/it-life\/lilly-cures-inefficiency-with-it<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Lilly+Cures+Inefficiency+With+IT&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Greenemeier%2C+L.&amp;rft.au=Greenemeier%2C+L.&amp;rft.date=18+February+2002&amp;rft.pub=InformationWeek&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.informationweek.com%2Fit-life%2Flilly-cures-inefficiency-with-it&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LabNetAgilent00-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LabNetAgilent00_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.laboratorynetwork.com\/doc\/agilent-introduces-security-pack-for-analytic-0001\" target=\"_blank\">\"Agilent Introduces Security Pack for Analytical Laboratories\"<\/a>.&#32;Laboratory Network.&#32;20 June 2000<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.laboratorynetwork.com\/doc\/agilent-introduces-security-pack-for-analytic-0001\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.laboratorynetwork.com\/doc\/agilent-introduces-security-pack-for-analytic-0001<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Agilent+Introduces+Security+Pack+for+Analytical+Laboratories&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=20+June+2000&amp;rft.pub=Laboratory+Network&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.laboratorynetwork.com%2Fdoc%2Fagilent-introduces-security-pack-for-analytic-0001&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CEPart11Art-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CEPart11Art_8-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Harrold, D.&#32;(1 April 2002).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.controleng.com\/articles\/im-from-the-government-and-im-here-to-help-you\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"'I'm from the Government, and I'm Here to Help You!'\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Control Engineering<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.controleng.com\/articles\/im-from-the-government-and-im-here-to-help-you\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.controleng.com\/articles\/im-from-the-government-and-im-here-to-help-you\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=%27I%27m+from+the+Government%2C+and+I%27m+Here+to+Help+You%21%27&amp;rft.atitle=Control+Engineering&amp;rft.aulast=Harrold%2C+D.&amp;rft.au=Harrold%2C+D.&amp;rft.date=1+April+2002&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.controleng.com%2Farticles%2Fim-from-the-government-and-im-here-to-help-you%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CEGuideDocFDA1-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CEGuideDocFDA1_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Control Engineering Staff&#32;(3 January 2003).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.controleng.com\/articles\/fda-releases-21-cfr-part-11-guidance-document\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"FDA releases 21 CFR Part 11 guidance document\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Control Engineering<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.controleng.com\/articles\/fda-releases-21-cfr-part-11-guidance-document\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.controleng.com\/articles\/fda-releases-21-cfr-part-11-guidance-document\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=FDA+releases+21+CFR+Part+11+guidance+document&amp;rft.atitle=Control+Engineering&amp;rft.aulast=Control+Engineering+Staff&amp;rft.au=Control+Engineering+Staff&amp;rft.date=3+January+2003&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.controleng.com%2Farticles%2Ffda-releases-21-cfr-part-11-guidance-document%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-inPharmaFDAFinal03-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-inPharmaFDAFinal03_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.outsourcing-pharma.com\/Article\/2003\/09\/05\/FDA-plans-to-amend-21-CFR-Part-11-rules\" target=\"_blank\">\"FDA plans to amend 21 CFR Part 11 rules\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Outsourcing-Pharma<\/i>.&#32;4 September 2003<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.outsourcing-pharma.com\/Article\/2003\/09\/05\/FDA-plans-to-amend-21-CFR-Part-11-rules\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.outsourcing-pharma.com\/Article\/2003\/09\/05\/FDA-plans-to-amend-21-CFR-Part-11-rules<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=FDA+plans+to+amend+21+CFR+Part+11+rules&amp;rft.atitle=Outsourcing-Pharma&amp;rft.date=4+September+2003&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.outsourcing-pharma.com%2FArticle%2F2003%2F09%2F05%2FFDA-plans-to-amend-21-CFR-Part-11-rules&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-QDPart11StillEnforced-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-QDPart11StillEnforced_11-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">June, T.M.&#32;(July 2003).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.qualitydigest.com\/july03\/articles\/04_article.shtml\" target=\"_blank\">\"Quality Assurance, Safety and 21 CFR Part 11: These three old friends are here to stay\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Quality Digest<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.qualitydigest.com\/july03\/articles\/04_article.shtml\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.qualitydigest.com\/july03\/articles\/04_article.shtml<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Quality+Assurance%2C+Safety+and+21+CFR+Part+11%3A+These+three+old+friends+are+here+to+stay&amp;rft.atitle=Quality+Digest&amp;rft.aulast=June%2C+T.M.&amp;rft.au=June%2C+T.M.&amp;rft.date=July+2003&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.qualitydigest.com%2Fjuly03%2Farticles%2F04_article.shtml&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SNSSurveyUKIT-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SNSSurveyUKIT_12-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/snseurope.info\/article\/12833\/Complying-with-US-Food-and-Drug-Administration(FDA)-data-regulations-is-proving-a-struggle-for-IT-departments-in-pharmaceutical-and-life-science-companies\" target=\"_blank\">\"Complying with US Food and Drug Administration(FDA) data regulations is proving a struggle for IT departments in pharmaceutical and life science companies\"<\/a>.&#32;Storage Networking Solutions.&#32;17 November 2004<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/snseurope.info\/article\/12833\/Complying-with-US-Food-and-Drug-Administration(FDA)-data-regulations-is-proving-a-struggle-for-IT-departments-in-pharmaceutical-and-life-science-companies\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/snseurope.info\/article\/12833\/Complying-with-US-Food-and-Drug-Administration(FDA)-data-regulations-is-proving-a-struggle-for-IT-departments-in-pharmaceutical-and-life-science-companies<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 April 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Complying+with+US+Food+and+Drug+Administration%28FDA%29+data+regulations+is+proving+a+struggle+for+IT+departments+in+pharmaceutical+and+life+science+companies&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=17+November+2004&amp;rft.pub=Storage+Networking+Solutions&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsnseurope.info%2Farticle%2F12833%2FComplying-with-US-Food-and-Drug-Administration%28FDA%29-data-regulations-is-proving-a-struggle-for-IT-departments-in-pharmaceutical-and-life-science-companies&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\"><span style=\"white-space: nowrap;\">&#91;<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Link_rot\" class=\"extiw wiki-link\" title=\"wikipedia:Wikipedia:Link rot\" data-key=\"8e73a2ff6f82d88817bdd8ee8b302ab7\"><span title=\"\">dead link<\/span><\/a><\/i>&#93;<\/span><\/sup><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-inPharmaFDA2006-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-inPharmaFDA2006_13-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Reymond, E.&#32;(24 October 2006).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.outsourcing-pharma.com\/Article\/2006\/10\/24\/FDA-to-review-electronic-signature-regulation\" target=\"_blank\">\"FDA to review electronic signature regulation\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Outsourcing-Pharma<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.outsourcing-pharma.com\/Article\/2006\/10\/24\/FDA-to-review-electronic-signature-regulation\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.outsourcing-pharma.com\/Article\/2006\/10\/24\/FDA-to-review-electronic-signature-regulation<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=FDA+to+review+electronic+signature+regulation&amp;rft.atitle=Outsourcing-Pharma&amp;rft.aulast=Reymond%2C+E.&amp;rft.au=Reymond%2C+E.&amp;rft.date=24+October+2006&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.outsourcing-pharma.com%2FArticle%2F2006%2F10%2F24%2FFDA-to-review-electronic-signature-regulation&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FBFDA09-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FBFDA09_14-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Miller, George&#32;(13 November 2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100222094358\/http:\/\/www.fiercebiotechit.com\/story\/dont-sweat-part-11-stuff\/2009-11-13\" target=\"_blank\">\"Don't sweat the Part 11 stuff\"<\/a>.&#32;FierceBiotechIT.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.fiercebiotechit.com\/story\/dont-sweat-part-11-stuff\/2009-11-13\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 22 February 2010<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100222094358\/http:\/\/www.fiercebiotechit.com\/story\/dont-sweat-part-11-stuff\/2009-11-13\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100222094358\/http:\/\/www.fiercebiotechit.com\/story\/dont-sweat-part-11-stuff\/2009-11-13<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Don%27t+sweat+the+Part+11+stuff&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Miller%2C+George&amp;rft.au=Miller%2C+George&amp;rft.date=13+November+2009&amp;rft.pub=FierceBiotechIT&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20100222094358%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.fiercebiotechit.com%2Fstory%2Fdont-sweat-part-11-stuff%2F2009-11-13&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FDAAnnounceJul8-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FDAAnnounceJul8_15-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171115154911\/https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/AboutFDA\/CentersOffices\/OfficeofMedicalProductsandTobacco\/CDER\/ucm204012.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"FDA To Conduct Inspections Focusing on 21 CFR 11 (Part 11) requirements relating to human drugs\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. FDA.&#32;8 July 2010.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/AboutFDA\/CentersOffices\/OfficeofMedicalProductsandTobacco\/CDER\/ucm204012.htm\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 15 November 2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171115154911\/https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/AboutFDA\/CentersOffices\/OfficeofMedicalProductsandTobacco\/CDER\/ucm204012.htm\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171115154911\/https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/AboutFDA\/CentersOffices\/OfficeofMedicalProductsandTobacco\/CDER\/ucm204012.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=FDA+To+Conduct+Inspections+Focusing+on+21+CFR+11+%28Part+11%29+requirements+relating+to+human+drugs&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=8+July+2010&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+FDA&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20171115154911%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.fda.gov%2FAboutFDA%2FCentersOffices%2FOfficeofMedicalProductsandTobacco%2FCDER%2Fucm204012.htm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GxPEnforce-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GxPEnforce_16-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Barsky, Emma; Grunbaum, Len&#32;(25 July 2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/gxpperspectives.com\/2010\/07\/25\/part-11-how-will-fda-enforce\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Part 11: How Will FDA Enforce?\"<\/a>.&#32;GxP Perspectives<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/gxpperspectives.com\/2010\/07\/25\/part-11-how-will-fda-enforce\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/gxpperspectives.com\/2010\/07\/25\/part-11-how-will-fda-enforce\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 April 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Part+11%3A+How+Will+FDA+Enforce%3F&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Barsky%2C+Emma%3B+Grunbaum%2C+Len&amp;rft.au=Barsky%2C+Emma%3B+Grunbaum%2C+Len&amp;rft.date=25+July+2010&amp;rft.pub=GxP+Perspectives&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgxpperspectives.com%2F2010%2F07%2F25%2Fpart-11-how-will-fda-enforce%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\"><span style=\"white-space: nowrap;\">&#91;<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Link_rot\" class=\"extiw wiki-link\" title=\"wikipedia:Wikipedia:Link rot\" data-key=\"8e73a2ff6f82d88817bdd8ee8b302ab7\"><span title=\"\">dead link<\/span><\/a><\/i>&#93;<\/span><\/sup><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PharmProcEnforce-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-PharmProcEnforce_17-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Appel, Ken&#32;(28 July 2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pharmpro.com\/blogs\/2010\/07\/audit-alert-clarity-e-records-fda-re-evaluate-21-cfr-11\" target=\"_blank\">\"Audit Alert! - Clarity on e-Records: FDA to Re-Evaluate 21 CFR 11\"<\/a>.&#32;Pharmaceutical Processing<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pharmpro.com\/blogs\/2010\/07\/audit-alert-clarity-e-records-fda-re-evaluate-21-cfr-11\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.pharmpro.com\/blogs\/2010\/07\/audit-alert-clarity-e-records-fda-re-evaluate-21-cfr-11<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 April 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Audit+Alert%21+-+Clarity+on+e-Records%3A+FDA+to+Re-Evaluate+21+CFR+11&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Appel%2C+Ken&amp;rft.au=Appel%2C+Ken&amp;rft.date=28+July+2010&amp;rft.pub=Pharmaceutical+Processing&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pharmpro.com%2Fblogs%2F2010%2F07%2Faudit-alert-clarity-e-records-fda-re-evaluate-21-cfr-11&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\"><span style=\"white-space: nowrap;\">&#91;<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Link_rot\" class=\"extiw wiki-link\" title=\"wikipedia:Wikipedia:Link rot\" data-key=\"8e73a2ff6f82d88817bdd8ee8b302ab7\"><span title=\"\">dead link<\/span><\/a><\/i>&#93;<\/span><\/sup><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FDAData16-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FDAData16_18-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">U.S. Food and Drug Administration&#32;(April 2016).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/files\/drugs\/published\/Data-Integrity-and-Compliance-With-Current-Good-Manufacturing-Practice-Guidance-for-Industry.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data Integrity and Compliance with CGMP Guidance for Industry - Draft Guidance\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;U.S. Food and Drug Administration<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/files\/drugs\/published\/Data-Integrity-and-Compliance-With-Current-Good-Manufacturing-Practice-Guidance-for-Industry.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/files\/drugs\/published\/Data-Integrity-and-Compliance-With-Current-Good-Manufacturing-Practice-Guidance-for-Industry.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Data+Integrity+and+Compliance+with+CGMP+Guidance+for+Industry+-+Draft+Guidance&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=U.S.+Food+and+Drug+Administration&amp;rft.au=U.S.+Food+and+Drug+Administration&amp;rft.date=April+2016&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Food+and+Drug+Administration&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fda.gov%2Ffiles%2Fdrugs%2Fpublished%2FData-Integrity-and-Compliance-With-Current-Good-Manufacturing-Practice-Guidance-for-Industry.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FDAData18-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FDAData18_19-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">U.S. Food and Drug Administration&#32;(December 2018).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/regulatory-information\/search-fda-guidance-documents\/data-integrity-and-compliance-drug-cgmp-questions-and-answers-guidance-industry\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data Integrity and Compliance With Drug CGMP Questions and Answers Guidance for Industry\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Food and Drug Administration<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/regulatory-information\/search-fda-guidance-documents\/data-integrity-and-compliance-drug-cgmp-questions-and-answers-guidance-industry\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/regulatory-information\/search-fda-guidance-documents\/data-integrity-and-compliance-drug-cgmp-questions-and-answers-guidance-industry<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Data+Integrity+and+Compliance+With+Drug+CGMP+Questions+and+Answers+Guidance+for+Industry&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=U.S.+Food+and+Drug+Administration&amp;rft.au=U.S.+Food+and+Drug+Administration&amp;rft.date=December+2018&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Food+and+Drug+Administration&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fda.gov%2Fregulatory-information%2Fsearch-fda-guidance-documents%2Fdata-integrity-and-compliance-drug-cgmp-questions-and-answers-guidance-industry&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110004018\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.305 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.428 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 15597\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 108206\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 49921\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 18\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 30979\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.060\/7 seconds\nLua virtual size: 5603328\/52428800 bytes\nLua estimated memory usage: 0 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 387.542 1 -total\n 87.13% 337.678 1 Template:Reflist\n 46.65% 180.776 22 Template:Cite_web\n 43.36% 168.047 22 Template:Citation\/core\n 41.84% 162.137 3 Template:Dead_link\n 40.52% 157.030 2 Template:Fix\n 34.32% 133.017 2 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Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a_images":[],"0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a_timestamp":1704907024,"92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8_type":"article","92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8_title":"Workflow","92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow","92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8_plaintext":"\n\nWorkflowFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchPattern of activity often with a result\nWikimedia developer workflow\nAn IMRAD model for developing research articles\n\nA workflow is a generic term for orchestrated and repeatable patterns of activity, enabled by the systematic organization of resources into processes that transform materials, provide services, or process information.[1] It can be depicted as a sequence of operations, the work of a person or group,[2] the work of an organization of staff, or one or more simple or complex mechanisms.\nFrom a more abstract or higher-level perspective, workflow may be considered a view or representation of real work.[3] The flow being described may refer to a document, service, or product that is being transferred from one step to another.\nWorkflows may be viewed as one fundamental building block to be combined with other parts of an organization's structure such as information technology, teams, projects and hierarchies.[4]\n\n\n\nHistorical development \nThe development of the concept of a workflow occurred above a series of loosely defined, overlapping eras.\n\nBeginnings in manufacturing \nThe modern history of workflows can be traced to Frederick Taylor[5] and Henry Gantt, although the term \"workflow\" was not in use as such during their lifetimes.[6] One of the earliest instances of the term \"work flow\" was in a railway engineering journal from 1921.[7]\nTaylor and Gantt launched the study of the deliberate, rational organization of work, primarily in the context of manufacturing. This gave rise to time and motion studies.[8] Related concepts include job shops and queuing systems (Markov chains).[9][10]\nThe 1948 book Cheaper by the Dozen introduced the emerging concepts to the context of family life.\n\nMaturation and growth \nThe invention of the typewriter and the copier helped spread the study of the rational organization of labor from the manufacturing shop floor to the office. Filing systems and other sophisticated systems for managing physical information flows evolved. Several events likely contributed to the development of formalized information workflows. First, the field of optimization theory matured and developed mathematical optimization techniques. For example, Soviet mathematician and economist Leonid Kantorovich developed the seeds of linear programming in 1939 through efforts to solve a plywood manufacturer's production optimization issues.[11][12] Second, World War II and the Apollo program drove process improvement forward with their demands for the rational organization of work.[13][14][15]\n\nQuality era \nIn the post-war era, the work of W. Edwards Deming and Joseph M. Juran led to a focus on quality, first in Japanese companies, and more globally from the 1980s: there were various movements ranging from total quality management to Six Sigma, and then more qualitative notions of business process re-engineering.[16] This led to more efforts to improve workflows, in knowledge economy sectors as well as in manufacturing. Variable demands on workflows were recognised when the theory of critical paths and moving bottlenecks was considered.[17]\n\nWorkflow management \nBasu and Kumar note that the term \"workflow management\" has been used to refer to tasks associated with the flow of information through the value chain rather than the flow of material goods: they characterise the definition, analysis and management of information as \"workflow management\". They note that workflow can be managed within a single organisation, where distinct roles are allocated to individual resources, and also across multiple organisations or distributed locations, where attention needs to be paid to the interactions between activities which are located at the organizational or locational boundaries. The transmission of information from one organization to another is a critical issue in this inter-organizational context and raises the importance of tasks they describe as \"validation\", \"verification\" and \"data usage analysis\".[18]\n\nWorkflow management systems \nMain article: Workflow management system\nA workflow management system (WfMS) is a software system for setting up, performing, and monitoring a defined sequence of processes and tasks, with the broad goals of increasing productivity, reducing costs, becoming more agile, and improving information exchange within an organization.[19] These systems may be process-centric or data-centric, and they may represent the workflow as graphical maps. A workflow management system may also include an extensible interface so that external software applications can be integrated and provide support for wide area workflows that provide faster response times and improved productivity.[19]\n\nRelated concepts \nThe concept of workflow is closely related to several fields in operations research and other areas that study the nature of work, either quantitatively or qualitatively, such as artificial intelligence (in particular, the sub-discipline of AI planning) and ethnography. The term \"workflow\" is more commonly used in particular industries, such as in printing or professional domains such as clinical laboratories, where it may have particular specialized meanings.\n\nProcesses: A process is a more general notion than workflow and can apply to, for example, physical or biological processes, whereas a workflow is typically a process or collection of processes described in the context of work, such as all processes occurring in a machine shop.\nPlanning and scheduling: A plan is a description of the logically necessary, partially ordered set of activities required to accomplish a specific goal given certain starting conditions. A plan, when augmented with a schedule and resource allocation calculations, completely defines a particular instance of systematic processing in pursuit of a goal. A workflow may be viewed as an often optimal or near-optimal realization of the mechanisms required to execute the same plan repeatedly.[20]\nFlow control: This is a control concept applied to workflows, to distinguish from static control of buffers of material or orders, to mean a more dynamic control of flow speed and flow volumes in motion and in process. Such orientation to dynamic aspects is the basic foundation to prepare for more advanced job shop controls, such as just-in-time or just-in-sequence.\nIn-transit visibility: This monitoring concept applies to transported material as well as to work in process or work in progress, i.e., workflows.\nExamples \nBusiness Process Modelling\n\nThe following examples illustrate the variety of workflows seen in various contexts:\n\nIn machine shops, particularly job shops and flow shops, the flow of a part through the various processing stations is a workflow.\nInsurance claims processing is an example of an information-intensive, document-driven workflow.[21]\nWikipedia editing can be modeled as a stochastic workflow.\nThe Getting Things Done system is a model of personal workflow management for information workers.\nIn software development, support and other industries, the concept of follow-the-sun describes a process of passing unfinished work across time zones.[22]\nIn traditional offset and digital printing, the concept of workflow represents the process, people, and usually software technology (RIPs raster image processors or DFE digital front end) controllers that play a part in pre\/post processing of print-related files, e.g., PDF pre-flight checking to make certain that fonts are embedded or that the imaging output to plate or digital press will be able to render the document intent properly for the image-output capabilities of the press that will print the final image.\nIn scientific experiments, the overall process (tasks and data flow) can be described as a directed acyclic graph (DAG). This DAG is referred to as a workflow, e.g., Brain Imaging workflows.[23][24]\nIn healthcare data analysis, a workflow can be identified or used to represent a sequence of steps which compose a complex data analysis.[25][26]\nIn service-oriented architectures, an application can be represented through an executable workflow, where different, possibly geographically distributed, service components interact to provide the corresponding functionality under the control of a workflow management system.[27]\nIn shared services, an application can be in the practice of developing robotic process automation (called RPA or RPAAI for self-guided RPA 2.0 based on artificial intelligence) which results in the deployment of attended or unattended software agents to an organization's environment. These software agents, or robots, are deployed to perform pre-defined structured and repetitive sets of business tasks or processes. Artificial intelligence software robots are deployed to handle unstructured data sets and are deployed after performing and deploying robotic process automation.\nFeatures and phenomenology \nModeling: Workflow problems can be modeled and analyzed using graph-based formalisms like Petri nets.\nMeasurement: Many of the concepts used to measure scheduling systems in operations research are useful for measuring general workflows. These include throughput, processing time, and other regular metrics.\nSpecialized connotations: The term \"workflow\" has specialized connotations in information technology, document management, and imaging. Since 1993, one trade consortium specifically focused on workflow management and the interoperability of workflow management systems, the Workflow Management Coalition.[28]\nScientific workflow systems: These found wide acceptance in the fields of bioinformatics and cheminformatics in the early 2000s, when they met the need for multiple interconnected tools that handle multiple data formats and large data quantities. Also, the paradigm of scientific workflows resembles the well-established practice of Perl programming in life science research organizations, making this adoption a natural step towards more structured infrastructure setup.\nHuman-machine interaction: Several conceptualizations of mixed-initiative workflows have been studied, particularly in the military, where automated agents play roles just as humans do. For innovative, adaptive, and collaborative human work, the techniques of human interaction management are required.\nWorkflow analysis: Workflow systems allow users to develop executable processes with no familiarity with formal programming concepts. Automated workflow analysis techniques can help users analyze the properties of user workflows to conduct verification of certain properties before executing them, e.g., analyzing flow control or data flow. Examples of tools based on formal analysis frameworks have been developed and used for the analysis of scientific workflows and can be extended to the analysis of other types of workflows.[29]\nWorkflow improvement theories \nSeveral workflow improvement theories have been proposed and implemented in the modern workplace. These include:\n\nSix Sigma\nTotal Quality Management\nBusiness Process Reengineering\nLean systems\nTheory of Constraints\nEvaluation of resources, both physical and human, is essential to evaluate hand-off points and potential to create smoother transitions between tasks.[30]\n\nComponents \nA workflow can usually be described using formal or informal flow diagramming techniques, showing directed flows between processing steps. Single processing steps or components of a workflow can basically be defined by three parameters:\n\ninput description: the information, material and energy required to complete the step\ntransformation rules: algorithms which may be carried out by people or machines, or both\noutput description: the information, material, and energy produced by the step and provided as input to downstream steps\nComponents can only be plugged together if the output of one previous (set of) component(s) is equal to the mandatory input requirements of the following component(s). Thus, the essential description of a component actually comprises only input and output that are described fully in terms of data types and their meaning (semantics). The algorithms' or rules' descriptions need only be included when there are several alternative ways to transform one type of input into one type of output \u2013 possibly with different accuracy, speed, etc.\nWhen the components are non-local services that are invoked remotely via a computer network, such as Web services, additional descriptors (such as QoS and availability) also must be considered.[31]\n\nApplications \nMain article: Workflow application\n This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2018 ) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) \nMany software systems exist to support workflows in particular domains. Such systems manage tasks such as automatic routing, partially automated processing, and integration between different functional software applications and hardware systems that contribute to the value-addition process underlying the workflow. There are also software suppliers using the technology process driven messaging service based upon three elements:[citation needed ]\n\nStandard Objects\nWorkflow Objects\nWorkflow\nSee also \nBioinformatics workflow management systems\nBusiness process automation\nBusiness process management\nBusiness process modeling\nComputer-supported collaboration\nDRAKON visual language for business process modeling\nEnterprise content management\nProcess architecture\nProcess mining\nProcess-driven application\nWorkflow engine\nWorkforce modeling\nBusiness process reengineering\nReferences \n\n\n^ \"Business Process Management Center of Excellence Glossary\" (PDF) . 27 October 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 January 2017. Retrieved 31 March 2015 . \n\n^ See e.g., ISO 12052:2006, ISO.org \n\n^ See e.g., ISO\/TR 16044:2004, ISO.org \n\n^ \"Work Flow Automation\". Archived from the original on 2013-09-07. Retrieved 31 March 2015 . \n\n^ Taylor, 1919 \n\n^ Ngram Viewer \n\n^ Lawrence Saunders; S. R. Blundstone (1921). The Railway Engineer. \n\n^ Michael Chatfield; Richard Vangermeersch (5 February 2014). The History of Accounting (RLE Accounting): An International Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp.&#160;269\u2013. ISBN&#160;978-1-134-67545-6. \n\n^ Michael L. Pinedo (7 January 2012). Scheduling: Theory, Algorithms, and Systems. Springer. ISBN&#160;978-1-4614-2361-4. \n\n^ Ngram Viewer \n\n^ Katseneliboigen, A. (1990). \"Chapter 17: Nobel and Lenin Prize Laureate L.V. Kantorovich: The Political Dilemma in Scientific Creativity\". The Soviet Union: Empire, Nation, and System. Transaction Publishers. pp.&#160;405\u2013424. ISBN&#160;978-0887383328. Retrieved 20 January 2018 . \n\n^ Choudhury, K. (2002). \"Chapter 11: Leonid Kantorovich (1912\u20131986): A Pioneer of the Theory of Optimum Resource Allocation and a Laureate of 1975\". In Wahid, A.N.M. (ed.). Frontiers of Economics: Nobel Laureates of the Twentieth Century. Greenwood Press. pp.&#160;93\u201398. ISBN&#160;978-0313320736. Retrieved 20 January 2018 . \n\n^ Smith, J.L. (July 2009). \"The History of Modern Quality\". PeoriaMagazines.com. Central Illinois Business Publishers, Inc. Retrieved 20 January 2018 . \n\n^ Shrader, C.R. (2009). \"Chapter 9: ORSA and the Army, 1942\u20131995 - An Assessment\" (PDF) . History of Operations Research in the United States Army: Volume III, 1973\u20131995. Vol.&#160;3. United States Army. pp.&#160;277\u2013288. Retrieved 20 January 2018 . \n\n^ Robins Jr., C.H. (2007). \"Program and Project Management Improvement Initiatives\" (PDF) . ASK Magazine. 26: 50\u201354. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-01-24. \n\n^ Michael Hammer; James Champy (13 October 2009). Reengineering the Corporation: Manifesto for Business Revolution, A. HarperCollins. ISBN&#160;978-0-06-180864-7. \n\n^ Goldratt, Eliyahu M.\"My saga to improve production.\" MANAGEMENT TODAY-LONDON- (1996). \n\n^ Basu, A. and Kumar, A., Research Commentary: Workflow Management Issues in e-Business, Information Systems Research, volume 13, no. 1, March 2002, pp. 1-14, accessed 1 December 2022 \n\n^ a b Elmagarmid, A.; Du, W. (2012). \"Chapter 1: Workflow Management: State of the Art Versus State of the Products\". In Do\u011fa\u00e7, A.; Kalinichenko, L.; \u00d6zsu, T.; Sheth, A. (eds.). Workflow Management Systems and Interoperability. Springer Science &amp; Business Media. pp.&#160;1\u201317. ISBN&#160;9783642589089. Retrieved 18 January 2018 . \n\n^ Artem M. Chirkin, Sergey V. Kovalchuk (2014). \"Towards Better Workflow Execution Time Estimation\". IERI Procedia. 10: 216\u2013223. doi:10.1016\/j.ieri.2014.09.080 . \n\n^ Havey, M. (2005). \"Chapter 10: Example: Human Workflow in Insurance Claims Processing\". Essential Business Process Modeling. O'Reilly Media, Inc. pp.&#160;255\u2013284. ISBN&#160;9780596008437. Retrieved 18 January 2018 . \n\n^ Follow-the-sun process \n\n^ Brain Image Registration Analysis Workflow for fMRI Studies on Global Grids, Computer.org \n\n^ A grid workflow environment for brain imaging analysis on distributed systems, Wiley.com \n\n^ Bj\u00f8rner, Thomas; Schr\u00f8der, Morten (23 August 2019). \"Advantages and challenges of using mobile ethnography in a hospital case study: WhatsApp as a method to identify perceptions and practices\". Qualitative Research in Medicine and Healthcare. 3 (2). doi:10.4081\/qrmh.2019.7795 . \n\n^ Huser, V.; Rasmussen, L. V.; Oberg, R.; Starren, J. B. (2011). \"Implementation of workflow engine technology to deliver basic clinical decision support functionality\". BMC Medical Research Methodology. 11: 43. doi:10.1186\/1471-2288-11-43 . PMC&#160;3079703 . PMID&#160;21477364. \n\n^ Service-Oriented Architecture and Business Process Choreography in an Order Management Scenario: Rationale, Concepts, Lessons Learned, ACM.org \n\n^ \"Introduction to the Workflow Management Coalition\". Workflow Management Coalition. Retrieved 18 January 2018 . \n\n^ Curcin, V.; Ghanem, M.; Guo, Y. (2010). \"The design and implementation of a workflow analysis tool\" (PDF) . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 368 (1926): 4193\u2013208. Bibcode:2010RSPTA.368.4193C. doi:10.1098\/rsta.2010.0157. PMID&#160;20679131. S2CID&#160;7997426. \n\n^ Alvord, Brice (2013). Creating A Performance Based Culture In Your Workplace. Lulu.com. ISBN&#160;978-1105576072. \n\n^ D. Kyriazis; et&#160;al. (June 2008). \"An innovative workflow mapping mechanism for Grids in the frame of Quality of Service\". Future Generation Computer Systems. 24 (6): 498\u2013511. doi:10.1016\/j.future.2007.07.009. \n\n\nFurther reading \nRyan K. L. Ko, Stephen S. G. Lee, Eng Wah Lee (2009) Business Process Management (BPM) Standards: A Survey. In: Business Process Management Journal, Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Volume 15 Issue 5. ISSN&#160;1463-7154. PDF\nKhalid Belhajjame, Christine Collet, Genoveva Vargas-Solar: A Flexible Workflow Model for Process-Oriented Applications. WISE (1) 2001, IEEE CS, 2001.\nLayna Fischer (ed.): 2007 BPM and Workflow Handbook, Future Strategies Inc., ISBN&#160;978-0-9777527-1-3\nLayna Fischer: Workflow Handbook 2005, Future Strategies, ISBN&#160;0-9703509-8-8\nLayna Fischer: Excellence in Practice, Volume V: Innovation and Excellence in Workflow and Business Process Management, ISBN&#160;0-9703509-5-3\nThomas L. Friedman: The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, ISBN&#160;0-374-29288-4\nKeith Harrison-Broninski. Human Interactions: The Heart and Soul of Business Process Management. ISBN&#160;0-929652-44-4\nHolly Yu: Content and Work Flow Management for Library Websites: Case Studies, Information Science Publishing, ISBN&#160;1-59140-534-3\nWil van der Aalst, Kees van Hee: Workflow Management: Models, Methods, and Systems, B&amp;T, ISBN&#160;0-262-72046-9\nSetrag Khoshafian, Marek Buckiewicz: Introduction to Groupware, Workflow and Workgroup Computing, John Wiley &amp; Sons, ISBN&#160;0-471-02946-7\nRashid N. Kahn: Understanding Workflow Automation: A Guide to Enhancing Customer Loyalty, Prentice Hall, ISBN&#160;0-13-061918-3\nDan C. Marinescu: Internet-Based Workflow Management: Towards a Semantic Web, John Wiley &amp; Sons, ISBN&#160;0-471-43962-2\nFrank Leymann, Dieter Roller: Production Workflow: Concepts and Techniques, Prentice Hall, ISBN&#160;0-13-021753-0\nMichael Jackson, Graham Twaddle: Business Process Implementation: Building Workflow Systems, Addison-Wesley, ISBN&#160;0-201-17768-4\nAlec Sharp, Patrick McDermott: Workflow Modeling, Artech House Publishers, ISBN&#160;1-58053-021-4\nToni Hupp: Designing Work Groups, Jobs, and Work Flow, Pfeiffer &amp; Company, ISBN&#160;0-7879-0063-X\nGary Poyssick, Steve Hannaford: Workflow Reengineering, Adobe, ISBN&#160;1-56830-265-7\nDave Chaffey: Groupware, Workflow and Intranets: Reengineering the Enterprise with Collaborative Software, Digital Press, ISBN&#160;1-55558-184-6\nWolfgang Gruber: Modeling and Transformation of Workflows With Temporal Constraints, IOS Press, ISBN&#160;1-58603-416-2\nAndrzej Cichocki, Marek Rusinkiewicz, Darrell Woelk: Workflow and Process Automation Concepts and Technology, Kluwer Academic Publishers, ISBN&#160;0-7923-8099-1\nAlan R. Simon, William Marion: Workgroup Computing: Workflow, Groupware, and Messaging, McGraw-Hill, ISBN&#160;0-07-057628-9\nPenny Ann Dolin: Exploring Digital Workflow, Delmar Thomson Learning, ISBN&#160;1-4018-9654-5\nGary Poyssick: Managing Digital Workflow, Prentice Hall, ISBN&#160;0-13-010911-8\nFrank J. Romano: PDF Printing &amp; Workflow, Prentice Hall, ISBN&#160;0-13-020837-X\nJames G. Kobielus: Workflow Strategies, Hungry Minds, ISBN&#160;0-7645-3012-7\nAlan Rickayzen, Jocelyn Dart, Carsten Brennecke: Practical Workflow for SAP, Galileo, ISBN&#160;1-59229-006-X\nAlan Pelz-Sharpe, Angela Ashenden: E-process: Workflow for the E-business, Ovum, ISBN&#160;1-902566-65-3\nStanislaw Wrycza: Systems Development Methods for Databases, Enterprise Modeling, and Workflow Management, Kluwer Academic\/Plenum Publishers, ISBN&#160;0-306-46299-0\nDatabase Support for Workflow Management, Kluwer Academic Publishers, ISBN&#160;0-7923-8414-8\nMatthew Searle: Developing With Oracle Workflow\nV. Curcin and M. Ghanem, Scientific workflow systems - can one size fit all? paper in CIBEC'08 comparing scientific workflow systems.\nExternal links \n\n\n \nLook up workflow in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.\n\nWorkflow Patterns\nWorkflow Management Coalition\nAuthority control databases: National \nGermany \nCzech Republic \n\n\n\n\n\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow<\/a>\nCategory: Business and data managementHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 21 September 2022, at 15:38.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 15,569 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Workflow rootpage-Workflow skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Workflow<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Pattern of activity often with a result<\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:MediaWiki-Wikimedia_Git-Gerrit_workflow.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"e7edcac1398387c54f466abe25a06172\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/3\/31\/MediaWiki-Wikimedia_Git-Gerrit_workflow.svg\/170px-MediaWiki-Wikimedia_Git-Gerrit_workflow.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"170\" height=\"203\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikimedia_Foundation\" title=\"Wikimedia Foundation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9cb17db82e9c5b860e6af82a8fee456f\">Wikimedia<\/a> developer workflow<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Wineglass_model_for_IMRaD_structure..png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"eaa68e1096b240b43e879fdcb7dc08b1\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/75\/Wineglass_model_for_IMRaD_structure..png\/220px-Wineglass_model_for_IMRaD_structure..png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"163\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>An <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IMRAD\" title=\"IMRAD\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f269efe59296b7963fb1e609a5f748e4\">IMRAD<\/a> model for developing research articles<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>A <b>workflow<\/b> is a generic term for orchestrated and repeatable <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pattern\" title=\"Pattern\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a94e18ca968394d05fbd59fb8c129d93\">patterns<\/a> of activity, enabled by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System\" title=\"System\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dca080f9487afe3b315fe16a2d522534\">systematic<\/a> organization of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Resource\" title=\"Resource\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7c7cd6da7942777a503a806b9efabd61\">resources<\/a> into <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Process\" title=\"Process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3115fb894cf5395d1e8ee118f27bccb8\">processes<\/a> that transform materials, provide services, or process information.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ca_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ca-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> It can be depicted as a sequence of operations, the work of a person or group,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> the work of an organization of staff, or one or more simple or complex mechanisms.\n<\/p><p>From a more abstract or higher-level perspective, workflow may be considered a view or representation of real work.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> The flow being described may refer to a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Document\" title=\"Document\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f0fd03f08b691946949dcab005c763f\">document<\/a>, service, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Product_(business)\" title=\"Product (business)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"56bd07708a3bfd57d684969dc2feb35e\">product<\/a> that is being transferred from one step to another.\n<\/p><p>Workflows may be viewed as one fundamental building block to be combined with other parts of an organization's structure such as information technology, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Team\" title=\"Team\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"21e1148cb2114293f9acd673a7a947ef\">teams<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Project\" title=\"Project\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f05b38496b9578ab9149bf3fa7c4ea82\">projects<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hierarchical_organization\" title=\"Hierarchical organization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6314ecef4610d5ae2357fbb4b50a182d\">hierarchies<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-nocsmart_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-nocsmart-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Historical_development\">Historical development<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The development of the concept of a workflow occurred above a series of loosely defined, overlapping eras.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Beginnings_in_manufacturing\">Beginnings in manufacturing<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The modern history of workflows can be traced to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Frederick_Winslow_Taylor\" title=\"Frederick Winslow Taylor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9757851a201d8a90bd3a3089cd00f759\">Frederick Taylor<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Henry_Gantt\" title=\"Henry Gantt\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48b9c4f8cc94b1e02d99c57c412a5211\">Henry Gantt<\/a>, although the term \"workflow\" was not in use as such during their lifetimes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> One of the earliest instances of the term \"work flow\" was in a railway engineering journal from 1921.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SaundersBlundstone1921_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SaundersBlundstone1921-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Taylor and Gantt launched the study of the deliberate, rational organization of work, primarily in the context of manufacturing. This gave rise to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Time_and_motion_studies\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Time and motion studies\" data-key=\"98b054d970c1b7a4bac61754c3d7c571\">time and motion studies<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ChatfieldVangermeersch2014_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ChatfieldVangermeersch2014-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> Related concepts include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Job_shop\" title=\"Job shop\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01876bd39213b05f8431b397e6ec612b\">job shops<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Queuing_systems\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Queuing systems\" data-key=\"a6aac17ea02f087216dbcb9b1295561e\">queuing systems<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Markov_chain\" title=\"Markov chain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bb093cd2ce513984e63cc1e4890c5da8\">Markov chains<\/a>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Pinedo2012_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Pinedo2012-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The 1948 book <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cheaper_by_the_Dozen\" title=\"Cheaper by the Dozen\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b88c12e16c038b2c9c350d8375c6934e\">Cheaper by the Dozen<\/a><\/i> introduced the emerging concepts to the context of family life.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Maturation_and_growth\">Maturation and growth<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The invention of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Typewriter\" title=\"Typewriter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"25504ba78ea90d5a3043a8a990848eed\">typewriter<\/a> and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Copier\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Copier\" data-key=\"f9db9a9d4fe3e32f3495a9eb0717d22e\">copier<\/a> helped spread the study of the rational organization of labor from the manufacturing shop floor to the office. Filing systems and other sophisticated systems for managing physical <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3af0e7a381a856e93e11b5036866eb24\">information<\/a> flows evolved. Several events likely contributed to the development of formalized information workflows. First, the field of optimization theory matured and developed <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mathematical_optimization\" title=\"Mathematical optimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3971a7d176811cdbfe476e66dedd7be2\">mathematical optimization<\/a> techniques. For example, Soviet mathematician and economist <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Leonid_Kantorovich\" title=\"Leonid Kantorovich\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96cc33e762dd442da550d8d0636f6b0f\">Leonid Kantorovich<\/a> developed the seeds of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linear_programming\" title=\"Linear programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"606d72e648726085146059985274aa49\">linear programming<\/a> in 1939 through efforts to solve a plywood manufacturer's production optimization issues.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KatseneliboigenTheSoviet90_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KatseneliboigenTheSoviet90-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WahidFrontiers02_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WahidFrontiers02-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> Second, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/World_War_II\" title=\"World War II\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3e84fed64df8fb7b478f5e52dbb470eb\">World War II<\/a> and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apollo_program\" title=\"Apollo program\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1114d4f4adc7157ee79700d1824c6cdd\">Apollo program<\/a> drove process improvement forward with their demands for the rational organization of work.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SmithTheHist09_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SmithTheHist09-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ShraderHistory06_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ShraderHistory06-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RobinsJrProgram07_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RobinsJrProgram07-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Quality_era\">Quality era<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In the post-war era, the work of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/W._Edwards_Deming\" title=\"W. Edwards Deming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"674575ae1283fd24f50baa51bbb92ff5\">W. Edwards Deming<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Joseph_M._Juran\" title=\"Joseph M. Juran\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"609b315e0f4990a7662cb2256c0694e3\">Joseph M. Juran<\/a> led to a focus on quality, first in Japanese companies, and more globally from the 1980s: there were various movements ranging from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Total_quality_management\" title=\"Total quality management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d7ff8974e0ed3e523301170d7548c0c5\">total quality management<\/a> to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Six_Sigma\" title=\"Six Sigma\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0be577435c2e3aecd2fbb7a226eb9558\">Six Sigma<\/a>, and then more qualitative notions of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process_re-engineering\" title=\"Business process re-engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3477a9bef35b8abeeac0c56d503205a4\">business process re-engineering<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HammerChampy2009_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HammerChampy2009-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> This led to more efforts to improve workflows, in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_economy\" title=\"Knowledge economy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"132c5811eb564506dfc4214e98c5de15\">knowledge economy<\/a> sectors as well as in manufacturing. Variable demands on workflows were recognised when the theory of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Critical_path_method\" title=\"Critical path method\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dc711b5ef0ccb3636c7199d9f50bad2e\">critical paths<\/a> and moving bottlenecks was considered.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Workflow_management\">Workflow management<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Basu and Kumar note that the term \"workflow management\" has been used to refer to tasks associated with the flow of information through the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Value_chain\" title=\"Value chain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d3d880dcb63554da62a8d558a3c1217e\">value chain<\/a> rather than the flow of material goods: they characterise the definition, analysis and management of information as \"workflow management\". They note that workflow can be managed within a single organisation, where distinct roles are allocated to individual resources, and also across multiple organisations or distributed locations, where attention needs to be paid to the interactions between activities which are located at the organizational or locational boundaries. The transmission of information from one organization to another is a critical issue in this inter-organizational context and raises the importance of tasks they describe as \"validation\", \"verification\" and \"data usage analysis\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Workflow_management_systems\">Workflow management systems<\/span><\/h2>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Workflow_management_system\" title=\"Workflow management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6431e43c8af23358c867106d508ce082\">Workflow management system<\/a><\/div>\n<p>A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Workflow_management_system\" title=\"Workflow management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6431e43c8af23358c867106d508ce082\">workflow management system<\/a> (WfMS) is a software system for setting up, performing, and monitoring a defined sequence of processes and tasks, with the broad goals of increasing productivity, reducing costs, becoming more agile, and improving information exchange within an organization.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ElmagarmidWorkflow12_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ElmagarmidWorkflow12-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> These systems may be process-centric or data-centric, and they may represent the workflow as graphical maps. A workflow management system may also include an extensible interface so that external software applications can be integrated and provide support for wide area workflows that provide faster response times and improved productivity.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ElmagarmidWorkflow12_19-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ElmagarmidWorkflow12-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Related_concepts\">Related concepts<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The concept of workflow is closely related to several fields in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operations_research\" title=\"Operations research\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea13bd10effe5b252bd593334c52b8a8\">operations research<\/a> and other areas that study the nature of work, either quantitatively or qualitatively, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f69d9e0954165931d1f7176b378dc39f\">artificial intelligence<\/a> (in particular, the sub-discipline of AI planning) and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethnography\" title=\"Ethnography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ee4fa43ce4b93ba4cc1cd87abdc06ccd\">ethnography<\/a>. The term \"workflow\" is more commonly used in particular industries, such as in printing or professional domains such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Clinical_laboratory\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Clinical laboratory\" data-key=\"612f93fa53c0d870cd26f542ee0b88a9\">clinical laboratories<\/a>, where it may have particular specialized meanings.\n<\/p>\n<ol><li><b>Processes<\/b>: A process is a more general notion than workflow and can apply to, for example, physical or biological processes, whereas a workflow is typically a process or collection of processes described in the context of work, such as all processes occurring in a machine shop.<\/li>\n<li><b>Planning and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Schedule_(project_management)\" title=\"Schedule (project management)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d53f71ae2c15d03d19ad3ec274c61949\">scheduling<\/a><\/b>: A plan is a description of the logically necessary, partially ordered set of activities required to accomplish a specific goal given certain starting conditions. A plan, when augmented with a schedule and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Resource_allocation\" title=\"Resource allocation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea0c5c883dd45b5f0cc1b26dec7b26f7\">resource allocation<\/a> calculations, completely defines a particular <i>instance<\/i> of systematic processing in pursuit of a goal. A workflow may be viewed as an often optimal or near-optimal realization of the mechanisms required to execute the same plan repeatedly.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Flow_control_(data)\" title=\"Flow control (data)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1278bc31551cbe1aa5afb731a18e6593\">Flow control<\/a><\/b>: This is a control concept applied to workflows, to distinguish from static control of buffers of material or orders, to mean a more dynamic control of flow speed and flow volumes in motion and in process. Such orientation to dynamic aspects is the basic foundation to prepare for more advanced job shop controls, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Just-in-time_(business)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Just-in-time (business)\" data-key=\"f1b36ec1934b52e33f2dba237b5c565c\">just-in-time<\/a> or just-in-sequence.<\/li>\n<li><b>In-transit visibility<\/b>: This monitoring concept applies to transported material as well as to work in process or work in progress, i.e., workflows.<\/li><\/ol>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Examples\">Examples<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Business_Process_Modelling_Workflow_Schematic.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"9ad0eab6fda6bfcda483641005d0ae1e\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/74\/Business_Process_Modelling_Workflow_Schematic.svg\/220px-Business_Process_Modelling_Workflow_Schematic.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"118\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Business Process Modelling<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>The following examples illustrate the variety of workflows seen in various contexts:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>In machine shops, particularly <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Job_shop\" title=\"Job shop\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01876bd39213b05f8431b397e6ec612b\">job shops<\/a> and flow shops, the flow of a part through the various processing stations is a workflow.<\/li>\n<li>Insurance claims processing is an example of an information-intensive, document-driven workflow.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HaveyEssential05_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HaveyEssential05-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Wikipedia editing can be modeled as a stochastic workflow.<\/li>\n<li>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Getting_Things_Done\" title=\"Getting Things Done\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c9433a83ac723bae83b8f83290255a11\">Getting Things Done<\/a> system is a model of personal workflow management for information workers.<\/li>\n<li>In software development, support and other industries, the concept of <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Follow-the-sun\" title=\"Follow-the-sun\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5ef29d3fb68227343b21366955d0abce\">follow-the-sun<\/a><\/i> describes a process of passing unfinished work across time zones.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>In traditional offset and digital printing, the concept of workflow represents the process, people, and usually software technology (RIPs raster image processors or DFE digital front end) controllers that play a part in pre\/post processing of print-related files, e.g., PDF pre-flight checking to make certain that fonts are embedded or that the imaging output to plate or digital press will be able to render the document intent properly for the image-output capabilities of the press that will print the final image.<\/li>\n<li>In scientific experiments, the overall process (tasks and data flow) can be described as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Directed_acyclic_graph\" title=\"Directed acyclic graph\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ffc54b1becafa75ddce26d12f6300ea0\">directed acyclic graph<\/a> (DAG). This DAG is referred to as a workflow, e.g., Brain Imaging workflows.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>In healthcare data analysis, a workflow can be identified or used to represent a sequence of steps which compose a complex data analysis.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-25\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-hf2010_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-hf2010-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Service-oriented_architecture\" title=\"Service-oriented architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"baeda155bcadf284dc1b57450100a5e3\">service-oriented architectures<\/a>, an application can be represented through an executable workflow, where different, possibly geographically distributed, service components interact to provide the corresponding functionality under the control of a workflow management system.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shared_services\" title=\"Shared services\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"472bc95815b1201a081b4228980ef1ab\">shared services<\/a>, an application can be in the practice of developing robotic process automation (called RPA or RPAAI for self-guided RPA 2.0 based on artificial intelligence) which results in the deployment of attended or unattended software agents to an organization's environment. These software agents, or robots, are deployed to perform pre-defined structured and repetitive sets of business tasks or processes. Artificial intelligence software robots are deployed to handle <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unstructured_data\" title=\"Unstructured data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2cf4a063df1dfbf948f0824b167984c\">unstructured data<\/a> sets and are deployed after performing and deploying robotic process automation.<\/li><\/ol>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Features_and_phenomenology\">Features and phenomenology<\/span><\/h2>\n<ol><li>Modeling: Workflow problems can be modeled and analyzed using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Graph_theory\" title=\"Graph theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"66494bef3c8b6c132b662abbb64de32f\">graph<\/a>-based formalisms like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Petri_net\" title=\"Petri net\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"451973638a098a0bccb09eafc97b3f43\">Petri nets<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>Measurement: Many of the concepts used to measure scheduling systems in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operations_research\" title=\"Operations research\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea13bd10effe5b252bd593334c52b8a8\">operations research<\/a> are useful for measuring general workflows. These include throughput, processing time, and other regular metrics.<\/li>\n<li>Specialized connotations: The term \"workflow\" has specialized connotations in information technology, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Document_management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Document management\" data-key=\"84ae20341cf0be32bb34be5744d7caec\">document management<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Document_imaging\" title=\"Document imaging\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d01584651c6799bcace84955d063f1b\">imaging<\/a>. Since 1993, one trade consortium specifically focused on workflow management and the interoperability of workflow management systems, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Workflow_Management_Coalition\" title=\"Workflow Management Coalition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fdf473ab608cb3d0eec71818a66de801\">Workflow Management Coalition<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-28\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scientific_workflow_system\" title=\"Scientific workflow system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42a462e48db2620295aa9c7896bdd969\">Scientific workflow systems<\/a>: These found wide acceptance in the fields of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bioinformatics\" title=\"Bioinformatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01737c6289ef7671d2c932a51babe26b\">bioinformatics<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cheminformatics\" title=\"Cheminformatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2c23d43efab9d8b91d88fac55cfcad92\">cheminformatics<\/a> in the early 2000s, when they met the need for multiple interconnected tools that handle multiple data formats and large data quantities. Also, the paradigm of scientific workflows resembles the well-established practice of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Perl\" title=\"Perl\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0289e790706647de3328232cc36b6867\">Perl<\/a> programming in life science research organizations, making this adoption a natural step towards more structured infrastructure setup.<\/li>\n<li>Human-machine interaction: Several conceptualizations of mixed-initiative workflows have been studied, particularly in the military, where automated agents play roles just as humans do. For innovative, adaptive, and collaborative human work, the techniques of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_interaction_management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Human interaction management\" data-key=\"5aaac8142f7b6008b53ce27c300ee9c3\">human interaction management<\/a> are required.<\/li>\n<li>Workflow analysis: Workflow systems allow users to develop executable processes with no familiarity with formal programming concepts. Automated workflow analysis techniques can help users analyze the properties of user workflows to conduct verification of certain properties before executing them, e.g., analyzing flow control or data flow. Examples of tools based on formal analysis frameworks have been developed and used for the analysis of scientific workflows and can be extended to the analysis of other types of workflows.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-29\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ol>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Workflow_improvement_theories\">Workflow improvement theories<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Several workflow improvement theories have been proposed and implemented in the modern workplace. These include:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Six_Sigma\" title=\"Six Sigma\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0be577435c2e3aecd2fbb7a226eb9558\">Six Sigma<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Total_Quality_Management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Total Quality Management\" data-key=\"b2de7e31ba49c51c58b3be3fe8e9599c\">Total Quality Management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_Process_Reengineering\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Business Process Reengineering\" data-key=\"9aafe1ae52a0c79824ebee24ff308dcc\">Business Process Reengineering<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lean_manufacturing\" title=\"Lean manufacturing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4b188b1c560ee0ed6744b64fbdcfd8a8\">Lean<\/a> systems<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Theory_of_Constraints\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Theory of Constraints\" data-key=\"4e6adbc97e28c28645329207054f0343\">Theory of Constraints<\/a><\/li><\/ol>\n<p>Evaluation of resources, both physical and human, is essential to evaluate hand-off points and potential to create smoother transitions between tasks.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-30\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Components\">Components<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>A workflow can usually be described using formal or informal flow diagramming techniques, showing directed flows between processing steps. Single processing steps or components of a workflow can basically be defined by three parameters:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>input description: the information, material and energy required to complete the step<\/li>\n<li>transformation rules: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Algorithm\" title=\"Algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b91430604726f884a846b998f41902e\">algorithms<\/a> which may be carried out by people or machines, or both<\/li>\n<li>output description: the information, material, and energy produced by the step and provided as input to downstream steps<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>Components can only be plugged together if the output of one previous (set of) component(s) is equal to the mandatory input requirements of the following component(s). Thus, the essential description of a component actually comprises only input and output that are described fully in terms of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_type\" title=\"Data type\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3beae0a1a0ef5c72cb4cf9a31d42812f\">data types<\/a> and their meaning (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantics\" title=\"Semantics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"74dfd4c30b765f279ab114a98bb29fbc\">semantics<\/a>). The algorithms' or rules' descriptions need only be included when there are several alternative ways to transform one type of input into one type of output \u2013 possibly with different accuracy, speed, etc.\n<\/p><p>When the components are non-local services that are invoked remotely via a computer network, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_service\" title=\"Web service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e72dffc79d570a758fb072280ae0ca6e\">Web services<\/a>, additional descriptors (such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quality_of_service\" title=\"Quality of service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c56f9ddc8bd39c0b2e32a48b0f5bc004\">QoS<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Availability\" title=\"Availability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"852165c687e5f61ae873818e8645f987\">availability<\/a>) also must be considered.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-31\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Applications\">Applications<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Workflow_application\" title=\"Workflow application\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"510f7737f87ae24c068911ecc007f35f\">Workflow application<\/a><\/div>\n\n<p>Many software systems exist to support workflows in particular domains. Such systems manage tasks such as automatic routing, partially automated processing, and integration between different functional software applications and hardware systems that contribute to the value-addition process underlying the workflow. There are also software suppliers using the technology <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Process_driven_messaging_service\" title=\"Process driven messaging service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f7abf08bb4827019c112424ddc1b69be\">process driven messaging service<\/a> based upon three elements:<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"Couldn't find a source for any of this, and main article has no citations as well. (January 2018)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Standard Objects<\/li>\n<li>Workflow Objects<\/li>\n<li>Workflow<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bioinformatics_workflow_management_systems\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bioinformatics workflow management systems\" data-key=\"9783f5c223a56336056479c3cba51832\">Bioinformatics workflow management systems<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process_automation\" title=\"Business process automation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e6961c6e95c105b9a05bf46f6e116c7d\">Business process automation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process_management\" title=\"Business process management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ce8956a01af347b785be586638ef83c\">Business process management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process_modeling\" title=\"Business process modeling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9715c2f913e0cf460e06594cdf1926de\">Business process modeling<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer-supported_collaboration\" title=\"Computer-supported collaboration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dface0bc80d9b5201bfe89720e0c1143\">Computer-supported collaboration<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DRAKON\" title=\"DRAKON\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81691cc325aff5c9ccefa112a414ae72\">DRAKON visual language for business process modeling<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_content_management\" title=\"Enterprise content management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6c41c797e73c520a9ca95ccbdf23ca7e\">Enterprise content management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Process_architecture\" title=\"Process architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1cae545f7bdb9d10abfdbfc3571c7e9a\">Process architecture<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Process_mining\" title=\"Process mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4d79e4c479ad793a0fed95c8594b6324\">Process mining<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Process-driven_application\" title=\"Process-driven application\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7d3b7d4ac36909c2706b7b4437e23426\">Process-driven application<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Workflow_engine\" title=\"Workflow engine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7c3b45676d701747ace4f17b7e735f19\">Workflow engine<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Workforce_modeling\" title=\"Workforce modeling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d6ca6d5cc5a94d5e4ac4503a6b33241a\">Workforce modeling<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process_reengineering\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Business process reengineering\" data-key=\"b2557bdd893725411890e399d34a9697\">Business process reengineering<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist reflist-columns references-column-width\" style=\"column-width: 30em;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-ca-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ca_1-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170131011831\/https:\/\/www.ftb.ca.gov\/aboutFTB\/Projects\/ITSP\/BPM_Glossary.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Business Process Management Center of Excellence Glossary\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. 27 October 2009. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ftb.ca.gov\/aboutFTB\/Projects\/ITSP\/BPM_Glossary.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 31 January 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 March<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Business+Process+Management+Center+of+Excellence+Glossary&amp;rft.date=2009-10-27&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ftb.ca.gov%2FaboutFTB%2FProjects%2FITSP%2FBPM_Glossary.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">See e.g., ISO 12052:2006, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\" target=\"_blank\">ISO.org<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">See e.g., ISO\/TR 16044:2004, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\" target=\"_blank\">ISO.org<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-nocsmart-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-nocsmart_4-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130907014418\/http:\/\/nocsmart.com\/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=17&Itemid=135\" target=\"_blank\">\"Work Flow Automation\"<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nocsmart.com\/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=17&Itemid=135\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 2013-09-07<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 March<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Work+Flow+Automation&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nocsmart.com%2Findex.php%3Foption%3Dcom_content%26view%3Darticle%26id%3D17%26Itemid%3D135&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Taylor, 1919<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-6\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/ngrams\/graph?content=workflow%2Cwork+flow%2C+work-flow&year_start=1800&year_end=2000&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2Cworkflow%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cwork%20flow%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cwork%20-%20flow%3B%2Cc0\" target=\"_blank\">Ngram Viewer <\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SaundersBlundstone1921-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SaundersBlundstone1921_7-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLawrence_SaundersS._R._Blundstone1921\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Lawrence Saunders; S. R. Blundstone (1921). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=nBbnAAAAMAAJ\" target=\"_blank\"><i>The Railway Engineer<\/i><\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Railway+Engineer&amp;rft.date=1921&amp;rft.au=Lawrence+Saunders&amp;rft.au=S.+R.+Blundstone&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnBbnAAAAMAAJ&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ChatfieldVangermeersch2014-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ChatfieldVangermeersch2014_8-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMichael_ChatfieldRichard_Vangermeersch2014\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Michael_Chatfield\" title=\"Michael Chatfield\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce5557d9bb5890fc3120f0d583c63963\">Michael Chatfield<\/a>; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Richard_Vangermeersch\" title=\"Richard Vangermeersch\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43ff03719831dd1bf783d0e44ea00212\">Richard Vangermeersch<\/a> (5 February 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=DmnMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA269\" target=\"_blank\"><i>The History of Accounting (RLE Accounting): An International Encyclopedia<\/i><\/a>. Routledge. pp.&#160;269\u2013. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-134-67545-6<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+History+of+Accounting+%28RLE+Accounting%29%3A+An+International+Encyclopedia&amp;rft.pages=269-&amp;rft.pub=Routledge&amp;rft.date=2014-02-05&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-134-67545-6&amp;rft.au=Michael+Chatfield&amp;rft.au=Richard+Vangermeersch&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDmnMAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA269&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Pinedo2012-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Pinedo2012_9-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMichael_L._Pinedo2012\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Michael L. Pinedo (7 January 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=QRiDnuXSnVwC\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Scheduling: Theory, Algorithms, and Systems<\/i><\/a>. Springer. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-4614-2361-4<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Scheduling%3A+Theory%2C+Algorithms%2C+and+Systems&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.date=2012-01-07&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-4614-2361-4&amp;rft.au=Michael+L.+Pinedo&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQRiDnuXSnVwC&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-10\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/ngrams\/graph?content=job+shops%2Cflow+shops%2Cqueuing+systems&year_start=1800&year_end=2000&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2Cjob%20shops%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cflow%20shops%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cqueuing%20systems%3B%2Cc0\" target=\"_blank\">Ngram Viewer<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KatseneliboigenTheSoviet90-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-KatseneliboigenTheSoviet90_11-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKatseneliboigen,_A.1990\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Katseneliboigen, A. (1990). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=r3bYoKUYXaYC&pg=PA410\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 17: Nobel and Lenin Prize Laureate L.V. Kantorovich: The Political Dilemma in Scientific Creativity\"<\/a>. <i>The Soviet Union: Empire, Nation, and System<\/i>. Transaction Publishers. pp.&#160;405\u2013424. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0887383328<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">20 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+17%3A+Nobel+and+Lenin+Prize+Laureate+L.V.+Kantorovich%3A+The+Political+Dilemma+in+Scientific+Creativity&amp;rft.btitle=The+Soviet+Union%3A+Empire%2C+Nation%2C+and+System&amp;rft.pages=405-424&amp;rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&amp;rft.date=1990&amp;rft.isbn=978-0887383328&amp;rft.au=Katseneliboigen%2C+A.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dr3bYoKUYXaYC%26pg%3DPA410&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WahidFrontiers02-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-WahidFrontiers02_12-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFChoudhury,_K.2002\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Choudhury, K. (2002). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=J9CwoSxpHXYC&pg=PA95\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 11: Leonid Kantorovich (1912\u20131986): A Pioneer of the Theory of Optimum Resource Allocation and a Laureate of 1975\"<\/a>. In Wahid, A.N.M. (ed.). <i>Frontiers of Economics: Nobel Laureates of the Twentieth Century<\/i>. Greenwood Press. pp.&#160;93\u201398. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0313320736<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">20 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+11%3A+Leonid+Kantorovich+%281912%E2%80%931986%29%3A+A+Pioneer+of+the+Theory+of+Optimum+Resource+Allocation+and+a+Laureate+of+1975&amp;rft.btitle=Frontiers+of+Economics%3A+Nobel+Laureates+of+the+Twentieth+Century&amp;rft.pages=93-98&amp;rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.isbn=978-0313320736&amp;rft.au=Choudhury%2C+K.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJ9CwoSxpHXYC%26pg%3DPA95&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SmithTheHist09-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SmithTheHist09_13-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSmith,_J.L.2009\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Smith, J.L. (July 2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.peoriamagazines.com\/ibi\/2009\/jul\/history-modern-quality\" target=\"_blank\">\"The History of Modern Quality\"<\/a>. <i>PeoriaMagazines.com<\/i>. Central Illinois Business Publishers, Inc<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">20 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=PeoriaMagazines.com&amp;rft.atitle=The+History+of+Modern+Quality&amp;rft.date=2009-07&amp;rft.au=Smith%2C+J.L.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.peoriamagazines.com%2Fibi%2F2009%2Fjul%2Fhistory-modern-quality&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ShraderHistory06-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ShraderHistory06_14-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFShrader,_C.R.2009\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Shrader, C.R. (2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/history.army.mil\/html\/books\/operations_research_vol3\/CMH_70-110-1.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 9: ORSA and the Army, 1942\u20131995 - An Assessment\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>History of Operations Research in the United States Army: Volume III, 1973\u20131995<\/i>. Vol.&#160;3. United States Army. pp.&#160;277\u2013288<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">20 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+9%3A+ORSA+and+the+Army%2C+1942%E2%80%931995+-+An+Assessment&amp;rft.btitle=History+of+Operations+Research+in+the+United+States+Army%3A+Volume+III%2C+1973%E2%80%931995&amp;rft.pages=277-288&amp;rft.pub=United+States+Army&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.au=Shrader%2C+C.R.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory.army.mil%2Fhtml%2Fbooks%2Foperations_research_vol3%2FCMH_70-110-1.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RobinsJrProgram07-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-RobinsJrProgram07_15-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRobins_Jr.,_C.H.2007\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Robins Jr., C.H. (2007). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170124224957\/https:\/\/appel.nasa.gov\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2013\/05\/NASA_APPEL_ASK_26po_program.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Program and Project Management Improvement Initiatives\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>ASK Magazine<\/i>. <b>26<\/b>: 50\u201354. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/appel.nasa.gov\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2013\/05\/NASA_APPEL_ASK_26po_program.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 2017-01-24.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=ASK+Magazine&amp;rft.atitle=Program+and+Project+Management+Improvement+Initiatives&amp;rft.volume=26&amp;rft.pages=50-54&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.au=Robins+Jr.%2C+C.H.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fappel.nasa.gov%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2Fsites%2F2%2F2013%2F05%2FNASA_APPEL_ASK_26po_program.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HammerChampy2009-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-HammerChampy2009_16-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMichael_HammerJames_Champy2009\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Michael Hammer; James Champy (13 October 2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=mjvGTXgFl6cC\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Reengineering the Corporation: Manifesto for Business Revolution, A<\/i><\/a>. HarperCollins. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-06-180864-7<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Reengineering+the+Corporation%3A+Manifesto+for+Business+Revolution%2C+A&amp;rft.pub=HarperCollins&amp;rft.date=2009-10-13&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-06-180864-7&amp;rft.au=Michael+Hammer&amp;rft.au=James+Champy&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmjvGTXgFl6cC&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Goldratt, Eliyahu M.<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.toc-goldratt.com\/content\/My-Saga-to-Improve-Production\" target=\"_blank\">\"My saga to improve production.\" MANAGEMENT TODAY-LONDON- (1996).<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-18\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Basu, A. and Kumar, A., <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/23015820\" target=\"_blank\">Research Commentary: Workflow Management Issues in e-Business<\/a>, <i>Information Systems Research<\/i>, volume 13, no. 1, March 2002, pp. 1-14, accessed 1 December 2022<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ElmagarmidWorkflow12-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-ElmagarmidWorkflow12_19-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ElmagarmidWorkflow12_19-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFElmagarmidDu2012\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Elmagarmid, A.; Du, W. (2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=FgSrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: Workflow Management: State of the Art Versus State of the Products\"<\/a>. In Do\u011fa\u00e7, A.; Kalinichenko, L.; \u00d6zsu, T.; Sheth, A. (eds.). <i>Workflow Management Systems and Interoperability<\/i>. Springer Science &amp; Business Media. pp.&#160;1\u201317. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9783642589089<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+Workflow+Management%3A+State+of+the+Art+Versus+State+of+the+Products&amp;rft.btitle=Workflow+Management+Systems+and+Interoperability&amp;rft.pages=1-17&amp;rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.isbn=9783642589089&amp;rft.aulast=Elmagarmid&amp;rft.aufirst=A.&amp;rft.au=Du%2C+W.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFgSrCAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-20\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFArtem_M._Chirkin,_Sergey_V._Kovalchuk2014\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Artem M. Chirkin, Sergey V. Kovalchuk (2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.ieri.2014.09.080\" target=\"_blank\">\"Towards Better Workflow Execution Time Estimation\"<\/a>. <i>IERI Procedia<\/i>. <b>10<\/b>: 216\u2013223. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.ieri.2014.09.080\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.ieri.2014.09.080<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=IERI+Procedia&amp;rft.atitle=Towards+Better+Workflow+Execution+Time+Estimation&amp;rft.volume=10&amp;rft.pages=216-223&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ieri.2014.09.080&amp;rft.au=Artem+M.+Chirkin%2C+Sergey+V.+Kovalchuk&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.ieri.2014.09.080&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HaveyEssential05-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-HaveyEssential05_21-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHavey,_M.2005\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Havey, M. (2005). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=KtabAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA255\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 10: Example: Human Workflow in Insurance Claims Processing\"<\/a>. <i>Essential Business Process Modeling<\/i>. O'Reilly Media, Inc. pp.&#160;255\u2013284. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780596008437<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+10%3A+Example%3A+Human+Workflow+in+Insurance+Claims+Processing&amp;rft.btitle=Essential+Business+Process+Modeling&amp;rft.pages=255-284&amp;rft.pub=O%27Reilly+Media%2C+Inc&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.isbn=9780596008437&amp;rft.au=Havey%2C+M.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKtabAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA255&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-22\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ftp.hp.com\/pub\/services\/hardware\/info\/hw_globalsupportctr_59829873EN.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Follow-the-sun process<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-23\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Brain Image Registration Analysis Workflow for fMRI Studies on Global Grids, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www2.computer.org\/portal\/web\/csdl\/doi\/10.1109\/AINA.2009.13\" target=\"_blank\">Computer.org<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-24\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">A grid workflow environment for brain imaging analysis on distributed systems, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/doi.wiley.com\/10.1002\/cpe.1461\" target=\"_blank\">Wiley.com<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-25\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBj\u00f8rnerSchr\u00f8der2019\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Bj\u00f8rner, Thomas; Schr\u00f8der, Morten (23 August 2019). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4081%2Fqrmh.2019.7795\" target=\"_blank\">\"Advantages and challenges of using mobile ethnography in a hospital case study: WhatsApp as a method to identify perceptions and practices\"<\/a>. <i>Qualitative Research in Medicine and Healthcare<\/i>. <b>3<\/b> (2). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4081%2Fqrmh.2019.7795\" target=\"_blank\">10.4081\/qrmh.2019.7795<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Qualitative+Research+in+Medicine+and+Healthcare&amp;rft.atitle=Advantages+and+challenges+of+using+mobile+ethnography+in+a+hospital+case+study%3A+WhatsApp+as+a+method+to+identify+perceptions+and+practices&amp;rft.volume=3&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.date=2019-08-23&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4081%2Fqrmh.2019.7795&amp;rft.aulast=Bj%C3%B8rner&amp;rft.aufirst=Thomas&amp;rft.au=Schr%C3%B8der%2C+Morten&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.4081%252Fqrmh.2019.7795&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-hf2010-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-hf2010_26-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHuserRasmussenObergStarren2011\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Huser, V.; Rasmussen, L. V.; Oberg, R.; Starren, J. B. (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC3079703\" target=\"_blank\">\"Implementation of workflow engine technology to deliver basic clinical decision support functionality\"<\/a>. <i>BMC Medical Research Methodology<\/i>. <b>11<\/b>: 43. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186%2F1471-2288-11-43\" target=\"_blank\">10.1186\/1471-2288-11-43<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC3079703\" target=\"_blank\">3079703<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/21477364\" target=\"_blank\">21477364<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=BMC+Medical+Research+Methodology&amp;rft.atitle=Implementation+of+workflow+engine+technology+to+deliver+basic+clinical+decision+support+functionality&amp;rft.volume=11&amp;rft.pages=43&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3079703%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21477364&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2F1471-2288-11-43&amp;rft.aulast=Huser&amp;rft.aufirst=V.&amp;rft.au=Rasmussen%2C+L.+V.&amp;rft.au=Oberg%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Starren%2C+J.+B.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3079703&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-27\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Service-Oriented Architecture and Business Process Choreography in an Order Management Scenario: Rationale, Concepts, Lessons Learned, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/doi.acm.org\/10.1145\/1094855.1094965\" target=\"_blank\">ACM.org<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-28\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.wfmc.org\/index.php\/about-us\" target=\"_blank\">\"Introduction to the Workflow Management Coalition\"<\/a>. Workflow Management Coalition<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Introduction+to+the+Workflow+Management+Coalition&amp;rft.pub=Workflow+Management+Coalition&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wfmc.org%2Findex.php%2Fabout-us&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-29\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCurcinGhanemGuo2010\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Curcin, V.; Ghanem, M.; Guo, Y. (2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/kclpure.kcl.ac.uk\/portal\/files\/60972131\/4193.full.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"The design and implementation of a workflow analysis tool\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences<\/i>. <b>368<\/b> (1926): 4193\u2013208. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2010RSPTA.368.4193C\" target=\"_blank\">2010RSPTA.368.4193C<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098%2Frsta.2010.0157\" target=\"_blank\">10.1098\/rsta.2010.0157<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/20679131\" target=\"_blank\">20679131<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:7997426\" target=\"_blank\">7997426<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+A%3A+Mathematical%2C+Physical+and+Engineering+Sciences&amp;rft.atitle=The+design+and+implementation+of+a+workflow+analysis+tool&amp;rft.volume=368&amp;rft.issue=1926&amp;rft.pages=4193-208&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsta.2010.0157&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A7997426%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20679131&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010RSPTA.368.4193C&amp;rft.aulast=Curcin&amp;rft.aufirst=V.&amp;rft.au=Ghanem%2C+M.&amp;rft.au=Guo%2C+Y.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkclpure.kcl.ac.uk%2Fportal%2Ffiles%2F60972131%2F4193.full.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-30\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAlvord2013\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Alvord, Brice (2013). <i>Creating A Performance Based Culture In Your Workplace<\/i>. Lulu.com. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1105576072<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Creating+A+Performance+Based+Culture+In+Your+Workplace&amp;rft.pub=Lulu.com&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.isbn=978-1105576072&amp;rft.aulast=Alvord&amp;rft.aufirst=Brice&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-31\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFD._Kyriazis2008\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">D. Kyriazis; et&#160;al. (June 2008). \"An innovative workflow mapping mechanism for Grids in the frame of Quality of Service\". <i>Future Generation Computer Systems<\/i>. <b>24<\/b> (6): 498\u2013511. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.future.2007.07.009\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.future.2007.07.009<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Future+Generation+Computer+Systems&amp;rft.atitle=An+innovative+workflow+mapping+mechanism+for+Grids+in+the+frame+of+Quality+of+Service&amp;rft.volume=24&amp;rft.issue=6&amp;rft.pages=498-511&amp;rft.date=2008-06&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.future.2007.07.009&amp;rft.au=D.+Kyriazis&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li>Ryan K. L. Ko, Stephen S. G. Lee, Eng Wah Lee (2009) Business Process Management (BPM) Standards: A Survey. In: Business Process Management Journal, Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Volume 15 Issue 5. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:1463-7154\" target=\"_blank\">1463-7154<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/wayback.archive-it.org\/all\/20120917072604\/http:\/\/ryanko.files.wordpress.com\/2008\/03\/bpm-journal-koleelee-bpms-survey.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">PDF<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Khalid Belhajjame, Christine Collet, Genoveva Vargas-Solar: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/xpls\/abs_all.jsp?arnumber=996468\" target=\"_blank\">A Flexible Workflow Model for Process-Oriented Applications<\/a>. WISE (1) 2001, IEEE CS, 2001.<\/li>\n<li>Layna Fischer (ed.): 2007 BPM and Workflow Handbook, Future Strategies Inc., <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;978-0-9777527-1-3<\/li>\n<li>Layna Fischer: <i>Workflow Handbook 2005<\/i>, Future Strategies, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-9703509-8-8<\/li>\n<li>Layna Fischer: <i>Excellence in Practice, Volume V: Innovation and Excellence in Workflow and Business Process Management<\/i>, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-9703509-5-3<\/li>\n<li>Thomas L. Friedman: <i>The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century<\/i>, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-374-29288-4<\/li>\n<li>Keith Harrison-Broninski. <i>Human Interactions: The Heart and Soul of Business Process Management<\/i>. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-929652-44-4<\/li>\n<li>Holly Yu: <i>Content and Work Flow Management for Library Websites: Case Studies<\/i>, Information Science Publishing, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;1-59140-534-3<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wil_van_der_Aalst\" title=\"Wil van der Aalst\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d40c12880cf948846760975c0f4f3852\">Wil van der Aalst<\/a>, Kees van Hee: <i>Workflow Management: Models, Methods, and Systems<\/i>, B&amp;T, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-262-72046-9<\/li>\n<li>Setrag Khoshafian, Marek Buckiewicz: <i>Introduction to Groupware, Workflow and Workgroup Computing<\/i>, John Wiley &amp; Sons, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-471-02946-7<\/li>\n<li>Rashid N. Kahn: <i>Understanding Workflow Automation: A Guide to Enhancing Customer Loyalty<\/i>, Prentice Hall, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-13-061918-3<\/li>\n<li>Dan C. Marinescu: <i>Internet-Based Workflow Management: Towards a Semantic Web<\/i>, John Wiley &amp; Sons, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-471-43962-2<\/li>\n<li>Frank Leymann, Dieter Roller: <i>Production Workflow: Concepts and Techniques<\/i>, Prentice Hall, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-13-021753-0<\/li>\n<li>Michael Jackson, Graham Twaddle: <i>Business Process Implementation: Building Workflow Systems<\/i>, Addison-Wesley, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-201-17768-4<\/li>\n<li>Alec Sharp, Patrick McDermott: <i>Workflow Modeling<\/i>, Artech House Publishers, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;1-58053-021-4<\/li>\n<li>Toni Hupp: <i>Designing Work Groups, Jobs, and Work Flow<\/i>, Pfeiffer &amp; Company, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-7879-0063-X<\/li>\n<li>Gary Poyssick, Steve Hannaford: <i>Workflow Reengineering<\/i>, Adobe, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;1-56830-265-7<\/li>\n<li>Dave Chaffey: <i>Groupware, Workflow and Intranets: Reengineering the Enterprise with Collaborative Software<\/i>, Digital Press, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;1-55558-184-6<\/li>\n<li>Wolfgang Gruber: <i>Modeling and Transformation of Workflows With Temporal Constraints<\/i>, IOS Press, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;1-58603-416-2<\/li>\n<li>Andrzej Cichocki, Marek Rusinkiewicz, Darrell Woelk: <i>Workflow and Process Automation Concepts and Technology<\/i>, Kluwer Academic Publishers, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-7923-8099-1<\/li>\n<li>Alan R. Simon, William Marion: <i>Workgroup Computing: Workflow, Groupware, and Messaging<\/i>, McGraw-Hill, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-07-057628-9<\/li>\n<li>Penny Ann Dolin: <i>Exploring Digital Workflow<\/i>, Delmar Thomson Learning, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;1-4018-9654-5<\/li>\n<li>Gary Poyssick: <i>Managing Digital Workflow<\/i>, Prentice Hall, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-13-010911-8<\/li>\n<li>Frank J. Romano: <i>PDF Printing &amp; Workflow<\/i>, Prentice Hall, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-13-020837-X<\/li>\n<li>James G. Kobielus: <i>Workflow Strategies<\/i>, Hungry Minds, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-7645-3012-7<\/li>\n<li>Alan Rickayzen, Jocelyn Dart, Carsten Brennecke: <i>Practical Workflow for SAP<\/i>, Galileo, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;1-59229-006-X<\/li>\n<li>Alan Pelz-Sharpe, Angela Ashenden: <i>E-process: Workflow for the E-business<\/i>, Ovum, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;1-902566-65-3<\/li>\n<li>Stanislaw Wrycza: <i>Systems Development Methods for Databases, Enterprise Modeling, and Workflow Management<\/i>, Kluwer Academic\/Plenum Publishers, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-306-46299-0<\/li>\n<li><i>Database Support for Workflow Management<\/i>, Kluwer Academic Publishers, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-7923-8414-8<\/li>\n<li>Matthew Searle: <i>Developing With Oracle Workflow<\/i><\/li>\n<li>V. Curcin and M. Ghanem, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/xpl\/freeabs_all.jsp?arnumber=4786077\" target=\"_blank\">Scientific workflow systems - can one size fit all?<\/a> paper in CIBEC'08 comparing scientific workflow systems.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.workflowpatterns.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Workflow Patterns<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.wfmc.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">Workflow Management Coalition<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1389\nCached time: 20240102043230\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 0.500 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.625 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 7656\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 76106\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 5530\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 14\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 6\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 119788\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.297\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 7712410\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 555.053 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>29.16% 161.872 1 Template:Reflist\n19.41% 107.728 27 Template:ISBN\n14.96% 83.055 1 Template:Authority_control\n12.58% 69.823 4 Template:Cite_web\n10.97% 60.862 1 Template:Short_description\n10.74% 59.618 28 Template:Catalog_lookup_link\n 8.82% 48.977 1 Template:More_citations_needed_section\n 7.98% 44.294 1 Template:More_citations_needed\n 7.51% 41.660 1 Template:Ambox\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:76656-0!canonical and timestamp 20240102043230 and revision id 1182664624. Rendering was triggered because: page-view\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Workflow\" data-key=\"9a7b055462a00234621920f7bd77834c\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240109231635\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.125 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.315 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 89674\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 288.017 1 wikipedia:Workflow\n100.00% 288.017 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:133-0!canonical and timestamp 20240109231635 and revision id 49543. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8_images":[],"92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8_timestamp":1704907023,"b96939e19621960ee123770c13fa1a84_type":"article","b96939e19621960ee123770c13fa1a84_title":"Systems development life cycle","b96939e19621960ee123770c13fa1a84_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Systems_development_life_cycle","b96939e19621960ee123770c13fa1a84_plaintext":"\n\nSystems development life cycleFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Systems_development_life_cycle?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Systems_development_life_cycle\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Systems_development_life_cycle<\/a>\nCategories: Business and data managementSoftware developmentHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 12 July 2018, at 20:06.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 4,361 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","b96939e19621960ee123770c13fa1a84_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Systems_development_life_cycle rootpage-Systems_development_life_cycle skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Systems development life cycle<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Systems_development_life_cycle?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Systems_development_life_cycle\" data-key=\"3e10b60754dcc11d1f32334e2f41a76e\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171703\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.081 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.151 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 112\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 146.799 1 wikipedia:Systems_development_life_cycle\n100.00% 146.799 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10685-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171703 and revision id 33574. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Systems_development_life_cycle\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Systems_development_life_cycle<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","b96939e19621960ee123770c13fa1a84_images":[],"b96939e19621960ee123770c13fa1a84_timestamp":1704907023,"738d070b04a9e00d7048ca56c331458e_type":"article","738d070b04a9e00d7048ca56c331458e_title":"Stakeholder analysis","738d070b04a9e00d7048ca56c331458e_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Stakeholder_analysis","738d070b04a9e00d7048ca56c331458e_plaintext":"\n\nStakeholder analysisFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchProcess of identifying those affected by a project or event\nStakeholder analysis in conflict resolution, business administration, environmental health sciences decision making,[1] industrial ecology, public administration, and project management is the process of assessing a system and potential changes to it as they relate to relevant and interested parties known as stakeholders. This information is used to assess how the interests of those stakeholders should be addressed in a project plan, policy, program, or other action.[2] Stakeholder analysis is a key part of stakeholder management. A stakeholder analysis of an issue consists of weighing and balancing all of the competing demands on a firm by each of those who have a claim on it, in order to arrive at the firm's obligation in a particular case. A stakeholder analysis does not preclude the interests of the stakeholders overriding the interests of the other stakeholders affected, but it ensures that all affected will be considered.[3]\nStakeholder analysis is frequently used during the preparation phase of a project to assess the attitudes of the stakeholders regarding the potential changes. Stakeholder analysis can be done once or on a regular basis to track changes in stakeholder attitudes over time.[citation needed ]\n\n\n\nStakeholder types \nTypes of stakeholders include:[4]\n\nPrimary stakeholders: those ultimately most affected, either positively or negatively by an organization's actions\nSecondary stakeholders: the \"intermediaries,\" that is, persons or organizations who are indirectly affected by an organization's actions\nTertiary stakeholders: those who will be impacted the least\nOther types of stakeholders:\n\nKey stakeholders: those with significant influence upon or importance within an organization; can also belong to the other groups\nStakeholder mapping \nA Power-Interest matrix showing strategies to use based on the quadrant the stakeholders are categorised in.\n\nThe following list identifies some of the best known and most commonly used methods for stakeholder mapping:\n\nCameron et al. defined a process for ranking stakeholders based on needs and the relative importance of stakeholders to others in the network.[5]\nFletcher et al. defined a process for mapping stakeholder expectations based on value hierarchies and key performance indicators.[6]\nMitchell et al. proposed a classification of stakeholders based on power to influence, the legitimacy of each stakeholder's relationship with the organization, and the urgency of the stakeholder's claim on the organization. The results of this classification may assess the fundamental question of \"which groups are stakeholders deserving or requiring manager's attention, and which are not?\" This is salience \u2013 \"the degree to which managers give priority to competing stakeholder claims.\"[7]\nSavage et al. offer a way to classify stakeholders according to potential for threat and potential for cooperation.[8]\nTurner et al. have developed a process of identification, assessment of awareness, support, and influence, leading to strategies for communicating and assessing stakeholder satisfaction, and determining who is aware or ignorant and whether their attitude is supportive or opposing.[9]\nMapping techniques include the following analysis techniques being used by aid agencies, governments, or consultant groups:\n\nLynda Bourne's Stakeholder Circle, \"a five-step methodology that provides a flexible approach to understanding and managing the relationships within and around the activity\",[10] involves identification, prioritization, visualization, engagement, and monitoring of stakeholder aspects\n Aubrey Mendelow's power-interest matrix or grid, which considers stakeholder \"power and expectations (and therefore their likely interest) ... to determine the potential influence of stakeholder groups\"[11]\nMurray-Webster and Simon's three-dimensional grid mapping power, interest, and attitude, for better \"stimulating thought and informing the project or program manager in a truly meaningful way\"[12]\nImperial College London's influence-interest grid, \"plotting stakeholders on a graph in terms of their influence over the project and their interest in the project\"[13]\nThe former Office of Government Commerce's power-impact grid, mapping \"the level of impact of the change on [stakeholder] and the importance these stakeholders [have] to the success of the change project\".[14]\nStakeholder mapping procedure \nThe list of potential stakeholders for any project often exceeds both the time available for analysis and the capability to sensibly map and display the results.[15] The challenge is to focus on the right stakeholders who are currently important and to create a visual representation of this critical sub-set of the total community - the key stakeholders.[15]\n\nDevelop a categorised list of the members of the stakeholder community.\nStakeholders can be prioritized in some order.\nThe highest priority stakeholders are then translated into a visual representation (often a table or a graph).[8][16]\nThe power-interest matrix \nThe most common presentation style uses a two-dimensional matrix. Power and influence are commonly seen with a third dimension shown by the colour or size of the symbol representing the individual stakeholders, often the attitude. \nSome of the commonly used dimensions include:[4][11][12][13][14][16]\n\nPower (high, medium, low)\nInfluence (high or low)\nInterest\/Need (high, medium, low)\nSupport\/Attitude (positive, neutral, negative)\nThe salience model \nThe salience model[7] uses three dimensions: legitimacy (A), power (B), and urgency (C). It is represented in a Venn diagram, that has 8 regions each associated to a specific stakeholder type.\n\nThe Covalence model has eight regions each associated with a stakeholder type\n\nStakeholder types as described by the salience model:\n\nDiscretionary stakeholders: These stakeholders have little urgency or power and are unlikely to exert much pressure. They have legitimate claims. (yellow region)\nDormant stakeholders: These stakeholders have much power but no legitimacy or urgency and therefore are not likely to become heavily involved. (blue region)\nDemanding stakeholders: These stakeholders have little power or legitimacy but can make much \"noise\" because they want things to be addressed immediately. (red region)\nDominant stakeholders: These stakeholders have both formal power and legitimacy, but little urgency. They tend to have certain expectations that must be met. (green region)\nDangerous stakeholders: These stakeholders have power and urgency but are not really pertinent to the project. (purple region)\nDependent stakeholders: These stakeholders have urgent and legitimate stakes in the project but little power. These stakeholders may lean on another stakeholder group to have their voices heard. (orange region)\nDefinitive stakeholders: These stakeholders have power, legitimacy and urgency and therefore have the highest salience. (white region at the intersection of all other regions)\nNon-stakeholders: These stakeholders have no power, legitimacy or urgency. (outside the regions defined by the circles A, B, and C)\nBenefits \nStakeholder analysis helps with the identification of:[16][17][18]\n\nStakeholders' interests\nPotential risks and misunderstandings\nMechanisms to positively influence other stakeholders\nKey people to be informed about the project during the execution phase\nNegative stakeholders as well as their adverse effects on the project\nSee also \nActor analysis\nCrowdsourcing\nDepartment of Defense Architecture Framework\nParticipation (decision making)\nPublic consultation\nResponsibility assignment matrix\nStakeholder engagement software\nStakeholder theory\nStakeholder management\nReferences \n\n^ Coble, Yank; Coussens, Christine; Quinn, Kathleen, eds. (2009). \"4. Stakeholder Perspectives on Environmental Health Sciences Decision Making\". Environmental Health Sciences Decision Making: Risk Management, Evidence, and Ethics \u2013 Workshop Summary. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press. doi:10.17226\/12444. ISBN&#160;978-0-309-12454-6. PMID&#160;21210552. \n\n^ Ketema, D.M.; Chisholm, N.; Enright, P. (2017). \"Chapter 20: Examining the Characteristics of Stakeholders in Lake Tana Sub-basin Resource Use, Management and Governance\". In Stave, K.; Goshu, G.; Aynalem, S. (eds.). Social and Ecological System Dynamics. Springer. p.&#160;318. ISBN&#160;9783319457550. \n\n^ DeGeorge, R.T. (2010). Business Ethics. Pearson Education, Inc. p.&#160;192. ISBN&#160;9780205015108. \n\n^ a b De Mascia, S. (2016). Project Psychology: Using Psychological Models and Techniques to Create a Successful Project. CRC Press. pp.&#160;73\u201374. ISBN&#160;9781317075011. \n\n^ Cameron, B.G.; Seher, T.; Crawley, E.F. (2011). \"Goals for space exploration based on stakeholder value network considerations\". Acta Astronautica. 68 (11\u201312): 2088\u201397. Bibcode:2011AcAau..68.2088C. doi:10.1016\/j.actaastro.2010.11.003. \n\n^ Fletcher, A.; Guthrie, J.; Steane, P.; et&#160;al. (2003). \"Mapping stakeholder perceptions for a third sector organization\". Journal of Intellectual Capital. 4 (4): 505\u201327. doi:10.1108\/14691930310504536. \n\n^ a b Mitchell, R.K.; Agle, B.R.; Wood, D.J. (1997). \"Toward a Theory of Stakeholder Identification and Salience: Defining the Principle of Who and What Really Counts\". The Academy of Management Review. 22 (4): 853\u201386. doi:10.2307\/259247. JSTOR&#160;259247. \n\n^ a b Savage, G.T.; Nix, T.W.; Whitehead, C.J.; Blair, J.D. (1991). \"Strategies for Assessing and Managing Organizational Stakeholders\". The Executive. 5 (2): 61\u201375. JSTOR&#160;4165008. \n\n^ Turner, J.R.; Grude, K.V.; Thurloway, L. (1999). The Project Manager As Change Agent: Leadership, Influence and Negotiation. McGraw-Hill Book Co Ltd. ISBN&#160;9780077077419. \n\n^ Bourne, L. (2012). Stakeholder Relationship Management: A Maturity Model for Organisational Implementation. Gower Publishing, Ltd. p.&#160;PT61. ISBN&#160;9780566091933. \n\n^ a b Botten, N. (2006). Management Accounting \u2013 Business Strategy. CIMA Publishing. pp.&#160;3\u20134. ISBN&#160;9780750680431. Once the power and expectations (and therefore their likely interest) has been established we can use a power interest matrix to assist the analysis. Mendelow (1991) has proposed such a matrix (Figure 1.4). If the stakeholders are plotted regularly this matrix can be used to determine the potential influence of stakeholder groups. \n\n^ a b Murray-Webster, R.; Simon, P. (2006). \"Making Sense of Stakeholder Mapping\" (PDF) . PM World Today. 8 (11): 1\u20134. \n\n^ a b \"Stakeholder management\" (PDF) . Imperial College London. 21 June 2017. Retrieved 6 July 2018 . \n\n^ a b \"Stakeholder Management Plan\" (PDF) . Office of Government Commerce. 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 June 2008. Retrieved 6 July 2018 . \n\n^ a b Eden, C.; Ackermann, F. (2013). Making Strategy: The Journey of Strategic Management. SAGE. p.&#160;123. ISBN&#160;9781446265192. \n\n^ a b c Babou, S. (12 March 2008). \"What Is Stakeholder Analysis?\". The Project Management Hut. PM Hut. Archived from the original on 22 February 2015. Retrieved 6 July 2018 . \n\n^ Kimmich, C.; Janetschek, H.; Meyer-Ohlendorf, L.; et&#160;al. (2012). Methods for Stakeholder Analysis. Europaeischer Hochschulverlag GmbH &amp; Co KG. pp.&#160;3\u20134. ISBN&#160;9783867417808. \n\n^ Dwyer, J.; Hopwood, N. (2013). Management Strategies and Skills. McGraw-Hill Education Australia. p.&#160;360. ISBN&#160;9781743764930. \n\n\nvteIndustrial ecologyTools\nAgent-based model\nCost\u2013benefit analysis\nDPSIR\nEcolabel\nEcological footprint\nEnvironmental full-cost accounting\nEnvironmental impact assessment\nEnvironmental management system\nEIO-LCA\nInput\u2013output model\nIntegrated chain management\nISO 14000\nLife-cycle assessment\nLife-cycle cost analysis\nMaterial flow analysis\nMET Matrix\nStakeholder analysis\nConcepts\nCircular economy\nCradle-to-cradle design\nDematerialization\nEco-efficiency\nEco-industrial development\nEco-industrial park\nEcological modernization\nEfficient energy use\nExergy\nExtended producer responsibility\nIndustrial metabolism\nIndustrial symbiosis\nPolluter pays principle\nPrecautionary principle\nRebound effect\nWaste hierarchy\nWaste minimisation\nWaste valorization\nRelated fields\nCleaner production\nDesign for environment\nEarth systems engineering and management\nEcological economics\nEcological modernization\nEnvironmental economics\nGreen chemistry\nSustainable development\nUrban ecology\nUrban metabolism\n\n\n\n\n\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Stakeholder_analysis\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Stakeholder_analysis<\/a>\nCategories: Business and data managementSoftware developmentHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 20 September 2022, at 20:43.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 4,024 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","738d070b04a9e00d7048ca56c331458e_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Stakeholder_analysis rootpage-Stakeholder_analysis skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Stakeholder analysis<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Process of identifying those affected by a project or event<\/div>\n<p><b>Stakeholder analysis<\/b> in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conflict_resolution\" title=\"Conflict resolution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a32384edaeb87ea97d1edd719d1c3393\">conflict resolution<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_administration\" title=\"Business administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afab518c5ddf262ef4313681f22ca944\">business administration<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_health\" title=\"Environmental health\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f918c75d4a04c8ebf805160b820d1d81\">environmental health sciences<\/a> decision making,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Industrial_ecology\" title=\"Industrial ecology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"93d6c290ffec75fabb97f5eec3aee10d\">industrial ecology<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_administration\" title=\"Public administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2764cf7b610f9508386cf03a651245a6\">public administration<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Project_management\" title=\"Project management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6eafec51967ae43f1d3054bbbbcb85a\">project management<\/a> is the process of assessing a system and potential changes to it as they relate to relevant and interested parties known as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Project_stakeholder\" title=\"Project stakeholder\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f020ef5f57bcf75aae14e3df0beec1a\">stakeholders<\/a>. This information is used to assess how the interests of those stakeholders should be addressed in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Project\" title=\"Project\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f05b38496b9578ab9149bf3fa7c4ea82\">project<\/a> plan, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Policy\" title=\"Policy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c1e53cac97ac6a1bb336545f75a474b3\">policy<\/a>, program, or other action.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KetemaExam17_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KetemaExam17-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> Stakeholder analysis is a key part of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stakeholder_management\" title=\"Stakeholder management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8deb9061aab534803a05f37f98626fbc\">stakeholder management<\/a>. A stakeholder analysis of an issue consists of weighing and balancing all of the competing demands on a firm by each of those who have a claim on it, in order to arrive at the firm's obligation in a particular case. A stakeholder analysis does not preclude the interests of the stakeholders overriding the interests of the other stakeholders affected, but it ensures that all affected will be considered.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DeGeorgeBusiness10_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DeGeorgeBusiness10-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Stakeholder analysis is frequently used during the preparation phase of a project to assess the attitudes of the stakeholders regarding the potential changes. Stakeholder analysis can be done once or on a regular basis to track changes in stakeholder attitudes over time.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2023)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Stakeholder_types\">Stakeholder types<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Types of stakeholders include:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DeMasciaProject16_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DeMasciaProject16-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><i>Primary stakeholders<\/i>: those ultimately most affected, either positively or negatively by an organization's actions<\/li>\n<li><i>Secondary stakeholders<\/i>: the \"intermediaries,\" that is, persons or organizations who are indirectly affected by an organization's actions<\/li>\n<li><i>Tertiary stakeholders<\/i>: those who will be impacted the least<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Other types of stakeholders:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><i>Key stakeholders<\/i>: those with significant influence upon or importance within an organization; can also belong to the other groups<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Stakeholder_mapping\">Stakeholder mapping<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-halign-right\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Stakeholders_matrix.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"25a864e94e2e5b789fb9f6d6fa7b4378\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/77\/Stakeholders_matrix.svg\/250px-Stakeholders_matrix.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"250\" height=\"248\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>A Power-Interest matrix showing strategies to use based on the quadrant the stakeholders are categorised in.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>The following list identifies some of the best known and most commonly used methods for stakeholder mapping:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Cameron <i>et al.<\/i> defined a process for ranking stakeholders based on needs and the relative importance of stakeholders to others in the network.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CameronGoals11_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CameronGoals11-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Fletcher <i>et al.<\/i> defined a process for mapping stakeholder expectations based on value hierarchies and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Performance_indicator\" title=\"Performance indicator\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86a826562de559a457428c6d38607c4f\">key performance indicators<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FletcherMapping03_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FletcherMapping03-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Mitchell <i>et al.<\/i> proposed a classification of stakeholders based on power to influence, the legitimacy of each stakeholder's relationship with the organization, and the urgency of the stakeholder's claim on the organization. The results of this classification may assess the fundamental question of \"which groups are stakeholders deserving or requiring manager's attention, and which are not?\" This is salience \u2013 \"the degree to which managers give priority to competing stakeholder claims.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MitchellToward97_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MitchellToward97-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Savage <i>et al.<\/i> offer a way to classify stakeholders according to potential for threat and potential for cooperation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SavageStrat91_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SavageStrat91-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Turner <i>et al.<\/i> have developed a process of identification, assessment of awareness, support, and influence, leading to strategies for communicating and assessing stakeholder satisfaction, and determining who is aware or ignorant and whether their attitude is supportive or opposing.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TurnerTheProject99_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TurnerTheProject99-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Mapping techniques include the following analysis techniques being used by aid agencies, governments, or consultant groups:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Lynda Bourne's Stakeholder Circle, \"a five-step methodology that provides a flexible approach to understanding and managing the relationships within and around the activity\",<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BourneStakeholder12_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BourneStakeholder12-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> involves identification, prioritization, visualization, engagement, and monitoring of stakeholder aspects<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"anchor\" id=\"rdp-ebb-mendelow\"><\/span><b>Aubrey Mendelow'<\/b>s power-interest matrix or grid, which considers stakeholder \"power and expectations (and therefore their likely interest) ... to determine the potential influence of stakeholder groups\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BottenManage06_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BottenManage06-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Murray-Webster and Simon's three-dimensional grid mapping power, interest, and attitude, for better \"stimulating thought and informing the project or program manager in a truly meaningful way\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Murray-WebsterMaking06_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Murray-WebsterMaking06-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Imperial_College_London\" title=\"Imperial College London\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5ddeea653bcb35db739cf341c6eefeb\">Imperial College London<\/a>'s influence-interest grid, \"plotting stakeholders on a graph in terms of their influence over the project and their interest in the project\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ICLStake17_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ICLStake17-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>The former <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Office_of_Government_Commerce\" title=\"Office of Government Commerce\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d84da40d333819f9f7b991516fe003e0\">Office of Government Commerce<\/a>'s power-impact grid, mapping \"the level of impact of the change on [stakeholder] and the importance these stakeholders [have] to the success of the change project\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OGCArch06_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OGCArch06-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Stakeholder_mapping_procedure\">Stakeholder mapping procedure<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The list of potential stakeholders for any project often exceeds both the time available for analysis and the capability to sensibly map and display the results.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EdenMaking13_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EdenMaking13-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> The challenge is to focus on the right stakeholders who are currently important and to create a visual representation of this critical sub-set of the total community - the key stakeholders.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EdenMaking13_15-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EdenMaking13-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>Develop a categorised list of the members of the stakeholder community.<\/li>\n<li>Stakeholders can be prioritized in some order.<\/li>\n<li>The highest priority stakeholders are then translated into a visual representation (often a table or a graph).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SavageStrat91_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SavageStrat91-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BabouArchWhat08_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BabouArchWhat08-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ol>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"The_power-interest_matrix\">The power-interest matrix<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The most common presentation style uses a two-dimensional matrix. Power and influence are commonly seen with a third dimension shown by the colour or size of the symbol representing the individual stakeholders, often the attitude. \n<\/p><p>Some of the commonly used dimensions include:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DeMasciaProject16_4-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DeMasciaProject16-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BottenManage06_11-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BottenManage06-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Murray-WebsterMaking06_12-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Murray-WebsterMaking06-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ICLStake17_13-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ICLStake17-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OGCArch06_14-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OGCArch06-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BabouArchWhat08_16-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BabouArchWhat08-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Power (high, medium, low)<\/li>\n<li>Influence (high or low)<\/li>\n<li>Interest\/Need (high, medium, low)<\/li>\n<li>Support\/Attitude (positive, neutral, negative)<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"The_salience_model\">The salience model<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The salience model<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MitchellToward97_7-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MitchellToward97-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> uses three dimensions: <i>legitimacy<\/i> (A), <i>power<\/i> (B), and <i>urgency<\/i> (C). It is represented in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Venn_diagram\" title=\"Venn diagram\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f9b34a2007848fd562e84d6b4cc4803\">Venn diagram<\/a>, that has 8 regions each associated to a specific stakeholder type.\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Venn_diagram_ABC_RGB.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"bdcb7c5ea2ede3ca43116b75d9fa3103\"><img alt=\"Venn diagram illustrating the 8 types of stakeholder of the Covalence model for stakeholder analysis\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/a\/a9\/Venn_diagram_ABC_RGB.png\/220px-Venn_diagram_ABC_RGB.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"220\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>The Covalence model has eight regions each associated with a stakeholder type<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>Stakeholder types as described by the salience model:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li><i>Discretionary stakeholders<\/i>: These stakeholders have little urgency or power and are unlikely to exert much pressure. They have legitimate claims. (yellow region)<\/li>\n<li><i>Dormant stakeholders<\/i>: These stakeholders have much power but no legitimacy or urgency and therefore are not likely to become heavily involved. (blue region)<\/li>\n<li><i>Demanding stakeholders<\/i>: These stakeholders have little power or legitimacy but can make much \"noise\" because they want things to be addressed immediately. (red region)<\/li>\n<li><i>Dominant stakeholders<\/i>: These stakeholders have both formal power and legitimacy, but little urgency. They tend to have certain expectations that must be met. (green region)<\/li>\n<li><i>Dangerous stakeholders<\/i>: These stakeholders have power and urgency but are not really pertinent to the project. (purple region)<\/li>\n<li><i>Dependent stakeholders<\/i>: These stakeholders have urgent and legitimate stakes in the project but little power. These stakeholders may lean on another stakeholder group to have their voices heard. (orange region)<\/li>\n<li><i>Definitive stakeholders<\/i>: These stakeholders have power, legitimacy and urgency and therefore have the highest salience. (white region at the intersection of all other regions)<\/li>\n<li><i>Non-stakeholders<\/i>: These stakeholders have no power, legitimacy or urgency. (outside the regions defined by the circles A, B, and C)<\/li><\/ol>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Benefits\">Benefits<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Stakeholder analysis helps with the identification of:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BabouArchWhat08_16-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BabouArchWhat08-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KimmichMethods12_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KimmichMethods12-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DwyerManage13_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DwyerManage13-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Stakeholders' interests<\/li>\n<li>Potential risks and misunderstandings<\/li>\n<li>Mechanisms to positively influence other stakeholders<\/li>\n<li>Key people to be informed about the project during the execution phase<\/li>\n<li>Negative stakeholders as well as their adverse effects on the project<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Actor_analysis\" title=\"Actor analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"faba4d71cd821ea225a531a67a9acd6e\">Actor analysis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Crowdsourcing\" title=\"Crowdsourcing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48733729f7e2ec744b3fa4dd8a984584\">Crowdsourcing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Department_of_Defense_Architecture_Framework\" title=\"Department of Defense Architecture Framework\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ef211a8a414fe8fbe436f1a72e42d1d\">Department of Defense Architecture Framework<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Participation_(decision_making)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Participation (decision making)\" data-key=\"47d97dacc610306752ecb445c78e6a5a\">Participation (decision making)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_consultation\" title=\"Public consultation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a315eca59bdb3513a86995c2a93a0f2\">Public consultation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Responsibility_assignment_matrix\" title=\"Responsibility assignment matrix\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2abd9787d1955d00fd1fa72357532438\">Responsibility assignment matrix<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stakeholder_engagement_software\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Stakeholder engagement software\" data-key=\"18abca55659e07ea1c049370ad65489a\">Stakeholder engagement software<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stakeholder_theory\" title=\"Stakeholder theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"24c8c95953ba6394708767e0d32210d6\">Stakeholder theory<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stakeholder_management\" title=\"Stakeholder management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8deb9061aab534803a05f37f98626fbc\">Stakeholder management<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCobleCoussensQuinn2009\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Coble, Yank; Coussens, Christine; Quinn, Kathleen, eds. (2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK50712\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"4. Stakeholder Perspectives on Environmental Health Sciences Decision Making\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK50714\/\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Environmental Health Sciences Decision Making: Risk Management, Evidence, and Ethics \u2013 Workshop Summary<\/i><\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Washington,_D.C.\" title=\"Washington, D.C.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"203e4b5aa5a4f19ff02ae246e0bfaa16\">Washington, D.C.<\/a>: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_National_Academies_Press\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"The National Academies Press\" data-key=\"942bf651691bd7c7e0afdd4849e7fa65\">The National Academies Press<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.17226%2F12444\" target=\"_blank\">10.17226\/12444<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-309-12454-6<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/21210552\" target=\"_blank\">21210552<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=4.+Stakeholder+Perspectives+on+Environmental+Health+Sciences+Decision+Making&amp;rft.btitle=Environmental+Health+Sciences+Decision+Making%3A+Risk+Management%2C+Evidence%2C+and+Ethics+%E2%80%93+Workshop+Summary.&amp;rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&amp;rft.pub=The+National+Academies+Press&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21210552&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17226%2F12444&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-309-12454-6&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK50712%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KetemaExam17-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-KetemaExam17_2-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKetema,_D.M.Chisholm,_N.Enright,_P.2017\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Ketema, D.M.; Chisholm, N.; Enright, P. (2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=vNifDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA318\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 20: Examining the Characteristics of Stakeholders in Lake Tana Sub-basin Resource Use, Management and Governance\"<\/a>. In Stave, K.; Goshu, G.; Aynalem, S. (eds.). <i>Social and Ecological System Dynamics<\/i>. Springer. p.&#160;318. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9783319457550<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+20%3A+Examining+the+Characteristics+of+Stakeholders+in+Lake+Tana+Sub-basin+Resource+Use%2C+Management+and+Governance&amp;rft.btitle=Social+and+Ecological+System+Dynamics&amp;rft.pages=318&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft.isbn=9783319457550&amp;rft.au=Ketema%2C+D.M.&amp;rft.au=Chisholm%2C+N.&amp;rft.au=Enright%2C+P.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvNifDgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA318&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DeGeorgeBusiness10-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-DeGeorgeBusiness10_3-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDeGeorge,_R.T.2010\" class=\"citation book cs1\">DeGeorge, R.T. (2010). <i>Business Ethics<\/i>. Pearson Education, Inc. p.&#160;192. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780205015108<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Business+Ethics&amp;rft.pages=192&amp;rft.pub=Pearson+Education%2C+Inc&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.isbn=9780205015108&amp;rft.au=DeGeorge%2C+R.T.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DeMasciaProject16-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-DeMasciaProject16_4-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-DeMasciaProject16_4-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDe_Mascia,_S.2016\" class=\"citation book cs1\">De Mascia, S. (2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=G5XsCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA73\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Project Psychology: Using Psychological Models and Techniques to Create a Successful Project<\/i><\/a>. 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(2011). \"Goals for space exploration based on stakeholder value network considerations\". <i>Acta Astronautica<\/i>. <b>68<\/b> (11\u201312): 2088\u201397. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2011AcAau..68.2088C\" target=\"_blank\">2011AcAau..68.2088C<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.actaastro.2010.11.003\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.actaastro.2010.11.003<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Acta+Astronautica&amp;rft.atitle=Goals+for+space+exploration+based+on+stakeholder+value+network+considerations&amp;rft.volume=68&amp;rft.issue=11%E2%80%9312&amp;rft.pages=2088-97&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.actaastro.2010.11.003&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011AcAau..68.2088C&amp;rft.au=Cameron%2C+B.G.&amp;rft.au=Seher%2C+T.&amp;rft.au=Crawley%2C+E.F.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FletcherMapping03-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FletcherMapping03_6-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFFletcher,_A.Guthrie,_J.Steane,_P.2003\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Fletcher, A.; Guthrie, J.; Steane, P.; et&#160;al. (2003). \"Mapping stakeholder perceptions for a third sector organization\". <i>Journal of Intellectual Capital<\/i>. <b>4<\/b> (4): 505\u201327. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1108%2F14691930310504536\" target=\"_blank\">10.1108\/14691930310504536<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Intellectual+Capital&amp;rft.atitle=Mapping+stakeholder+perceptions+for+a+third+sector+organization&amp;rft.volume=4&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=505-27&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1108%2F14691930310504536&amp;rft.au=Fletcher%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=Guthrie%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Steane%2C+P.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MitchellToward97-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-MitchellToward97_7-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-MitchellToward97_7-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMitchell,_R.K.Agle,_B.R.Wood,_D.J.1997\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Mitchell, R.K.; Agle, B.R.; Wood, D.J. (1997). \"Toward a Theory of Stakeholder Identification and Salience: Defining the Principle of Who and What Really Counts\". <i>The Academy of Management Review<\/i>. <b>22<\/b> (4): 853\u201386. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2307%2F259247\" target=\"_blank\">10.2307\/259247<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JSTOR_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"JSTOR (identifier)\" data-key=\"5452009cc6ddc0c9ed86584fc7a26cc8\">JSTOR<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/259247\" target=\"_blank\">259247<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Academy+of+Management+Review&amp;rft.atitle=Toward+a+Theory+of+Stakeholder+Identification+and+Salience%3A+Defining+the+Principle+of+Who+and+What+Really+Counts&amp;rft.volume=22&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=853-86&amp;rft.date=1997&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F259247&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F259247%23id-name%3DJSTOR&amp;rft.au=Mitchell%2C+R.K.&amp;rft.au=Agle%2C+B.R.&amp;rft.au=Wood%2C+D.J.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SavageStrat91-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-SavageStrat91_8-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-SavageStrat91_8-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSavage,_G.T.Nix,_T.W.Whitehead,_C.J.Blair,_J.D.1991\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Savage, G.T.; Nix, T.W.; Whitehead, C.J.; Blair, J.D. 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McGraw-Hill Book Co Ltd. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780077077419<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Project+Manager+As+Change+Agent%3A+Leadership%2C+Influence+and+Negotiation&amp;rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Book+Co+Ltd&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.isbn=9780077077419&amp;rft.au=Turner%2C+J.R.&amp;rft.au=Grude%2C+K.V.&amp;rft.au=Thurloway%2C+L.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BourneStakeholder12-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-BourneStakeholder12_10-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBourne,_L.2012\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Bourne, L. (2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=8VJ2OzigQj4C&pg=PT61\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Stakeholder Relationship Management: A Maturity Model for Organisational Implementation<\/i><\/a>. Gower Publishing, Ltd. p.&#160;PT61. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780566091933<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Stakeholder+Relationship+Management%3A+A+Maturity+Model+for+Organisational+Implementation&amp;rft.pages=PT61&amp;rft.pub=Gower+Publishing%2C+Ltd&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.isbn=9780566091933&amp;rft.au=Bourne%2C+L.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8VJ2OzigQj4C%26pg%3DPT61&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BottenManage06-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-BottenManage06_11-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-BottenManage06_11-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBotten,_N.2006\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Botten, N. (2006). <i>Management Accounting \u2013 Business Strategy<\/i>. CIMA Publishing. pp.&#160;3\u20134. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780750680431<\/bdi>. <q>Once the power and expectations (and therefore their likely interest) has been established we can use a power interest matrix to assist the analysis. Mendelow (1991) has proposed such a matrix (Figure 1.4). If the stakeholders are plotted regularly this matrix can be used to determine the potential influence of stakeholder groups.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Management+Accounting+%E2%80%93+Business+Strategy&amp;rft.pages=3-4&amp;rft.pub=CIMA+Publishing&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.isbn=9780750680431&amp;rft.au=Botten%2C+N.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Murray-WebsterMaking06-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Murray-WebsterMaking06_12-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Murray-WebsterMaking06_12-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMurray-Webster,_R.Simon,_P.2006\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Murray-Webster, R.; Simon, P. (2006). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/skat.ihmc.us\/rid=1JGD4CJZ4-F9CF0Y-1KM6\/SEMINAL%20stakeholder%20mapping%20in%203d.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Making Sense of Stakeholder Mapping\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>PM World Today<\/i>. <b>8<\/b> (11): 1\u20134.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=PM+World+Today&amp;rft.atitle=Making+Sense+of+Stakeholder+Mapping&amp;rft.volume=8&amp;rft.issue=11&amp;rft.pages=1-4&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.au=Murray-Webster%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Simon%2C+P.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fskat.ihmc.us%2Frid%3D1JGD4CJZ4-F9CF0Y-1KM6%2FSEMINAL%2520stakeholder%2520mapping%2520in%25203d.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ICLStake17-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-ICLStake17_13-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ICLStake17_13-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.imperial.ac.uk\/media\/imperial-college\/administration-and-support-services\/staff-development\/public\/impex\/Stakeholder-management-21jun17.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Stakeholder management\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Imperial College London. 21 June 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">6 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Stakeholder+management&amp;rft.pub=Imperial+College+London&amp;rft.date=2017-06-21&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.imperial.ac.uk%2Fmedia%2Fimperial-college%2Fadministration-and-support-services%2Fstaff-development%2Fpublic%2Fimpex%2FStakeholder-management-21jun17.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-OGCArch06-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-OGCArch06_14-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-OGCArch06_14-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20080620102145\/https:\/\/www.ogc.gov.uk\/documents\/Stakeholder_Management_Plan.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Stakeholder Management Plan\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Office of Government Commerce. 2006. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ogc.gov.uk\/documents\/Stakeholder_Management_Plan.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 20 June 2008<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">6 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Stakeholder+Management+Plan&amp;rft.pub=Office+of+Government+Commerce&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ogc.gov.uk%2Fdocuments%2FStakeholder_Management_Plan.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EdenMaking13-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-EdenMaking13_15-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-EdenMaking13_15-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFEden,_C.Ackermann,_F.2013\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Eden, C.; Ackermann, F. (2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=UnYWfXigU4UC&pg=PA123\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Making Strategy: The Journey of Strategic Management<\/i><\/a>. SAGE. p.&#160;123. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781446265192<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Making+Strategy%3A+The+Journey+of+Strategic+Management&amp;rft.pages=123&amp;rft.pub=SAGE&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.isbn=9781446265192&amp;rft.au=Eden%2C+C.&amp;rft.au=Ackermann%2C+F.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUnYWfXigU4UC%26pg%3DPA123&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BabouArchWhat08-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-BabouArchWhat08_16-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-BabouArchWhat08_16-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-BabouArchWhat08_16-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBabou,_S.2008\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Babou, S. (12 March 2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150222033454\/http:\/\/www.pmhut.com\/what-is-stakeholder-analysis\" target=\"_blank\">\"What Is Stakeholder Analysis?\"<\/a>. <i>The Project Management Hut<\/i>. PM Hut. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pmhut.com\/what-is-stakeholder-analysis\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 22 February 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">6 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Project+Management+Hut&amp;rft.atitle=What+Is+Stakeholder+Analysis%3F&amp;rft.date=2008-03-12&amp;rft.au=Babou%2C+S.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pmhut.com%2Fwhat-is-stakeholder-analysis&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KimmichMethods12-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-KimmichMethods12_17-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKimmich,_C.Janetschek,_H.Meyer-Ohlendorf,_L.2012\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Kimmich, C.; Janetschek, H.; Meyer-Ohlendorf, L.; et&#160;al. (2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=o2ejrQc5qhkC&pg=PA4\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Methods for Stakeholder Analysis<\/i><\/a>. Europaeischer Hochschulverlag GmbH &amp; Co KG. pp.&#160;3\u20134. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9783867417808<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Methods+for+Stakeholder+Analysis&amp;rft.pages=3-4&amp;rft.pub=Europaeischer+Hochschulverlag+GmbH+%26+Co+KG&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.isbn=9783867417808&amp;rft.au=Kimmich%2C+C.&amp;rft.au=Janetschek%2C+H.&amp;rft.au=Meyer-Ohlendorf%2C+L.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Do2ejrQc5qhkC%26pg%3DPA4&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DwyerManage13-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-DwyerManage13_18-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDwyer,_J.Hopwood,_N.2013\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Dwyer, J.; Hopwood, N. (2013). <i>Management Strategies and Skills<\/i>. McGraw-Hill Education Australia. p.&#160;360. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781743764930<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Management+Strategies+and+Skills&amp;rft.pages=360&amp;rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Education+Australia&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.isbn=9781743764930&amp;rft.au=Dwyer%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Hopwood%2C+N.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw\u2010api\u2010int.codfw.main\u2010678bb5dc89\u20106f4x8\nCached time: 20231231232403\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 0.320 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.461 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 1223\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 46227\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 1186\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 12\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 1\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 63269\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.211\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 6887653\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 0\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 418.184 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>33.87% 141.625 10 Template:Cite_book\n16.88% 70.571 1 Template:Industrial_ecology\n16.29% 68.127 1 Template:Navbox\n16.11% 67.386 5 Template:Cite_journal\n13.11% 54.820 1 Template:Short_description\n 7.71% 32.250 1 Template:Citation_needed\n 7.06% 29.540 2 Template:Pagetype\n 6.44% 26.933 1 Template:Fix\n 4.45% 18.612 2 Template:Category_handler\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:5838705-0!canonical and timestamp 20231231232403 and revision id 1192895788. Rendering was triggered because: api-parse\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stakeholder_analysis\" data-key=\"e5774cb09de8217ab125b8d7d33a563c\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110151518\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.172 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.383 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 57255\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 358.349 1 wikipedia:Stakeholder_analysis\n100.00% 358.349 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10668-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110151518 and revision id 49520. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Stakeholder_analysis\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Stakeholder_analysis<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","738d070b04a9e00d7048ca56c331458e_images":[],"738d070b04a9e00d7048ca56c331458e_timestamp":1704907022,"e06196a3e3b70b62af61a54e93579f37_type":"article","e06196a3e3b70b62af61a54e93579f37_title":"Risk assessment","e06196a3e3b70b62af61a54e93579f37_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Risk_assessment","e06196a3e3b70b62af61a54e93579f37_plaintext":"\n\nRisk assessmentFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Risk_assessment?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Risk_assessment\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Risk_assessment<\/a>\nCategory: Business and data managementHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 19 July 2018, at 20:01.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 3,967 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","e06196a3e3b70b62af61a54e93579f37_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Risk_assessment rootpage-Risk_assessment skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Risk assessment<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Risk_assessment?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Risk_assessment\" data-key=\"011cb1c8b0a87fcbb22deb8c265f5410\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171702\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.096 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.167 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 97\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 162.954 1 wikipedia:Risk_assessment\n100.00% 162.954 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10692-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171702 and revision id 33598. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Risk_assessment\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Risk_assessment<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","e06196a3e3b70b62af61a54e93579f37_images":[],"e06196a3e3b70b62af61a54e93579f37_timestamp":1704907022,"b19b81bb3a45e15359e41459243529fc_type":"article","b19b81bb3a45e15359e41459243529fc_title":"Request for information","b19b81bb3a45e15359e41459243529fc_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Request_for_information","b19b81bb3a45e15359e41459243529fc_plaintext":"\n\nRequest for informationFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Request_for_information?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Request_for_information\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Request_for_information<\/a>\nCategory: Software and hardware termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 20 September 2022, at 19:42.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 3,880 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","b19b81bb3a45e15359e41459243529fc_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Request_for_information rootpage-Request_for_information skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Request for information<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Request_for_information?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Request_for_information\" data-key=\"e191a69034879f88050b634190e90421\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171702\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.104 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.181 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 105\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 176.064 1 wikipedia:Request_for_information\n100.00% 176.064 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:3323-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171702 and revision id 49502. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Request_for_information\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Request_for_information<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","b19b81bb3a45e15359e41459243529fc_images":[],"b19b81bb3a45e15359e41459243529fc_timestamp":1704907022,"f5d7f133b45c5ef96b93753001d8871a_type":"article","f5d7f133b45c5ef96b93753001d8871a_title":"Functional requirement","f5d7f133b45c5ef96b93753001d8871a_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Functional_requirement","f5d7f133b45c5ef96b93753001d8871a_plaintext":"\n\nFunctional requirementFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Functional_requirement?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Functional_requirement\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Functional_requirement<\/a>\nCategory: Software developmentHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 20 September 2022, at 14:39.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 2,399 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","f5d7f133b45c5ef96b93753001d8871a_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Functional_requirement rootpage-Functional_requirement skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Functional requirement<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Functional_requirement?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Functional_requirement\" data-key=\"66d49483462c9dfe32ee1b73fbba0287\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171701\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.096 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.166 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 104\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 158.445 1 wikipedia:Functional_requirement\n100.00% 158.445 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10645-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171701 and revision id 49424. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Functional_requirement\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Functional_requirement<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","f5d7f133b45c5ef96b93753001d8871a_images":[],"f5d7f133b45c5ef96b93753001d8871a_timestamp":1704907021,"a45c08fd265fb8f3aba8c8c6112b0426_type":"article","a45c08fd265fb8f3aba8c8c6112b0426_title":"Change control","a45c08fd265fb8f3aba8c8c6112b0426_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Change_control","a45c08fd265fb8f3aba8c8c6112b0426_plaintext":"\n\nChange controlFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Change_control?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Change_control\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Change_control<\/a>\nCategories: Business and data managementSoftware and hardware termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 20 May 2018, at 22:38.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 2,325 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","a45c08fd265fb8f3aba8c8c6112b0426_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Change_control rootpage-Change_control skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Change control<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Change_control?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Change_control\" data-key=\"56848b5f8f3bc6fb3e51835923253a8d\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171701\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.094 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.163 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 96\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 158.514 1 wikipedia:Change_control\n100.00% 158.514 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10595-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171701 and revision id 33269. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Change_control\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Change_control<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","a45c08fd265fb8f3aba8c8c6112b0426_images":[],"a45c08fd265fb8f3aba8c8c6112b0426_timestamp":1704907021,"26c56aeef3d905eca98d27d7e230cb72_type":"article","26c56aeef3d905eca98d27d7e230cb72_title":"Concurrent user","26c56aeef3d905eca98d27d7e230cb72_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Concurrent_user","26c56aeef3d905eca98d27d7e230cb72_plaintext":"\n\nConcurrent userFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchA user accessing a system or resource at the same time as another\nIn computer science, the number of concurrent users (sometimes abbreviated CCU) for a resource in a location, with the location being a computing network or a single computer, refers to the total number of people simultaneously accessing or using the resource. The resource can, for example, be a computer program, a file, or the computer as a whole.[1]\nKeeping track of concurrent users is important in several cases. First, some operating system models such as time-sharing operating systems allow several users to access a resource on the computer at the same time. As system performance may degrade due to the complexity of processing multiple jobs from multiple users at the same time, the capacity of such a system may be measured in terms of maximum concurrent users.[2][3]\nSecond, commercial software vendors often license a software product by means of a concurrent users restriction. This allows a fixed number of users access to the product at a given time and contrasts with an unlimited user license. For example: Company X buys software and pays for 20 concurrent users. However, there are 100 logins created at implementation. Only 20 of those 100 can be in the system at the same time,[1][4] this is known as floating licensing.\nConcurrent user licensing allows firms to purchase computer systems and software at a lower cost because the maximum number of concurrent users expected to use the system or software at any given time (those users all logged in together) is only a portion of the total system users employed at a company. The concurrent licenses are global and shared by anyone who needs to use the system. This contrasts with \"named-seats\" licensing, in which one license must be purchased for each and every individual user, whether they are using the system or not.[5][6]\nIf a company employs 400 system users in which 275 work during the day and 125 work at night, then they can opt to purchase only 275 concurrent user licenses since there will never be more than 275 users on the system during a normal work day. The night workers share 125 of the day users' licenses to use the system. For named-seat licenses, this same company would have to purchase 400 individual licenses, one for each user, and licenses would not be globally shared. The available options for licensing are entirely at the discretion of the vendor selling the product.\n\nSee also \nFloating licensing\nReferences \n\n\n^ a b Hohmann, L. (2003). Beyond Software Architecture: Creating and Sustaining Winning Solutions. Addison-Wesley Professional. pp.&#160;76\u20138. ISBN&#160;9780132465946. \n\n^ Sharma, D.P. (2008). Foundation of Operating Systems. Excel Books. pp.&#160;10\u201311. ISBN&#160;9788174466266. \n\n^ Chauhan, S.; Saxena, A.; Gupta, K. (2006). Fundamentals of Computer. Firewall Media. p.&#160;84. ISBN&#160;9788170088547. \n\n^ Pallatto, J. (12 October 2005). \"Study Shows Enterprises Favor Concurrent-User Software Licenses\". eWeek. QuinStreet, Inc. Retrieved 2 March 2019 . \n\n^ Practising Law Institute (2006). Understanding the Intellectual Property License. Practising Law Institute. pp.&#160;140\u201342. \n\n^ Sommer, T. (May 2013). \"Top 200 SAM Terms \u2013 A Glossary Of Software Asset Management Terms\". OMTCO. Archived from the original on 10 August 2013. Retrieved 2 March 2019 . \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Concurrent_user\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Concurrent_user<\/a>\nCategory: Software and hardware termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 2 March 2019, at 19:58.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 2,918 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","26c56aeef3d905eca98d27d7e230cb72_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Concurrent_user rootpage-Concurrent_user skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Concurrent user<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">A user accessing a system or resource at the same time as another<\/div>\n<p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_science\" title=\"Computer science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eadd1655e27d8395813752ae5bd4fd0e\">computer science<\/a>, the number of <b>concurrent users<\/b> (sometimes abbreviated CCU) for a resource in a location, with the location being a computing <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_network\" title=\"Computer network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8fe6ac3761171dfcc44a0a2f6426c7b\">network<\/a> or a single computer, refers to the total number of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Person\" title=\"Person\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"652ffde0ab6d0518ec56f8743fd7e34b\">people<\/a> simultaneously accessing or using the resource. The resource can, for example, be a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_program\" title=\"Computer program\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50546cf7bdd4e8811acbcc3ce79a1f3e\">computer program<\/a>, a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_file\" title=\"Computer file\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"99bce4432f1e311013bdcb5d3fb6c834\">file<\/a>, or the computer as a whole.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HohmannBeyond03_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HohmannBeyond03-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Keeping track of concurrent users is important in several cases. First, some <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operating_system\" title=\"Operating system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0115155e5fbeaa764ceaa4a8714a8951\">operating system<\/a> models such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Time-sharing\" title=\"Time-sharing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9c349efeba5d54f278b65dad7799d469\">time-sharing<\/a> operating systems allow several users to access a resource on the computer at the same time. As system performance may degrade due to the complexity of processing multiple jobs from multiple users at the same time, the capacity of such a system may be measured in terms of maximum concurrent users.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SharmaFoundation09_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SharmaFoundation09-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ChauhanFunda06_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ChauhanFunda06-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Second, commercial software vendors often <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_licensing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Software licensing\" data-key=\"2f1c89158295ccc12ae51f6f573f8e1a\">license a software product<\/a> by means of a concurrent users restriction. This allows a fixed number of users access to the product at a given time and contrasts with an unlimited user license. For example: Company X buys software and pays for 20 concurrent users. However, there are 100 logins created at implementation. Only 20 of those 100 can be in the system at the same time,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HohmannBeyond03_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HohmannBeyond03-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PallattoStudy05_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PallattoStudy05-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> this is known as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Floating_licensing\" title=\"Floating licensing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b4cab27fc163e2d439a0b7e4f61e5c78\">floating licensing<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>Concurrent user licensing allows firms to purchase computer systems and software at a lower cost because the maximum number of concurrent users expected to use the system or software at any given time (those users all logged in together) is only a portion of the total system users employed at a company. The concurrent licenses are global and shared by anyone who needs to use the system. This contrasts with \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Per-seat_license\" title=\"Per-seat license\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5cb09969ff062be9b45f2a82002ffe72\">named-seats<\/a>\" licensing, in which one license must be purchased for each and every individual user, whether they are using the system or not.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PLIUnderstand06_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PLIUnderstand06-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SommerSAM13_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SommerSAM13-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>If a company employs 400 system users in which 275 work during the day and 125 work at night, then they can opt to purchase only 275 concurrent user licenses since there will never be more than 275 users on the system during a normal work day. The night workers share 125 of the day users' licenses to use the system. For named-seat licenses, this same company would have to purchase 400 individual licenses, one for each user, and licenses would not be globally shared. The available options for licensing are entirely at the discretion of the vendor selling the product.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Floating_licensing\" title=\"Floating licensing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b4cab27fc163e2d439a0b7e4f61e5c78\">Floating licensing<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-HohmannBeyond03-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-HohmannBeyond03_1-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-HohmannBeyond03_1-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHohmann,_L.2003\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Hohmann, L. (2003). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=0slJ8zynjCEC&pg=PA76\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Beyond Software Architecture: Creating and Sustaining Winning Solutions<\/i><\/a>. Addison-Wesley Professional. pp.&#160;76\u20138. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780132465946<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Beyond+Software+Architecture%3A+Creating+and+Sustaining+Winning+Solutions&amp;rft.pages=76-8&amp;rft.pub=Addison-Wesley+Professional&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.isbn=9780132465946&amp;rft.au=Hohmann%2C+L.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0slJ8zynjCEC%26pg%3DPA76&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConcurrent+user\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SharmaFoundation09-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SharmaFoundation09_2-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSharma,_D.P.2008\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Sharma, D.P. (2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=AjWh-o7eICMC&pg=PA10\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Foundation of Operating Systems<\/i><\/a>. Excel Books. pp.&#160;10\u201311. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9788174466266<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Foundation+of+Operating+Systems&amp;rft.pages=10-11&amp;rft.pub=Excel+Books&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.isbn=9788174466266&amp;rft.au=Sharma%2C+D.P.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAjWh-o7eICMC%26pg%3DPA10&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConcurrent+user\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ChauhanFunda06-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ChauhanFunda06_3-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFChauhan,_S.Saxena,_A.Gupta,_K.2006\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Chauhan, S.; Saxena, A.; Gupta, K. (2006). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=NN6Hx8s3NjwC&pg=PA84\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Fundamentals of Computer<\/i><\/a>. Firewall Media. p.&#160;84. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9788170088547<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Computer&amp;rft.pages=84&amp;rft.pub=Firewall+Media&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.isbn=9788170088547&amp;rft.au=Chauhan%2C+S.&amp;rft.au=Saxena%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=Gupta%2C+K.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNN6Hx8s3NjwC%26pg%3DPA84&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConcurrent+user\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PallattoStudy05-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-PallattoStudy05_4-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPallatto,_J.2005\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Pallatto, J. (12 October 2005). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.eweek.com\/it-management\/study-shows-enterprises-favor-concurrent-user-software-licenses\" target=\"_blank\">\"Study Shows Enterprises Favor Concurrent-User Software Licenses\"<\/a>. <i>eWeek<\/i>. QuinStreet, Inc<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2 March<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=eWeek&amp;rft.atitle=Study+Shows+Enterprises+Favor+Concurrent-User+Software+Licenses&amp;rft.date=2005-10-12&amp;rft.au=Pallatto%2C+J.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eweek.com%2Fit-management%2Fstudy-shows-enterprises-favor-concurrent-user-software-licenses&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConcurrent+user\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PLIUnderstand06-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-PLIUnderstand06_5-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPractising_Law_Institute2006\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Practising Law Institute (2006). <i>Understanding the Intellectual Property License<\/i>. Practising Law Institute. pp.&#160;140\u201342.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Understanding+the+Intellectual+Property+License&amp;rft.pages=140-42&amp;rft.pub=Practising+Law+Institute&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.au=Practising+Law+Institute&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConcurrent+user\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SommerSAM13-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SommerSAM13_6-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSommer,_T.2013\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Sommer, T. (May 2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130810111112\/http:\/\/omtco.eu\/references\/sam\/top-200-sam-terms-a-glossary-of-software-asset-management-terms\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Top 200 SAM Terms \u2013 A Glossary Of Software Asset Management Terms\"<\/a>. OMTCO. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/omtco.eu\/references\/sam\/top-200-sam-terms-a-glossary-of-software-asset-management-terms\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 10 August 2013<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2 March<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Top+200+SAM+Terms+%E2%80%93+A+Glossary+Of+Software+Asset+Management+Terms&amp;rft.pub=OMTCO&amp;rft.date=2013-05&amp;rft.au=Sommer%2C+T.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fomtco.eu%2Freferences%2Fsam%2Ftop-200-sam-terms-a-glossary-of-software-asset-management-terms%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConcurrent+user\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1377\nCached time: 20231224134751\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1]\nCPU time usage: 0.210 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.261 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 456\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 11067\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 736\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 8\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 18228\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.123\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 4628285\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 0\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 245.816 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>64.86% 159.429 1 Template:Reflist\n45.79% 112.549 4 Template:Cite_book\n32.23% 79.220 1 Template:Short_description\n16.85% 41.429 2 Template:Pagetype\n 8.89% 21.842 3 Template:Main_other\n 7.73% 18.993 1 Template:SDcat\n 5.78% 14.212 2 Template:Cite_web\n 1.36% 3.331 1 Template:Short_description\/lowercasecheck\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:581885-0!canonical and timestamp 20231224134751 and revision id 1191596442. Rendering was triggered because: api-parse\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Concurrent_user\" data-key=\"bfc01cc13d24eb8ce16bd3465fb9aa4f\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110085245\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.135 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.265 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 15403\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 253.954 1 wikipedia:Concurrent_user\n100.00% 253.954 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:2898-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110085245 and revision id 35077. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Concurrent_user\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Concurrent_user<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","26c56aeef3d905eca98d27d7e230cb72_images":[],"26c56aeef3d905eca98d27d7e230cb72_timestamp":1704907021,"cb8c6c58a636a17adacd11b7617cba5e_type":"article","cb8c6c58a636a17adacd11b7617cba5e_title":"Business intelligence","cb8c6c58a636a17adacd11b7617cba5e_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Business_intelligence","cb8c6c58a636a17adacd11b7617cba5e_plaintext":"\n\nBusiness intelligenceFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchStrategies for analysis and use of data\n\nBusiness intelligence comprises the strategies and technologies used by enterprises for the data analysis and management of business information.[1] Common functions of business intelligence technologies include reporting, online analytical processing, analytics, dashboard development, data mining, process mining, complex event processing, business performance management, benchmarking, text mining, predictive analytics, and prescriptive analytics. \nBI tools can handle large amounts of structured and sometimes unstructured data to help identify, develop, and otherwise create new strategic business opportunities. They aim to allow for the easy interpretation of these big data. Identifying new opportunities and implementing an effective strategy based on insights can provide businesses with a competitive market advantage and long-term stability, and help them take strategic decisions.[2]\nBusiness intelligence can be used by enterprises to support a wide range of business decisions ranging from operational to strategic. Basic operating decisions include product positioning or pricing. Strategic business decisions involve priorities, goals, and directions at the broadest level. In all cases, BI is most effective when it combines data derived from the market in which a company operates (external data) with data from company sources internal to the business such as financial and operations data (internal data). When combined, external and internal data can provide a complete picture which, in effect, creates an \"intelligence\" that cannot be derived from any singular set of data.[3]\nAmong myriad uses, business intelligence tools empower organizations to gain insight into new markets, to assess demand and suitability of products and services for different market segments, and to gauge the impact of marketing efforts.[4]\nBI applications use data gathered from a data warehouse (DW) or from a data mart, and the concepts of BI and DW combine as \"BI\/DW\"[5]\nor as \"BIDW\". A data warehouse contains a copy of analytical data that facilitates decision support.\n\n\n\n\nHistory \nThe earliest known use of the term business intelligence is in Richard Millar Devens' Cyclop\u00e6dia of Commercial and Business Anecdotes (1865). Devens used the term to describe how the banker Sir Henry Furnese gained profit by receiving and acting upon information about his environment, prior to his competitors:\n\nThroughout Holland, Flanders, France, and Germany, he maintained a complete and perfect train of business intelligence. The news of the many battles fought was thus received first by him, and the fall of Namur added to his profits, owing to his early receipt of the news.\u2014\u200aDevens, p.&#160;210\nThe ability to collect and react accordingly based on the information retrieved, Devens says, is central to business intelligence.[6]\nWhen Hans Peter Luhn, a researcher at IBM, used the term business intelligence in an article published in 1958, he employed the Webster's Dictionary definition of intelligence: \"the ability to apprehend the interrelationships of presented facts in such a way as to guide action towards a desired goal.\"[7] \nIn 1989, Howard Dresner (later a Gartner analyst) proposed business intelligence as an umbrella term to describe \"concepts and methods to improve business decision making by using fact-based support systems.\"[8] It was not until the late 1990s that this usage was widespread.[9]\n\nDefinition \nAccording to Solomon Negash and Paul Gray, business intelligence (BI) can be defined as systems that combine:\n\nData gathering\nData storage\nKnowledge management\nwith analysis to evaluate complex corporate and competitive information for presentation to planners and decision makers, with the objective of improving the timeliness and the quality of the input to the decision process.\"[10]\nAccording to Forrester Research, business intelligence is \"a set of methodologies, processes, architectures, and technologies that transform raw data into meaningful and useful information used to enable more effective strategic, tactical, and operational insights and decision-making.\"[11] Under this definition, business intelligence encompasses information management (data integration, data quality, data warehousing, master-data management, text- and content-analytics, et al.). Therefore, Forrester refers to data preparation and data usage as two separate but closely linked segments of the business-intelligence architectural stack.\nSome elements of business intelligence are:[citation needed ]\n\nMultidimensional aggregation and allocation\nDenormalization, tagging, and standardization\nRealtime reporting with analytical alert\nA method of interfacing with unstructured data sources\nGroup consolidation, budgeting, and rolling forecasts\nStatistical inference and probabilistic simulation\nKey performance indicators optimization\nVersion control and process management\nOpen item management\nForrester distinguishes this from the business-intelligence market, which is \"just the top layers of the BI architectural stack, such as reporting, analytics, and dashboards.\"[12]\n\nCompared with competitive intelligence \nThough the term business intelligence is sometimes a synonym for competitive intelligence (because they both support decision making), BI uses technologies, processes, and applications to analyze mostly internal, structured data and business processes while competitive intelligence gathers, analyzes, and disseminates information with a topical focus on company competitors. If understood broadly, competitive intelligence can be considered as a subset of business intelligence.[13]\n\nCompared with business analytics \nBusiness intelligence and business analytics are sometimes used interchangeably, but there are alternate definitions.[14] Thomas Davenport, professor of information technology and management at Babson College argues that business intelligence should be divided into querying, reporting, Online analytical processing (OLAP), an \"alerts\" tool, and business analytics. In this definition, business analytics is the subset of BI focusing on statistics, prediction, and optimization, rather than the reporting functionality.[15]\n\nUnstructured data \nBusiness operations can generate a very large amount of data in the form of e-mails, memos, notes from call-centers, news, user groups, chats, reports, web-pages, presentations, image-files, video-files, and marketing material. According to Merrill Lynch, more than 85% of all business information exists in these forms; a company might only use such a document a single time.[16] Because of the way it is produced and stored, this information is either unstructured or semi-structured.\nThe management of semi-structured data is an unsolved problem in the information technology industry.[17] According to projections from Gartner (2003), white-collar workers spend 30\u201340% of their time searching, finding, and assessing unstructured data. BI uses both structured and unstructured data. The former is easy to search, and the latter contains a large quantity of the information needed for analysis and decision-making.[17][18] Because of the difficulty of properly searching, finding, and assessing unstructured or semi-structured data, organizations may not draw upon these vast reservoirs of information, which could influence a particular decision, task, or project. This can ultimately lead to poorly informed decision-making.[16]\nTherefore, when designing a business intelligence\/DW-solution, the specific problems associated with semi-structured and unstructured data must be accommodated for as well as those for the structured data.\n\nLimitations of semi-structured and unstructured data \n This section needs to be updated. The reason given is: It's dubious that searchability and semantic analysis are still limitations at the current stage of NLP and AI development. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (December 2023 ) \nThere are several challenges to developing BI with semi-structured data. According to Inmon &amp; Nesavich,[19] some of those are:\n\nPhysically accessing unstructured textual data&#160;\u2013 unstructured data is stored in a huge variety of formats.\nTerminology&#160;\u2013 Among researchers and analysts, there is a need to develop standardized terminology.\nVolume of data&#160;\u2013 As stated earlier, up to 85% of all data exists as semi-structured data. Couple that with the need for word-to-word and semantic analysis.\nSearchability of unstructured textual data&#160;\u2013 A simple search on some data, e.g. apple, results in links where there is a reference to that precise search term. (Inmon &amp; Nesavich, 2008)[19] gives an example: \"a search is made on the term felony. In a simple search, the term felony is used, and everywhere there is a reference to felony, a hit to an unstructured document is made. But a simple search is crude. It does not find references to crime, arson, murder, embezzlement, vehicular homicide, and such, even though these crimes are types of felonies\".\nMetadata \nTo solve problems with searchability and assessment of data, it is necessary to know something about the content. This can be done by adding context through the use of metadata.[16][needs&#160;independent&#160;confirmation ] Many systems already capture some metadata (e.g. filename, author, size, etc.), but more useful would be metadata about the actual content&#160;\u2013 e.g. summaries, topics, people, or companies mentioned. Two technologies designed for generating metadata about content are automatic categorization and information extraction.\n\nApplications \nBusiness intelligence can be applied to the following business purposes:\n\nPerformance metrics and benchmarking inform business leaders of progress towards business goals.[20] (Business process management).[citation needed ]\nAnalytics quantify processes for a business to arrive at optimal decisions, and to perform business knowledge discovery. Analytics may variously involve data mining, process mining, statistical analysis, predictive analytics, predictive modeling, business process modeling, data lineage, complex event processing, and prescriptive analytics. For example within banking industry, academic research has explored potential for BI based analytics in credit evaluation, customer churn management for managerial adoption[21]\nReporting, dashboards and data visualization,[20] executive information system, and\/or OLAP\nBI can facilitate collaboration both inside and outside the business by enabling data sharing and electronic data interchange[20]\nKnowledge management is concerned with the creation, distribution, use, and management of business intelligence, and of business knowledge in general.[20] Knowledge management leads to learning management and regulatory compliance.[citation needed ]\nRoles \nSome common technical roles for business intelligence developers are:[22]\n\nBusiness analyst\nData analyst\nData engineer\nData scientist\nDatabase administrator\nRisk \nIn a 2013 report, Gartner categorized business intelligence vendors as either an independent \"pure-play\" vendor or a consolidated \"mega-vendor\".[23][non-primary source needed ] In 2019, the BI market was shaken within Europe for the new legislation of GDPR (General Data Protection Regulation) which puts the responsibility of data collection and storage onto the data user with strict laws in place to make sure the data is compliant. Growth within Europe has steadily increased since May 2019 when GDPR was brought. The legislation refocused companies to look at their own data from a compliance perspective but also revealed future opportunities using personalization and external BI providers to increase market share.[24][permanent dead link ] \n\nSee also \n\nAnalytic applications\nArtificial intelligence marketing\nBusiness activity monitoring\nBusiness Intelligence 2.0\nBusiness Intelligence Competency Center\nBusiness intelligence software\nBusiness process discovery\nBusiness process management\nCustomer dynamics\nDecision engineering\nEmbedded analytics\nEnterprise planning systems\nIntegrated business planning\nManagement information system\nMobile business intelligence\nOperational intelligence\nProcess mining\nReal-time business intelligence\nSales intelligence\nTest and learn\n\nReferences \n\n\n^ Dedi\u0107 N. &amp; Stanier noC. (2016). \"Measuring the Success of Changes to Existing Business Intelligence Solutions to Improve Business Intelligence Reporting\" (PDF) . Measuring the Success of Changes to Existing Business Intelligence Solutions to Improve Business Intelligence Reporting. Lecture Notes in Business Information Processing. Lecture Notes in Business Information Processing. Vol.&#160;268. Springer International Publishing. pp.&#160;225\u2013236. doi:10.1007\/978-3-319-49944-4_17. ISBN&#160;978-3-319-49943-7. S2CID&#160;30910248. \n\n^ (Rud, Olivia (2009). Business Intelligence Success Factors: Tools for Aligning Your Business in the Global Economy. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley &amp; Sons. ISBN&#160;978-0-470-39240-9. ) \n\n^ Coker, Frank (2014). Pulse: Understanding the Vital Signs of Your Business. Ambient Light Publishing. pp.&#160;41\u201342. ISBN&#160;978-0-9893086-0-1. \n\n^ \nChugh, R. &amp; Grandhi, S. (2013,). \"Why Business Intelligence? Significance of Business Intelligence tools and integrating BI governance with corporate governance\". International Journal of E-Entrepreneurship and Innovation', vol. 4, no.2, pp. 1\u201314. \n\n^ \nGolden, Bernard (2013). Amazon Web Services For Dummies. For dummies. John Wiley &amp; Sons. p.&#160;234. ISBN&#160;9781118652268. Retrieved 6 July 2014 . [...] traditional business intelligence or data warehousing tools (the terms are used so interchangeably that they're often referred to as BI\/DW) are extremely expensive [...] \n\n^ Miller Devens, Richard (1865). Cyclopaedia of Commercial and Business Anecdotes; Comprising Interesting Reminiscences and Facts, Remarkable Traits and Humors of Merchants, Traders, Bankers Etc. in All Ages and Countries. D. Appleton and company. p.&#160;210. Retrieved 15 February 2014 . business intelligence. \n\n^ \nLuhn, H. P. (1958). \"A Business Intelligence System\" (PDF) . IBM Journal of Research and Development. 2 (4): 314\u2013319. doi:10.1147\/rd.24.0314. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 September 2008. \n\n^ D. J. Power (10 March 2007). \"A Brief History of Decision Support Systems, version 4.0\". DSSResources.COM. Retrieved 10 July 2008 . \n\n^ Power, D. J. \"A Brief History of Decision Support Systems\". Retrieved 1 November 2010 . \n\n^ Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg (21 November 2008). Topic Overview: Business Intelligence. doi:10.1007\/978-3-540-48716-6. ISBN&#160;978-3-540-48715-9. \n\n^ Evelson, Boris (21 November 2008). \"Topic Overview: Business Intelligence\". \n\n^ Evelson, Boris (29 April 2010). \"Want to know what Forrester's lead data analysts are thinking about BI and the data domain?\". Archived from the original on 6 August 2016. Retrieved 4 November 2010 . \n\n^ Kobielus, James (30 April 2010). \"What's Not BI? Oh, Don't Get Me Started... Oops Too Late... Here Goes...\" Archived from the original on 7 May 2010. Retrieved 4 November 2010 . \"Business\" intelligence is a non-domain-specific catchall for all the types of analytic data that can be delivered to users in reports, dashboards, and the like. When you specify the subject domain for this intelligence, then you can refer to \"competitive intelligence\", \"market intelligence\", \"social intelligence\", \"financial intelligence\", \"HR intelligence\", \"supply chain intelligence\", and the like. \n\n^ \"Business Analytics vs Business Intelligence?\". timoelliott.com. 9 March 2011. Retrieved 15 June 2014 . \n\n^ Henschen, Doug (4 January 2010). \"Analytics at Work: Q&amp;A with Tom Davenport\" (Interview). Archived from the original on 3 April 2012. Retrieved 26 September 2011 . \n\n^ a b c Rao, R. (2003). \"From unstructured data to actionable intelligence\" (PDF) . IT Professional. 5 (6): 29\u201335. doi:10.1109\/MITP.2003.1254966. \n\n^ a b Blumberg, R. &amp; S. Atre (2003). \"The Problem with Unstructured Data\" (PDF) . DM Review: 42\u201346. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 January 2011. \n\n^ Negash, S (2004). \"Business Intelligence\". Communications of the Association for Information Systems. 13: 177\u2013195. doi:10.17705\/1CAIS.01315 . \n\n^ a b Inmon, B. &amp; A. Nesavich, \"Unstructured Textual Data in the Organization\" from \"Managing Unstructured data in the organization\", Prentice Hall 2008, pp. 1\u201313 \n\n^ a b c d Feldman, D.; Himmelstein, J. (2013). Developing Business Intelligence Apps for SharePoint. O'Reilly Media, Inc. pp.&#160;140\u20131. ISBN&#160;9781449324681. Retrieved 8 May 2018 . \n\n^ Moro, S\u00e9rgio; Cortez, Paulo; Rita, Paulo (February 2015). \"Business intelligence in banking: A literature analysis from 2002 to 2013 using text mining and latent Dirichlet allocation\". Expert Systems with Applications. 42 (3): 1314\u20131324. doi:10.1016\/j.eswa.2014.09.024. hdl:10071\/8522 . S2CID&#160;15595226. \n\n^ Roles in data - Learn | Microsoft Docs \n\n^ Andrew Brust (14 February 2013). \"Gartner releases 2013 BI Magic Quadrant\". ZDNet. Retrieved 21 August 2013 . \n\n^ SaaS BI growth will soar in 2010 | Cloud Computing. InfoWorld (1 February 2010). Retrieved 17 January 2012. \n\n\nBibliography \nRalph Kimball et al. \"The Data warehouse Lifecycle Toolkit\" (2nd ed.) Wiley ISBN&#160;0-470-47957-4\nPeter Rausch, Alaa Sheta, Aladdin Ayesh&#160;: Business Intelligence and Performance Management: Theory, Systems, and Industrial Applications, Springer Verlag U.K., 2013, ISBN&#160;978-1-4471-4865-4.\nMunoz, J.M. (2017). Global Business Intelligence. Routledge&#160;: UK. ISBN&#160;978-1-1382-03686\nChaudhuri, Surajit; Dayal, Umeshwar; Narasayya, Vivek (August 2011). \"An Overview of Business Intelligence Technology\". Communications of the ACM. 54 (8): 88\u201398. doi:10.1145\/1978542.1978562. \nExternal links \n\n\n \nWikimedia Commons has media related to Business intelligence .\n\nvteData warehousesCreating a data warehouseConcepts\nDatabase\nDimension\nDimensional modeling\nFact\nOLAP\nStar schema\nSnowflake schema\nReverse star schema\nAggregate\nSingle version of the truth\nVariants\nColumn-oriented DBMS\nData hub\nData mesh\nEnsemble modeling patterns\nAnchor modeling\nData vault modeling\nFocal point modeling\nHOLAP\nMOLAP\nROLAP\nOperational data store\nElements\nData dictionary\/Metadata\nData mart\nSixth normal form\nSurrogate key\nFact\nFact table\nEarly-arriving fact\nMeasure\nDimension\nDimension table\nDegenerate\nSlowly changing\nFilling\nExtract, transform, load (ETL)\nExtract, load, transform (ELT)\nExtract\nTransform\nLoad\nUsing a data warehouseConcepts\nBusiness intelligence\nDashboard\nData mining\nDecision support system (DSS)\nOLAP cube\nData warehouse 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role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Business intelligence<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Strategies for analysis and use of data<\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\">\n<\/p><p><b>Business intelligence<\/b> comprises the strategies and technologies used by enterprises for the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_analysis\" title=\"Data analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe81497dd8621498e1de0a68d203fd37\">data analysis<\/a> and management of business <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3af0e7a381a856e93e11b5036866eb24\">information<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> Common functions of business intelligence technologies include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Financial_reporting\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Financial reporting\" data-key=\"e294f2d57006afb8be8569dec99e2322\">reporting<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Online_analytical_processing\" title=\"Online analytical processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b00f448abfb4948e1eae84c222e6f3b5\">online analytical processing<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Analytics\" title=\"Analytics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50a9e129b74020e51d9761f09f2d4652\">analytics<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dashboard_(business)\" title=\"Dashboard (business)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"efeb942e7967dcf7a9477c6ed1062d94\">dashboard<\/a> development, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mining\" title=\"Data mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0476196065f64ef9067933bc43b6634\">data mining<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Process_mining\" title=\"Process mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4d79e4c479ad793a0fed95c8594b6324\">process mining<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Complex_event_processing\" title=\"Complex event processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"096fc7cb579e5c5a61b4e154f6d601c6\">complex event processing<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_performance_management\" title=\"Business performance management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd7d24521aa51615f27653d8e6d6162e\">business performance management<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Benchmarking\" title=\"Benchmarking\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7d327f3b302c8266cc52fa904e34fbd3\">benchmarking<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Text_mining\" title=\"Text mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"399bb009dd237bfe29b2ab9413a97271\">text mining<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Predictive_Analysis\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Predictive Analysis\" data-key=\"24d0913882e239947bcd04deeba26144\">predictive analytics<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Prescriptive_analytics\" title=\"Prescriptive analytics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"763411f4e713183f8ff5cfce937d1b09\">prescriptive analytics<\/a>. \n<\/p><p>BI tools can handle large amounts of structured and sometimes unstructured data to help identify, develop, and otherwise create new strategic <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_opportunities\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Business opportunities\" data-key=\"bea909cb372c24d4fa9430a360439d62\">business opportunities<\/a>. They aim to allow for the easy interpretation of these <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Big_data\" title=\"Big data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e130d519686c4edbc43ee36a686a3d0a\">big data<\/a>. Identifying new opportunities and implementing an effective strategy based on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Insight\" title=\"Insight\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"371fd01630dd88e54cf8d866e5061b6a\">insights<\/a> can provide <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business\" title=\"Business\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff1d01a96ae3a445e4fff761412471b\">businesses<\/a> with a competitive market advantage and long-term stability, and help them take strategic decisions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Business intelligence can be used by enterprises to support a wide range of business decisions ranging from operational to strategic. Basic operating decisions include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Product_positioning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Product positioning\" data-key=\"d0aa17590859c315a334df5b9a61e1a5\">product positioning<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pricing\" title=\"Pricing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f9772fa0af8925d1385bda5c0c84f5a\">pricing<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_strategy\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Business strategy\" data-key=\"00f326653ec9eea722639c219c2d4a8b\">Strategic business<\/a> decisions involve priorities, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Goal\" title=\"Goal\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cade209af13a65801550217c0067da2f\">goals<\/a>, and directions at the broadest level. In all cases, BI is most effective when it combines data derived from the market in which a company operates (external data) with data from company sources internal to the business such as financial and operations data (internal data). When combined, external and internal data can provide a complete picture which, in effect, creates an \"intelligence\" that cannot be derived from any singular set of data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Among myriad uses, business intelligence tools empower organizations to gain insight into new markets, to assess demand and suitability of products and services for different <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Market_segmentation\" title=\"Market segmentation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"be990667842ec74387ea8fcc98108743\">market segments<\/a>, and to gauge the impact of marketing efforts.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>BI applications use data gathered from a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_warehouse\" title=\"Data warehouse\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a0ea3ce49e6688a8ec1616b9f0927fea\">data warehouse<\/a> (DW) or from a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mart\" title=\"Data mart\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e44fab70f384c8b8ec7e9184af0c01a1\">data mart<\/a>, and the concepts of BI and DW combine as \"BI\/DW\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>or as \"BIDW\". A data warehouse contains a copy of analytical data that facilitates <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_support\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Decision support\" data-key=\"694ae8d04da17541a55c35877f5fd69c\">decision support<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The earliest known use of the term <i>business intelligence<\/i> is in Richard Millar Devens' <i>Cyclop\u00e6dia of Commercial and Business Anecdotes<\/i> (1865). Devens used the term to describe how the banker <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sir_Henry_Furnese,_1st_Baronet\" title=\"Sir Henry Furnese, 1st Baronet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cbabb215cf8343770f5d23e66c5fb901\">Sir Henry Furnese<\/a> gained profit by receiving and acting upon information about his environment, prior to his competitors:\n<\/p>\n<blockquote class=\"templatequote\"><p>Throughout Holland, Flanders, France, and Germany, he maintained a complete and perfect train of business intelligence. The news of the many battles fought was thus received first by him, and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Siege_of_Namur_(1695)\" title=\"Siege of Namur (1695)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1959037c896e60482c38b17c8669b495\">fall of Namur<\/a> added to his profits, owing to his early receipt of the news.<\/p><div class=\"templatequotecite\">\u2014\u200a<cite>Devens, p.&#160;210<\/cite><\/div><\/blockquote>\n<p>The ability to collect and react accordingly based on the information retrieved, Devens says, is central to business intelligence.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Miller_Devens_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Miller_Devens-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>When <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hans_Peter_Luhn\" title=\"Hans Peter Luhn\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"13b5012ec8ce086134319492ab72b5c5\">Hans Peter Luhn<\/a>, a researcher at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IBM\" title=\"IBM\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"517a128ab6331cda10bbf2ea31e64d86\">IBM<\/a>, used the term <i>business intelligence<\/i> in an article published in 1958, he employed the <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Webster%27s_Dictionary\" title=\"Webster's Dictionary\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ea1346c9258fae8ee292781ee8f5618\">Webster's Dictionary<\/a><\/i> definition of intelligence: \"the ability to apprehend the interrelationships of presented facts in such a way as to guide action towards a desired goal.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>In 1989, Howard Dresner (later a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gartner\" title=\"Gartner\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f7668963d7e19c93d13754e7e1b8a52\">Gartner<\/a> analyst) proposed <i>business intelligence<\/i> as an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Umbrella_term\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Umbrella term\" data-key=\"3006b0749c672b5c19088f3cbf9b8c24\">umbrella term<\/a> to describe \"concepts and methods to improve business decision making by using fact-based support systems.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-power_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-power-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> It was not until the late 1990s that this usage was widespread.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Definition\">Definition<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>According to Solomon Negash and Paul Gray, business intelligence (BI) can be defined as systems that combine:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_collection\" title=\"Data collection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c480fa3155cedfb5132e5258cdc0aa80\">Data gathering<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_storage\" title=\"Data storage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"853b49fb9cf81b311211758816b6c99d\">Data storage<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_management\" title=\"Knowledge management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f2fb2a531340ab3802bff82a8cdaff7\">Knowledge management<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>with analysis to evaluate complex corporate and competitive information for presentation to planners and decision makers, with the objective of improving the timeliness and the quality of the input to the decision process.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>According to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Forrester_Research\" title=\"Forrester Research\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8157b65f1a139b7c858cb546c588ef45\">Forrester Research<\/a>, business intelligence is \"a set of methodologies, processes, architectures, and technologies that transform raw data into meaningful and useful information used to enable more effective strategic, tactical, and operational insights and decision-making.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> Under this definition, business intelligence encompasses <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_management\" title=\"Information management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6eb7b16b6cf9e903b35914f058a684c1\">information management<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_integration\" title=\"Data integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ef20102ff5fd42522c9e879f31e999e\">data integration<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_quality\" title=\"Data quality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8771428f8ff5b31246abf8b197186672\">data quality<\/a>, data warehousing, master-data management, text- and content-analytics, et al.). Therefore, Forrester refers to <i>data preparation<\/i> and <i>data usage<\/i> as two separate but closely linked segments of the business-intelligence architectural stack.\n<\/p><p>Some elements of business intelligence are:<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2018)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Multidimensional <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aggregate_(data_warehouse)\" title=\"Aggregate (data warehouse)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"94f49fe882d8fc03ff6544e894891ba2\">aggregation<\/a> and allocation<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Denormalization\" title=\"Denormalization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"729614a765dd22f64aa547b03cc430e2\">Denormalization<\/a>, tagging, and standardization<\/li>\n<li>Realtime reporting with analytical alert<\/li>\n<li>A method of interfacing with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unstructured_data\" title=\"Unstructured data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2cf4a063df1dfbf948f0824b167984c\">unstructured data<\/a> sources<\/li>\n<li>Group consolidation, budgeting, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rolling_forecast\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Rolling forecast\" data-key=\"95b5b0f48c001caf9c3e645a1a153d94\">rolling forecasts<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_inference\" title=\"Statistical inference\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"531cc2121dc07b12e1541c66cca17129\">Statistical inference<\/a> and probabilistic simulation<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Key_performance_indicator\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Key performance indicator\" data-key=\"0323fbb04e5067eb701468735626f723\">Key performance indicators<\/a> optimization<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Version_control\" title=\"Version control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"26e89feabadbf7abca76d5b5d945a458\">Version control<\/a> and process management<\/li>\n<li>Open item management<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Forrester distinguishes this from the <i>business-intelligence market<\/i>, which is \"just the top layers of the BI architectural stack, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_reporting\" title=\"Data reporting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5fe485ef0e846bfdb5536c95940c3c6d\">reporting<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Analytics\" title=\"Analytics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50a9e129b74020e51d9761f09f2d4652\">analytics<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dashboards_(management_information_systems)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Dashboards (management information systems)\" data-key=\"78753250e5df4fec1ba60c794bb0075c\">dashboards<\/a>.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Compared_with_competitive_intelligence\">Compared with competitive intelligence<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Though the term business intelligence is sometimes a synonym for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Competitive_intelligence\" title=\"Competitive intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dd07fcbfff536086a937b143a8201b63\">competitive intelligence<\/a> (because they both support <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_making\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Decision making\" data-key=\"f7ca18573163d657813ebb8dfb5bff55\">decision making<\/a>), BI uses technologies, processes, and applications to analyze mostly internal, structured data and business processes while competitive intelligence gathers, analyzes, and disseminates information with a topical focus on company competitors. If understood broadly, competitive intelligence can be considered as a subset of business intelligence.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Compared_with_business_analytics\">Compared with business analytics<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Business intelligence and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_analytics\" title=\"Business analytics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c3cbca9e82643b08a950869d4c295b83\">business analytics<\/a> are sometimes used interchangeably, but there are alternate definitions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thomas_H._Davenport\" title=\"Thomas H. Davenport\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1dfb6bfe96fc39cd9e77bc48680f03b2\">Thomas Davenport<\/a>, professor of information technology and management at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Babson_College\" title=\"Babson College\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"98e06503c15f5a136b6667dc9b113c4f\">Babson College<\/a> argues that business intelligence should be divided into <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_retrieval\" title=\"Information retrieval\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0faaa582e57a2d62bc65c5c191a810c0\">querying<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Financial_reporting\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Financial reporting\" data-key=\"e294f2d57006afb8be8569dec99e2322\">reporting<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Online_analytical_processing\" title=\"Online analytical processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b00f448abfb4948e1eae84c222e6f3b5\">Online analytical processing<\/a> (OLAP), an \"alerts\" tool, and business analytics. In this definition, business analytics is the subset of BI focusing on statistics, prediction, and optimization, rather than the reporting functionality.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Unstructured_data\">Unstructured data<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Business operations can generate a very large amount of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data\" title=\"Data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f97d13c149ad595955ad7b91990e0119\">data<\/a> in the form of e-mails, memos, notes from call-centers, news, user groups, chats, reports, web-pages, presentations, image-files, video-files, and marketing material. According to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Merrill_Lynch\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Merrill Lynch\" data-key=\"6b9e01b70c99eda64f79848a2c4670bf\">Merrill Lynch<\/a>, more than 85% of all business information exists in these forms; a company might only use such a document a single time.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-rao_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-rao-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> Because of the way it is produced and stored, this information is either <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unstructured_data\" title=\"Unstructured data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2cf4a063df1dfbf948f0824b167984c\">unstructured<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semi-structured_data\" title=\"Semi-structured data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5c46fb42c07af2ca627bdb26158034d5\">semi-structured<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>The management of semi-structured data is an unsolved problem in the information technology industry.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-blumberg_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-blumberg-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup> According to projections from Gartner (2003), white-collar workers spend 30\u201340% of their time searching, finding, and assessing unstructured data. BI uses both structured and unstructured data. The former is easy to search, and the latter contains a large quantity of the information needed for analysis and decision-making.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-blumberg_17-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-blumberg-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-negash_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-negash-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> Because of the difficulty of properly searching, finding, and assessing unstructured or semi-structured data, organizations may not draw upon these vast reservoirs of information, which could influence a particular decision, task, or project. This can ultimately lead to poorly informed decision-making.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-rao_16-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-rao-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Therefore, when designing a business intelligence\/DW-solution, the specific problems associated with semi-structured and unstructured data must be accommodated for as well as those for the structured data.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Limitations_of_semi-structured_and_unstructured_data\">Limitations of semi-structured and unstructured data<\/span><\/h3>\n\n<p>There are several challenges to developing BI with semi-structured data. According to Inmon &amp; Nesavich,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-inmon_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-inmon-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> some of those are:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Physically accessing unstructured textual data&#160;\u2013 unstructured data is stored in a huge variety of formats.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Terminology\" title=\"Terminology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"19cecf4f0cfdd74bb1468cd640c76963\">Terminology<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Among researchers and analysts, there is a need to develop standardized terminology.<\/li>\n<li>Volume of data&#160;\u2013 As stated earlier, up to 85% of all data exists as semi-structured data. Couple that with the need for word-to-word and semantic analysis.<\/li>\n<li>Searchability of unstructured textual data&#160;\u2013 A simple search on some data, e.g. apple, results in links where there is a reference to that precise search term. (Inmon &amp; Nesavich, 2008)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-inmon_19-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-inmon-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> gives an example: \"a search is made on the term felony. In a simple search, the term felony is used, and everywhere there is a reference to felony, a hit to an unstructured document is made. But a simple search is crude. It does not find references to crime, arson, murder, embezzlement, vehicular homicide, and such, even though these crimes are types of felonies\".<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Metadata\">Metadata<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>To solve problems with searchability and assessment of data, it is necessary to know something about the content. This can be done by adding context through the use of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata\" title=\"Metadata\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cee808fe01d61a4892d7ef554d65437c\">metadata<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-rao_16-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-rao-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Sources_that_are_usually_not_reliable\" title=\"Wikipedia:Verifiability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c1b12b1885ed41e9c270049a4c802b98\"><span title=\"The article is written by a founder of a company that made automatic categorization software. Not sufficient to establish that using automatically generated metadata is a mainstream approach of applying BI to unstructured data. (December 2023)\">needs&#160;independent&#160;confirmation<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> Many systems already capture some metadata (e.g. filename, author, size, etc.), but more useful would be metadata about the actual content&#160;\u2013 e.g. summaries, topics, people, or companies mentioned. Two technologies designed for generating metadata about content are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multiclass_classification\" title=\"Multiclass classification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f8ded027023182f6f6d2ff21c0b85757\">automatic categorization<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_extraction\" title=\"Information extraction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5d8bd74625d817b2052a2a36d5529463\">information extraction<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Applications\">Applications<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Business intelligence can be applied to the following business purposes:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Performance_metrics\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Performance metrics\" data-key=\"7f2e023783fc6f7fae9e9e507205e4ab\">Performance metrics<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Benchmarking\" title=\"Benchmarking\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7d327f3b302c8266cc52fa904e34fbd3\">benchmarking<\/a> inform business leaders of progress towards business goals.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FeldmanDeveloping13_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FeldmanDeveloping13-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process_management\" title=\"Business process management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ce8956a01af347b785be586638ef83c\">Business process management<\/a>).<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Analytics\" title=\"Analytics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50a9e129b74020e51d9761f09f2d4652\">Analytics<\/a> quantify processes for a business to arrive at optimal decisions, and to perform business knowledge discovery. Analytics may variously involve <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mining\" title=\"Data mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0476196065f64ef9067933bc43b6634\">data mining<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Process_mining\" title=\"Process mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4d79e4c479ad793a0fed95c8594b6324\">process mining<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_analysis\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Statistical analysis\" data-key=\"aa326396a3ec131f22db89698617d998\">statistical analysis<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Predictive_analytics\" title=\"Predictive analytics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"34f7137f13e40b2fa7b28c33330ba3ab\">predictive analytics<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Predictive_modeling\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Predictive modeling\" data-key=\"7b5a8612567538244b872ef348528e1b\">predictive modeling<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process_modeling\" title=\"Business process modeling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9715c2f913e0cf460e06594cdf1926de\">business process modeling<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_lineage\" title=\"Data lineage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9ef39b5373e3072b9ad8dd7dc83ca6b1\">data lineage<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Complex_event_processing\" title=\"Complex event processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"096fc7cb579e5c5a61b4e154f6d601c6\">complex event processing<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Prescriptive_analytics\" title=\"Prescriptive analytics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"763411f4e713183f8ff5cfce937d1b09\">prescriptive analytics<\/a>. For example within banking industry, academic research has explored potential for BI based analytics in credit evaluation, customer churn management for managerial adoption<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reporting\" class=\"mw-disambig wiki-link\" title=\"Reporting\" data-key=\"fb673d3cef467aa2f23c8564cabb0c95\">Reporting<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dashboard_(business)\" title=\"Dashboard (business)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"efeb942e7967dcf7a9477c6ed1062d94\">dashboards<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_visualization\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data visualization\" data-key=\"e5477909db13f678e8054bd9dae16a17\">data visualization<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FeldmanDeveloping13_20-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FeldmanDeveloping13-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Executive_information_system\" title=\"Executive information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7cf335403e62190ebdbce0b471087d13\">executive information system<\/a>, and\/or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OLAP\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OLAP\" data-key=\"7ef77274d45ffa04bfe244fad9fac81d\">OLAP<\/a><\/li>\n<li>BI can facilitate <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Collaboration\" title=\"Collaboration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c2a65b2b5b813ba8318884dbfffdb09a\">collaboration<\/a> both inside and outside the business by enabling <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_sharing\" title=\"Data sharing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9135f52ddf866316b15abc79a83047f1\">data sharing<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_data_interchange\" title=\"Electronic data interchange\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"08606d658cb8079277aacc5938326c04\">electronic data interchange<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FeldmanDeveloping13_20-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FeldmanDeveloping13-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_management\" title=\"Knowledge management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f2fb2a531340ab3802bff82a8cdaff7\">Knowledge management<\/a> is concerned with the creation, distribution, use, and management of business intelligence, and of business knowledge in general.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FeldmanDeveloping13_20-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FeldmanDeveloping13-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> Knowledge management leads to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Learning_management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Learning management\" data-key=\"a65fb90655f39d6592e7b85f0d5a6436\">learning management<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regulatory_compliance\" title=\"Regulatory compliance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4ca6bf47b29b4fa458d97db174b6cb0f\">regulatory compliance<\/a>.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Roles\">Roles<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Some common technical roles for business intelligence developers are:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_analyst\" title=\"Business analyst\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f630dd4b0f073dc7bbea379c9933c185\">Business analyst<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_analyst\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data analyst\" data-key=\"f45bec39889890549ae7d8ee4d623c00\">Data analyst<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_engineer\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data engineer\" data-key=\"4c5aaade9d6340e1cf6ba10860f7b07b\">Data engineer<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_scientist\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data scientist\" data-key=\"51527748641af2417bce7561c0f9cef0\">Data scientist<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database_administrator\" title=\"Database administrator\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a8e2b2bd10401dfbb829692fdc8df46a\">Database administrator<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Risk\">Risk<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In a 2013 report, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gartner\" title=\"Gartner\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f7668963d7e19c93d13754e7e1b8a52\">Gartner<\/a> categorized business intelligence vendors as either an independent \"pure-play\" vendor or a consolidated \"mega-vendor\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources\" title=\"Wikipedia:No original research\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3b48133d40e8c3c9e91ad6c8ac7e63d3\"><span title=\"Secondary source supporting importance of the categorization needed (December 2023)\">non-primary source needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> In 2019, the BI market was shaken within Europe for the new legislation of GDPR (General Data Protection Regulation) which puts the responsibility of data collection and storage onto the data user with strict laws in place to make sure the data is compliant. Growth within Europe has steadily increased since May 2019 when GDPR was brought. The legislation refocused companies to look at their own data from a compliance perspective but also revealed future opportunities using personalization and external BI providers to increase market share.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\"><span style=\"white-space: nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Link_rot\" title=\"Wikipedia:Link rot\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8e73a2ff6f82d88817bdd8ee8b302ab7\"><span title=\"&#160;Dead link tagged December 2023\">permanent dead link<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/span><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"div-col\" style=\"column-width: 20em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Analytic_applications\" title=\"Analytic applications\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"642fcffedf878ebcac005ca9ced277e8\">Analytic applications<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_marketing\" title=\"Artificial intelligence marketing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7e8d15bddb61cf287a1794cee66196bc\">Artificial intelligence marketing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_activity_monitoring\" title=\"Business activity monitoring\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9389d85c833621df19e1a6f00cbdf740\">Business activity monitoring<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_Intelligence_2.0\" title=\"Business Intelligence 2.0\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1f9ae4dd4692d1c5fc179da68c2cbe92\">Business Intelligence 2.0<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_Intelligence_Competency_Center\" title=\"Business Intelligence Competency Center\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"836aecf240df84c2b6e34e62f7185603\">Business Intelligence Competency Center<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_intelligence_software\" title=\"Business intelligence software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8438769893c31986418c4042b6372f8e\">Business intelligence software<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process_discovery\" title=\"Business process discovery\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"06c71400f7320c0ef6ed62fa17b09ca1\">Business process discovery<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process_management\" title=\"Business process management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ce8956a01af347b785be586638ef83c\">Business process management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Customer_dynamics\" title=\"Customer dynamics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"252a86e69633fbcddb960eea7a161ec5\">Customer dynamics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_engineering\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Decision engineering\" data-key=\"3c83a78bbac9cfe7ed76976fe07eb84a\">Decision engineering<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Embedded_analytics\" title=\"Embedded analytics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5bd3c8993703c446da8da3b52e6f89a0\">Embedded analytics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_planning_systems\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Enterprise planning systems\" data-key=\"1ec62fd77f69c442f6adb7b0fa087e08\">Enterprise planning systems<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Integrated_business_planning\" title=\"Integrated business planning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5d8a292d87ebd37a475ed0e781336a12\">Integrated business planning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Management_information_system\" title=\"Management information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a92a2c5b402f28a32fedefc28131a3c\">Management information system<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mobile_business_intelligence\" title=\"Mobile business intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"946835dddb2054c05ff13c1a94db7cff\">Mobile business intelligence<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operational_intelligence\" title=\"Operational intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5ac0bb695bc2ac1fcea26ed5de2702ef\">Operational intelligence<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Process_mining\" title=\"Process mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4d79e4c479ad793a0fed95c8594b6324\">Process mining<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Real-time_business_intelligence\" title=\"Real-time business intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"95316461e584d8b677c6eee88710b73a\">Real-time business intelligence<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sales_intelligence\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Sales intelligence\" data-key=\"b404b4f58bb20b347211d150aa0a96ff\">Sales intelligence<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Test_and_learn\" title=\"Test and learn\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"09a1f3e928a663ac3b1a638922025523\">Test and learn<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDedi\u0107_N._&amp;_Stanier_noC.2016\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Dedi\u0107 N. &amp; Stanier noC. (2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/hal.inria.fr\/hal-01630541\/file\/432749_1_En_17_Chapter.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Measuring the Success of Changes to Existing Business Intelligence Solutions to Improve Business Intelligence Reporting\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/eprints.staffs.ac.uk\/3547\/1\/Measuring%20JMA_Submitted.docx\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Measuring the Success of Changes to Existing Business Intelligence Solutions to Improve Business Intelligence Reporting. Lecture Notes in Business Information Processing<\/i><\/a>. Lecture Notes in Business Information Processing. Vol.&#160;268. Springer International Publishing. pp.&#160;225\u2013236. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2F978-3-319-49944-4_17\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/978-3-319-49944-4_17<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-3-319-49943-7<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:30910248\" target=\"_blank\">30910248<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Measuring+the+Success+of+Changes+to+Existing+Business+Intelligence+Solutions+to+Improve+Business+Intelligence+Reporting&amp;rft.btitle=Measuring+the+Success+of+Changes+to+Existing+Business+Intelligence+Solutions+to+Improve+Business+Intelligence+Reporting.+Lecture+Notes+in+Business+Information+Processing&amp;rft.series=Lecture+Notes+in+Business+Information+Processing&amp;rft.pages=225-236&amp;rft.pub=Springer+International+Publishing&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A30910248%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-49944-4_17&amp;rft.isbn=978-3-319-49943-7&amp;rft.au=Dedi%C4%87+N.+%26+Stanier+noC.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhal.inria.fr%2Fhal-01630541%2Ffile%2F432749_1_En_17_Chapter.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> <span style=\"position:relative; top: -2px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Paywall\" title=\"closed access publication \u2013 behind paywall\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8d57fdef6ff47e6ad6f709656587346\"><img alt=\"Closed access icon\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/0\/0e\/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg\/9px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"9\" height=\"14\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">(<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRud2009\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Rud, Olivia (2009). <i>Business Intelligence Success Factors: Tools for Aligning Your Business in the Global Economy<\/i>. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley &amp; Sons. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-470-39240-9<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Business+Intelligence+Success+Factors%3A+Tools+for+Aligning+Your+Business+in+the+Global+Economy&amp;rft.place=Hoboken%2C+N.J.&amp;rft.pub=Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-470-39240-9&amp;rft.aulast=Rud&amp;rft.aufirst=Olivia&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span>)<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCoker2014\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Coker, Frank (2014). <i>Pulse: Understanding the Vital Signs of Your Business<\/i>. Ambient Light Publishing. pp.&#160;41\u201342. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-9893086-0-1<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Pulse%3A+Understanding+the+Vital+Signs+of+Your+Business&amp;rft.pages=41-42&amp;rft.pub=Ambient+Light+Publishing&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-9893086-0-1&amp;rft.aulast=Coker&amp;rft.aufirst=Frank&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:0-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_4-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nChugh, R. &amp; Grandhi, S. (2013,). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/273861123_Why_Business_Intelligence_Significance_of_Business_Intelligence_Tools_and_Integrating_BI_Governance_with_Corporate_Governance\" target=\"_blank\">\"Why Business Intelligence? Significance of Business Intelligence tools and integrating BI governance with corporate governance\". <i>International Journal of E-Entrepreneurship and Innovation', vol. 4, no.2, pp. 1\u201314.<\/i><\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGolden2013\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Golden, Bernard (2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=xSVwAAAAQBAJ\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Amazon Web Services For Dummies<\/i><\/a>. For dummies. John Wiley &amp; Sons. p.&#160;234. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781118652268<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">6 July<\/span> 2014<\/span>. <q>[...] traditional business intelligence or data warehousing tools (the terms are used so interchangeably that they're often referred to as BI\/DW) are extremely expensive [...]<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Amazon+Web+Services+For+Dummies&amp;rft.series=For+dummies&amp;rft.pages=234&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.isbn=9781118652268&amp;rft.aulast=Golden&amp;rft.aufirst=Bernard&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxSVwAAAAQBAJ&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Miller_Devens-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Miller_Devens_6-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMiller_Devens1865\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Miller Devens, Richard (1865). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/cyclopaediacomm00devegoog\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Cyclopaedia of Commercial and Business Anecdotes; Comprising Interesting Reminiscences and Facts, Remarkable Traits and Humors of Merchants, Traders, Bankers Etc. in All Ages and Countries<\/i><\/a>. D. Appleton and company. p.&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/cyclopaediacomm00devegoog\/page\/n262\" target=\"_blank\">210<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">15 February<\/span> 2014<\/span>. <q>business intelligence.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Cyclopaedia+of+Commercial+and+Business+Anecdotes%3B+Comprising+Interesting+Reminiscences+and+Facts%2C+Remarkable+Traits+and+Humors+of+Merchants%2C+Traders%2C+Bankers+Etc.+in+All+Ages+and+Countries&amp;rft.pages=210&amp;rft.pub=D.+Appleton+and+company&amp;rft.date=1865&amp;rft.aulast=Miller+Devens&amp;rft.aufirst=Richard&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcyclopaediacomm00devegoog&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-7\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLuhn,_H._P.1958\" class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hans_Peter_Luhn\" title=\"Hans Peter Luhn\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"13b5012ec8ce086134319492ab72b5c5\">Luhn, H. P.<\/a> (1958). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20080913121526\/http:\/\/www.research.ibm.com\/journal\/rd\/024\/ibmrd0204H.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Business Intelligence System\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>IBM Journal of Research and Development<\/i>. <b>2<\/b> (4): 314\u2013319. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1147%2Frd.24.0314\" target=\"_blank\">10.1147\/rd.24.0314<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.research.ibm.com\/journal\/rd\/024\/ibmrd0204H.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 13 September 2008.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=IBM+Journal+of+Research+and+Development&amp;rft.atitle=A+Business+Intelligence+System&amp;rft.volume=2&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=314-319&amp;rft.date=1958&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1147%2Frd.24.0314&amp;rft.au=Luhn%2C+H.+P.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.research.ibm.com%2Fjournal%2Frd%2F024%2Fibmrd0204H.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-power-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-power_8-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFD._J._Power2007\" class=\"citation web cs1\">D. J. Power (10 March 2007). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dssresources.com\/history\/dsshistory.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Brief History of Decision Support Systems, version 4.0\"<\/a>. DSSResources.COM<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">10 July<\/span> 2008<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+Decision+Support+Systems%2C+version+4.0&amp;rft.pub=DSSResources.COM&amp;rft.date=2007-03-10&amp;rft.au=D.+J.+Power&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdssresources.com%2Fhistory%2Fdsshistory.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-9\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPower\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Power, D. J. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dssresources.com\/history\/dsshistory.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Brief History of Decision Support Systems\"<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">1 November<\/span> 2010<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+Decision+Support+Systems&amp;rft.aulast=Power&amp;rft.aufirst=D.+J.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdssresources.com%2Fhistory%2Fdsshistory.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-10\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSpringer-Verlag_Berlin_Heidelberg2008\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg (21 November 2008). <i>Topic Overview: Business Intelligence<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2F978-3-540-48716-6\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/978-3-540-48716-6<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-3-540-48715-9<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Topic+Overview%3A+Business+Intelligence&amp;rft.date=2008-11-21&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-540-48716-6&amp;rft.isbn=978-3-540-48715-9&amp;rft.aulast=Springer-Verlag+Berlin+Heidelberg&amp;rft.aufirst=Springer-Verlag+Berlin+Heidelberg&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-11\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFEvelson2008\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Evelson, Boris (21 November 2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.forrester.com\/report\/Topic+Overview+Business+Intelligence\/-\/E-RES39218\" target=\"_blank\">\"Topic Overview: Business Intelligence\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Topic+Overview%3A+Business+Intelligence&amp;rft.date=2008-11-21&amp;rft.aulast=Evelson&amp;rft.aufirst=Boris&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.forrester.com%2Freport%2FTopic%2BOverview%2BBusiness%2BIntelligence%2F-%2FE-RES39218&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-12\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFEvelson2010\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Evelson, Boris (29 April 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160806102752\/http:\/\/blogs.forrester.com\/boris_evelson\/10-04-29-want_know_what_forresters_lead_data_analysts_are_thinking_about_bi_and_data_domain\" target=\"_blank\">\"Want to know what Forrester's lead data analysts are thinking about BI and the data domain?\"<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/blogs.forrester.com\/boris_evelson\/10-04-29-want_know_what_forresters_lead_data_analysts_are_thinking_about_bi_and_data_domain\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 6 August 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">4 November<\/span> 2010<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Want+to+know+what+Forrester%27s+lead+data+analysts+are+thinking+about+BI+and+the+data+domain%3F&amp;rft.date=2010-04-29&amp;rft.aulast=Evelson&amp;rft.aufirst=Boris&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblogs.forrester.com%2Fboris_evelson%2F10-04-29-want_know_what_forresters_lead_data_analysts_are_thinking_about_bi_and_data_domain&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-13\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKobielus2010\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Kobielus, James (30 April 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100507103207\/http:\/\/blogs.forrester.com\/james_kobielus\/10-04-30-what%E2%80%99s_not_bi_oh_don%E2%80%99t_get_me_startedoops_too_latehere_goes\" target=\"_blank\">\"What's Not BI? Oh, Don't Get Me Started... Oops Too Late... Here Goes...\"<\/a> Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/blogs.forrester.com\/james_kobielus\/10-04-30-what%E2%80%99s_not_bi_oh_don%E2%80%99t_get_me_startedoops_too_latehere_goes\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 7 May 2010<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">4 November<\/span> 2010<\/span>. <q><span class=\"cs1-kern-left\"><\/span>\"Business\" intelligence is a non-domain-specific catchall for all the types of analytic data that can be delivered to users in reports, dashboards, and the like. When you specify the subject domain for this intelligence, then you can refer to \"competitive intelligence\", \"market intelligence\", \"social intelligence\", \"financial intelligence\", \"HR intelligence\", \"supply chain intelligence\", and the like.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=What%27s+Not+BI%3F+Oh%2C+Don%27t+Get+Me+Started...+Oops+Too+Late...+Here+Goes...&amp;rft.date=2010-04-30&amp;rft.aulast=Kobielus&amp;rft.aufirst=James&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblogs.forrester.com%2Fjames_kobielus%2F10-04-30-what%25E2%2580%2599s_not_bi_oh_don%25E2%2580%2599t_get_me_startedoops_too_latehere_goes&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-14\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/timoelliott.com\/blog\/2011\/03\/business-analytics-vs-business-intelligence.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Business Analytics vs Business Intelligence?\"<\/a>. timoelliott.com. 9 March 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">15 June<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Business+Analytics+vs+Business+Intelligence%3F&amp;rft.pub=timoelliott.com&amp;rft.date=2011-03-09&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftimoelliott.com%2Fblog%2F2011%2F03%2Fbusiness-analytics-vs-business-intelligence.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-15\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHenschen2010\" class=\"citation interview cs1\">Henschen, Doug (4 January 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120403080949\/http:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/news\/software\/bi\/222200096\" target=\"_blank\">\"Analytics at Work: Q&amp;A with Tom Davenport\"<\/a> (Interview). Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/news\/software\/bi\/222200096\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 3 April 2012<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 September<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Analytics+at+Work%3A+Q%26A+with+Tom+Davenport&amp;rft.date=2010-01-04&amp;rft.aulast=Henschen&amp;rft.aufirst=Doug&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.informationweek.com%2Fnews%2Fsoftware%2Fbi%2F222200096&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-rao-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-rao_16-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-rao_16-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-rao_16-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRao2003\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Rao, R. (2003). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ramanarao.com\/papers\/rao-itpro-2003-11.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"From unstructured data to actionable intelligence\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>IT Professional<\/i>. <b>5<\/b> (6): 29\u201335. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2FMITP.2003.1254966\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/MITP.2003.1254966<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=IT+Professional&amp;rft.atitle=From+unstructured+data+to+actionable+intelligence&amp;rft.volume=5&amp;rft.issue=6&amp;rft.pages=29-35&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FMITP.2003.1254966&amp;rft.aulast=Rao&amp;rft.aufirst=R.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ramanarao.com%2Fpapers%2Frao-itpro-2003-11.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-blumberg-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-blumberg_17-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-blumberg_17-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBlumberg,_R.S._Atre2003\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Blumberg, R. &amp; S. Atre (2003). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110125033210\/http:\/\/soquelgroup.com\/Articles\/dmreview_0203_problem.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Problem with Unstructured Data\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>DM Review<\/i>: 42\u201346. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/soquelgroup.com\/Articles\/dmreview_0203_problem.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 25 January 2011.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=DM+Review&amp;rft.atitle=The+Problem+with+Unstructured+Data&amp;rft.pages=42-46&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.au=Blumberg%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=S.+Atre&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsoquelgroup.com%2FArticles%2Fdmreview_0203_problem.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-negash-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-negash_18-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFNegash,_S2004\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Negash, S (2004). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.17705%2F1CAIS.01315\" target=\"_blank\">\"Business Intelligence\"<\/a>. <i>Communications of the Association for Information Systems<\/i>. <b>13<\/b>: 177\u2013195. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.17705%2F1CAIS.01315\" target=\"_blank\">10.17705\/1CAIS.01315<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Communications+of+the+Association+for+Information+Systems&amp;rft.atitle=Business+Intelligence&amp;rft.volume=13&amp;rft.pages=177-195&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17705%2F1CAIS.01315&amp;rft.au=Negash%2C+S&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.17705%252F1CAIS.01315&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-inmon-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-inmon_19-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-inmon_19-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Inmon, B. &amp; A. Nesavich, \"Unstructured Textual Data in the Organization\" from \"Managing Unstructured data in the organization\", Prentice Hall 2008, pp. 1\u201313<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FeldmanDeveloping13-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-FeldmanDeveloping13_20-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-FeldmanDeveloping13_20-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-FeldmanDeveloping13_20-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-FeldmanDeveloping13_20-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFFeldman,_D.Himmelstein,_J.2013\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Feldman, D.; Himmelstein, J. (2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=xDXfeopC-kMC&pg=PA140\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Developing Business Intelligence Apps for SharePoint<\/i><\/a>. O'Reilly Media, Inc. pp.&#160;140\u20131. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781449324681<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Developing+Business+Intelligence+Apps+for+SharePoint&amp;rft.pages=140-1&amp;rft.pub=O%27Reilly+Media%2C+Inc&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.isbn=9781449324681&amp;rft.au=Feldman%2C+D.&amp;rft.au=Himmelstein%2C+J.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxDXfeopC-kMC%26pg%3DPA140&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-21\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMoroCortezRita2015\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Moro, S\u00e9rgio; Cortez, Paulo; Rita, Paulo (February 2015). \"Business intelligence in banking: A literature analysis from 2002 to 2013 using text mining and latent Dirichlet allocation\". <i>Expert Systems with Applications<\/i>. <b>42<\/b> (3): 1314\u20131324. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.eswa.2014.09.024\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.eswa.2014.09.024<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hdl_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hdl (identifier)\" data-key=\"e94e1ec39bdb0b58479ac2c362cd4b22\">hdl<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/hdl.handle.net\/10071%2F8522\" target=\"_blank\">10071\/8522<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:15595226\" target=\"_blank\">15595226<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Expert+Systems+with+Applications&amp;rft.atitle=Business+intelligence+in+banking%3A+A+literature+analysis+from+2002+to+2013+using+text+mining+and+latent+Dirichlet+allocation&amp;rft.volume=42&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=1314-1324&amp;rft.date=2015-02&amp;rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10071%2F8522&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A15595226%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.eswa.2014.09.024&amp;rft.aulast=Moro&amp;rft.aufirst=S%C3%A9rgio&amp;rft.au=Cortez%2C+Paulo&amp;rft.au=Rita%2C+Paulo&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-22\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/docs.microsoft.com\/en-us\/learn\/modules\/data-analytics-microsoft\/3-roles\" target=\"_blank\">Roles in data - Learn | Microsoft Docs<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-23\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAndrew_Brust2013\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Andrew Brust (14 February 2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.zdnet.com\/gartner-releases-2013-bi-magic-quadrant-7000011264\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Gartner releases 2013 BI Magic Quadrant\"<\/a>. <i>ZDNet<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 August<\/span> 2013<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=ZDNet&amp;rft.atitle=Gartner+releases+2013+BI+Magic+Quadrant&amp;rft.date=2013-02-14&amp;rft.au=Andrew+Brust&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.zdnet.com%2Fgartner-releases-2013-bi-magic-quadrant-7000011264%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-24\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/infoworld.com\/d\/cloud-computing\/saas-bi-growth-will-soar-in-2010-511\" target=\"_blank\">SaaS BI growth will soar in 2010 | Cloud Computing<\/a>. InfoWorld (1 February 2010). Retrieved 17 January 2012.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Bibliography\">Bibliography<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li>Ralph Kimball <i>et al.<\/i> \"The Data warehouse Lifecycle Toolkit\" (2nd ed.) Wiley <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-470-47957-4<\/li>\n<li>Peter Rausch, Alaa Sheta, Aladdin Ayesh&#160;: <i>Business Intelligence and Performance Management: Theory, Systems, and Industrial Applications<\/i>, Springer Verlag U.K., 2013, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;978-1-4471-4865-4.<\/li>\n<li>Munoz, J.M. (2017). Global Business Intelligence. Routledge&#160;: UK. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;978-1-1382-03686<\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFChaudhuriDayalNarasayya2011\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Chaudhuri, Surajit; Dayal, Umeshwar; Narasayya, Vivek (August 2011). \"An Overview of Business Intelligence Technology\". <i>Communications of the ACM<\/i>. <b>54<\/b> (8): 88\u201398. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145%2F1978542.1978562\" target=\"_blank\">10.1145\/1978542.1978562<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Communications+of+the+ACM&amp;rft.atitle=An+Overview+of+Business+Intelligence+Technology&amp;rft.volume=54&amp;rft.issue=8&amp;rft.pages=88-98&amp;rft.date=2011-08&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F1978542.1978562&amp;rft.aulast=Chaudhuri&amp;rft.aufirst=Surajit&amp;rft.au=Dayal%2C+Umeshwar&amp;rft.au=Narasayya%2C+Vivek&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\" \/><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1422\nCached time: 20240110035540\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 0.486 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.635 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 3704\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 102694\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 7574\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 15\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 8\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 87325\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.297\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 7777673\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 564.472 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>30.73% 173.487 1 Template:Reflist\n15.53% 87.640 1 Template:Data_warehouse\n15.12% 85.375 7 Template:Cite_book\n14.87% 83.960 1 Template:Navbox_with_collapsible_groups\n 9.87% 55.730 6 Template:Fix\n 9.10% 51.385 1 Template:Short_description\n 7.71% 43.522 1 Template:Commons_category\n 7.62% 43.013 16 Template:Main_other\n 7.19% 40.588 1 Template:Sister_project\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:168387-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110035540 and revision id 1193747259. Rendering was triggered because: api-parse\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_intelligence\" data-key=\"52cc5abde0540c0aa692595400d27aed\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110120533\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.180 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.416 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 90788\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 369.214 1 wikipedia:Business_intelligence\n100.00% 369.214 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10561-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110120532 and revision id 33194. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Business_intelligence\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Business_intelligence<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","cb8c6c58a636a17adacd11b7617cba5e_images":[],"cb8c6c58a636a17adacd11b7617cba5e_timestamp":1704907020,"b7aeb98e179fa486c9d90dba98d5f450_type":"article","b7aeb98e179fa486c9d90dba98d5f450_title":"Acceptance testing","b7aeb98e179fa486c9d90dba98d5f450_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Acceptance_testing","b7aeb98e179fa486c9d90dba98d5f450_plaintext":"\n\nAcceptance testingFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchTest to determine if the requirements of a specification or contract are met\n\n\nAcceptance testing of an aircraft catapult\nSix of the primary mirrors of the James Webb Space Telescope being prepared for acceptance testing\n\nIn engineering and its various subdisciplines, acceptance testing is a test conducted to determine if the requirements of a specification or contract are met. It may involve chemical tests, physical tests, or performance tests.[1]\nIn systems engineering, it may involve black-box testing performed on a system (for example: a piece of software, lots of manufactured mechanical parts, or batches of chemical products) prior to its delivery.[2]\n\nIn software testing, the ISTQB defines acceptance testing as: Formal testing with respect to user needs, requirements, and business processes conducted to determine whether a system satisfies the acceptance criteria[3] and to enable the user, customers or other authorized entity to determine whether to accept the system.\u2014\u200aStandard Glossary of Terms used in Software Testing[4]:\u200a2\u200a Some forms of acceptance testing are, user acceptance testing (UAT), end-user testing, operational acceptance testing (OAT), acceptance test-driven development (ATDD) and field (acceptance) testing. Acceptance criteria are the criteria that a system or component must satisfy in order to be accepted by a user, customer, or other authorized entity.[5]\n\nOverview \nTesting is a set of activities conducted to facilitate discovery and\/or evaluation of properties of one or more items under test.[6] Each individual test, known as a test case, exercises a set of predefined test activities, developed to drive the execution of the test item to meet test objectives; including correct implementation, error identification, quality verification and other valued detail.[6] The test environment is usually designed to be identical, or as close as possible, to the anticipated production environment. It includes all facilities, hardware, software, firmware, procedures and\/or documentation intended for or used to perform the testing of software.[6]\nUAT and OAT test cases are ideally derived in collaboration with business customers, business analysts, testers, and developers. It is essential that these tests include both business logic tests as well as operational environment conditions. The business customers (product owners) are the primary stakeholders of these tests. As the test conditions successfully achieve their acceptance criteria, the stakeholders are reassured the development is progressing in the right direction.[7]\n\nUser acceptance test (UAT) criteria (in agile software development) are usually created by business customers and expressed in a business domain language. These are high-level tests to verify the completeness of a user story or stories 'played' during any sprint\/iteration.\nOperational acceptance test (OAT) criteria (regardless if using agile, iterative or sequential development) are defined in terms of functional and non-functional requirements; covering key quality attributes of functional stability, portability and reliability.\nProcess \nThe acceptance test suite may need to be performed multiple times, as all of the test cases may not be executed within a single test iteration.[8]\nThe acceptance test suite is run using predefined acceptance test procedures to direct the testers which data to use, the step-by-step processes to follow and the expected result following execution. The actual results are retained for comparison with the expected results.[8] If the actual results match the expected results for each test case, the test case is said to pass. If the quantity of non-passing test cases does not breach the project's predetermined threshold, the test suite is said to pass. If it does, the system may either be rejected or accepted on conditions previously agreed between the sponsor and the manufacturer.\nThe anticipated result of a successful test execution:\n\ntest cases are executed, using predetermined data\nactual results are recorded\nactual and expected results are compared, and\ntest results are determined.\nThe objective is to provide confidence that the developed product meets both the functional and non-functional requirements. The purpose of conducting acceptance testing is that once completed, and provided the acceptance criteria are met, it is expected the sponsors will sign-off on the product development\/enhancement as satisfying the defined requirements (previously agreed between business and product provider\/developer).\n\nUser acceptance testing \nUser acceptance testing (UAT) consists of a process of verifying that a solution works for the user.[9] It is not system testing (ensuring software does not crash and meets documented requirements) but rather ensures that the solution will work for the user (i.e. tests that the user accepts the solution); software vendors often refer to this as \"Beta testing\".\nThis testing should be undertaken by the intended end user, or a subject-matter expert (SME), preferably the owner or client of the solution under test, and provide a summary of the findings for confirmation to proceed after trial or review. In software development, UAT as one of the final stages of a project often occurs before a client or customer accepts the new system. Users of the system perform tests in line with what would occur in real-life scenarios.[10]\nIt is important that the materials given to the tester be similar to the materials that the end user will have. Testers should be given real-life scenarios such as the three most common or difficult tasks that the users they represent will undertake.[11]\nThe UAT acts as a final verification of the required business functionality and proper functioning of the system, emulating real-world conditions on behalf of the paying client or a specific large customer. If the software works as required and without issues during normal use, one can reasonably extrapolate the same level of stability in production.[12]\nUser tests, usually performed by clients or by end-users, do not normally focus on identifying simple cosmetic problems such as spelling errors, nor on showstopper defects, such as software crashes; testers and developers identify and fix these issues during earlier unit testing, integration testing, and system testing phases.\nUAT should be executed against test scenarios.[13][14] Test scenarios usually differ from System or Functional test cases in that they represent a \"player\" or \"user\" journey. The broad nature of the test scenario ensures that the focus is on the journey and not on technical or system-specific details, staying away from \"click-by-click\" test steps to allow for a variance in users' behaviour. Test scenarios can be broken down into logical \"days\", which are usually where the actor (player\/customer\/operator) or system (backoffice, front end) changes.[15]\nIn industry, a common UAT is a factory acceptance test (FAT). This test takes place before installation of the equipment. Most of the time testers not only check that the equipment meets the specification, but also that it is fully functional. A FAT usually includes a check of completeness, a verification against contractual requirements, a proof of functionality (either by simulation or a conventional function test) and a final inspection.[16]\nThe results of these tests give clients confidence in how the system will perform in production. There may also be legal or contractual requirements for acceptance of the system.\n\n\nOperational acceptance testing \nMain article: Operational acceptance testing\nOperational acceptance testing (OAT) is used to conduct operational readiness (pre-release) of a product, service or system as part of a quality management system. OAT is a common type of non-functional software testing, used mainly in software development and software maintenance projects. This type of testing focuses on the operational readiness of the system to be supported, and\/or to become part of the production environment.[17]\n\nAcceptance testing in extreme programming \nMain article: Extreme programming\nAcceptance testing is a term used in agile software development methodologies, particularly extreme programming, referring to the functional testing of a user story by the software development team during the implementation phase.[18]\nThe customer specifies scenarios to test when a user story has been correctly implemented. A story can have one or many acceptance tests, whatever it takes to ensure the functionality works. Acceptance tests are black-box system tests. Each acceptance test represents some expected result from the system. Customers are responsible for verifying the correctness of the acceptance tests and reviewing test scores to decide which failed tests are of highest priority. Acceptance tests are also used as regression tests prior to a production release. A user story is not considered complete until it has passed its acceptance tests. This means that new acceptance tests must be created for each iteration or the development team will report zero progress.[19]\n\n This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (May 2008 ) \nTypes of acceptance testing \n This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2015 ) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) \nTypical types of acceptance testing include the following\n\nUser acceptance testing\n\nThis may include factory acceptance testing (FAT), i.e. the testing done by a vendor before the product or system is moved to its destination site, after which site acceptance testing (SAT) may be performed by the users at the site.[20]\nOperational acceptance testing\nAlso known as operational readiness testing, this refers to the checking done to a system to ensure that processes and procedures are in place to allow the system to be used and maintained. This may include checks done to back-up facilities, procedures for disaster recovery, training for end users, maintenance procedures, and security procedures.[21]\nContract and regulation acceptance testing\nIn contract acceptance testing, a system is tested against acceptance criteria as documented in a contract, before the system is accepted. In regulation acceptance testing, a system is tested to ensure it meets governmental, legal and safety standards.[22]\nFactory acceptance testing\nAcceptance testing conducted at the site at which the product is developed and performed by employees of the supplier organization, to determine whether a component or system satisfies the requirements, normally including hardware as well as software.[23]\nAlpha and beta testing\nAlpha testing takes place at developers' sites, and involves testing of the operational system by internal staff, before it is released to external customers. Beta testing takes place at customers' sites, and involves testing by a group of customers who use the system at their own locations and provide feedback, before the system is released to other customers. The latter is often called \"field testing\".[24]\nAcceptance criteria \nAccording to the Project Management Institute, acceptance criteria is a \"set of conditions that is required to be met before deliverables are accepted.\"[25]\nRequirements found in acceptance criteria for a given component of the system are usually very detailed.[26]\n\nList of acceptance-testing frameworks \nConcordion, Specification by example (SbE) framework\nConcordion.NET, acceptance testing in .NET\nCucumber, a behavior-driven development (BDD) acceptance test framework\nCapybara, Acceptance test framework for Ruby web applications\nBehat, BDD acceptance framework for PHP\nLettuce, BDD acceptance framework for Python\nCypress\nFabasoft app.test for automated acceptance tests\nFramework for Integrated Test (Fit)\nFitNesse, a fork of Fit\nGauge (software), Test Automation Framework from Thoughtworks\niMacros\nItsNat Java Ajax web framework with built-in, server based, functional web testing capabilities.\nMaveryx Test Automation Framework for functional testing, regression testing, GUI testing, data-driven and codeless testing of Desktop and Web applications.\nMocha, a popular web acceptance test framework based on Javascript and Node.js\nPlaywright (software)\nRanorex\nRobot Framework\nSelenium\nSpecification by example (Specs2)\nWatir\nSee also \nAcceptance sampling\nConference room pilot\nDevelopment stage\nDynamic testing\nEngineering validation test\nGrey box testing\nTest-driven development\nWhite box testing\nFunctional testing (manufacturing)\nReferences \n\n\n^ \"BPTS - Is Business process testing the best name \/ description\". SFIA. Retrieved February 18, 2023 . \n\n^ Black, Rex (August 2009). Managing the Testing Process: Practical Tools and Techniques for Managing Hardware and Software Testing . Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. ISBN&#160;978-0-470-40415-7. \n\n^ \"acceptance criteria\". Innolution, LLC. June 10, 2019. \n\n^ \"Standard Glossary of Terms used in Software Testing, Version 3.2: All Terms\" (PDF) . ISTQB. Retrieved November 23, 2020 . \n\n^ ISO\/IEC\/IEEE International Standard - Systems and software engineering. ISO\/IEC\/IEEE. 2010. pp.&#160;vol., no., pp.1\u2013418. \n\n^ a b c ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-1:2013 Software and Systems Engineering - Software Testing - Part 1: Concepts and Definitions. ISO. 2013. Retrieved October 14, 2014 . \n\n^ ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-4:2013 Software and Systems Engineering - Software Testing - Part 4: Test Techniques. ISO. 2013. Retrieved October 14, 2014 . \n\n^ a b ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-2:2013 Software and Systems Engineering - Software Testing - Part 2: Test Processes. ISO. 2013. Retrieved May 21, 2014 . \n\n^ Cimperman, Rob (2006). UAT Defined: A Guide to Practical User Acceptance Testing. Pearson Education. pp.&#160;Chapter 2. ISBN&#160;9780132702621. \n\n^ Goethem, Brian; van Hambling, Pauline (2013). User acceptance testing&#160;: a step-by-step guide. BCS Learning &amp; Development Limited. ISBN&#160;9781780171678. \n\n^ \"2.6: Systems Testing\". Engineering LibreTexts. August 2, 2021. Retrieved February 18, 2023 . \n\n^ Pusuluri, Nageshwar Rao (2006). Software Testing Concepts And Tools. Dreamtech Press. p.&#160;62. ISBN&#160;9788177227123. \n\n^ \"Get Reliable Usability and Avoid Risk with These Testing Scenarios\". Panaya. April 25, 2022. Retrieved May 11, 2022 . \n\n^ Elazar, Eyal (April 23, 2018). \"What is User Acceptance Testing (UAT) - The Full Process Explained\". Panaya. Retrieved February 18, 2023 . \n\n^ \"Table 1: The specifications of the ODE and RB models can be broken down into elements, the number of which can be compared\". doi:10.7717\/peerj.14516\/table-1 . {{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_journal\" title=\"Template:Cite journal\">cite journal<\/a>}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) \n\n^ \"Factory Acceptance Test (FAT)\". Tuv.com. Archived from the original on February 4, 2013. Retrieved September 18, 2012 . \n\n^ Vijay (February 2, 2018). \"What is Acceptance Testing (A Complete Guide)\". Software Testing Help. Retrieved February 18, 2023 . \n\n^ \"Introduction to Acceptance\/Customer Tests as Requirements Artifacts\". agilemodeling.com. Agile Modeling. Retrieved December 9, 2013 . \n\n^ Wells, Don. \"Acceptance Tests\". Extremeprogramming.org. Retrieved September 20, 2011 . \n\n^ Prasad, Durga (March 29, 2012). \"The Difference Between a FAT and a SAT\". Kneat.com. Archived from the original on June 16, 2017. Retrieved July 27, 2016 . \n\n^ Turner, Paul (October 5, 2020). \"Operational Readiness\". Commissioning and Startup. Retrieved February 18, 2023 . \n\n^ Brosnan, Adeline (January 12, 2021). \"Acceptance Testing in Information Technology Contracts | LegalVision\". LegalVision. Retrieved February 18, 2023 . \n\n^ \"ISTQB Standard glossary of terms used in Software Testing\". Archived from the original on November 5, 2018. Retrieved March 15, 2019 . \n\n^ Hamilton, Thomas (April 3, 2020). \"Alpha Testing Vs Beta Testing \u2013 Difference Between Them\". www.guru99.com. Retrieved February 18, 2023 . \n\n^ Project Management Institute 2021, \u00a7Glossary Section 3. Definitions. \n\n^ Project Management Institute 2021, \u00a72.6.2.1 Requirements. \n\n\nFurther reading \nHambling, Brian; van Goethem, Pauline (2013). User Acceptance Testing: A Step by Step Guide. Swindon: BCS Learning and Development Ltd. ISBN&#160;978-1-78017-167-8. \nProject Management Institute (2021). A guide to the project management body of knowledge (PMBOK guide). Project Management Institute (7th&#160;ed.). Newtown Square, PA. ISBN&#160;978-1-62825-664-2. {{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_book\" title=\"Template:Cite book\">cite book<\/a>}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) \nExternal links \nAcceptance Test Engineering Guide Archived December 23, 2017, at the Wayback Machine by Microsoft patterns &amp; practices\n\"Using Customer Tests to Drive Development\" from Methods &amp; Tools\nvteSoftware testingThe \"box\" approach\nBlack-box testing\nAll-pairs testing\nExploratory testing\nFuzz testing\nModel-based testing\nScenario testing\nGrey-box testing\nWhite-box testing\nAPI testing\nMutation testing\nStatic testing\nTesting levels\nAcceptance testing\nIntegration testing\nSystem testing\nUnit testing\nTesting types, techniques,\r\nand tactics\nA\/B testing\nBenchmark\nCompatibility testing\nConcolic testing\nConcurrent testing\nConformance testing\nContinuous testing\nDestructive testing\nDevelopment testing\nDifferential testing\nDynamic program analysis\nInstallation testing\nNegative testing\nRandom testing\nRegression testing\nSecurity testing\nSmoke testing (software)\nSoftware performance testing\nStress testing\nSymbolic execution\nTest automation\nUsability testing\nSee also\nGraphical user interface testing\nManual testing\nOrthogonal array testing\nPair testing\nSoak testing\nSoftware reliability testing\nStress testing\nWeb testing\n\nAuthority control databases: National \nFrance \nBnF data \nIsrael \nUnited States \n\n\n\n\n\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Acceptance_testing\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Acceptance_testing<\/a>\nCategory: Software and hardware termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 17 September 2022, at 20:27.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 3,063 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","b7aeb98e179fa486c9d90dba98d5f450_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Acceptance_testing rootpage-Acceptance_testing skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Acceptance testing<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Test to determine if the requirements of a specification or contract are met<\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\">\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size mw-halign-right\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:US_Navy_090407-N-4669J-042_Sailors_assigned_to_the_air_department_of_the_aircraft_carrier_USS_George_H.W._Bush_(CVN_77)_test_the_ship%27s_catapult_systems_during_acceptance_trials.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef8d73d55d60b603c54fd190917f4554\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/7d\/US_Navy_090407-N-4669J-042_Sailors_assigned_to_the_air_department_of_the_aircraft_carrier_USS_George_H.W._Bush_%28CVN_77%29_test_the_ship%27s_catapult_systems_during_acceptance_trials.jpg\/220px-thumbnail.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"146\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Acceptance testing of an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aircraft_catapult\" title=\"Aircraft catapult\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3cb141cb74a3a05d1760dfaed77515dc\">aircraft catapult<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure class=\"mw-default-size mw-halign-right\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:James_Webb_Primary_Mirror.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"335391e03cc3bd82754efa2a97c40ee6\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/1\/10\/James_Webb_Primary_Mirror.jpg\/220px-James_Webb_Primary_Mirror.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"146\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Six of the primary mirrors of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/James_Webb_Space_Telescope\" title=\"James Webb Space Telescope\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b951841083941d5ef9b871106ce10868\">James Webb Space Telescope<\/a> being prepared for acceptance testing<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Engineering\" title=\"Engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2f6f08235e1dd8528fc259dfcf543c3f\">engineering<\/a> and its various <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fields_of_engineering\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Fields of engineering\" data-key=\"2451b0bf65d9894e27c725aa4fc820a2\">subdisciplines<\/a>, <b>acceptance testing<\/b> is a test conducted to determine if the requirements of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Specification\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Specification\" data-key=\"c0cdbd3e17e9aebd4c500dbb668c90e7\">specification<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Contract\" title=\"Contract\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"643e0e1b184a88ea39aada3b3044cfb7\">contract<\/a> are met. It may involve <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chemical_test\" title=\"Chemical test\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8374dc5026dd39948bb363f97523efff\">chemical tests<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Physical_test\" title=\"Physical test\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f4c70c6c34c79db99ad6960bc805ac0f\">physical tests<\/a>, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Performance_test_(assessment)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Performance test (assessment)\" data-key=\"7c069afa315009dde994368ced3bc17c\">performance tests<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Systems_engineering\" title=\"Systems engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"885b515a488c426b86f7a85a9f80cb67\">systems engineering<\/a>, it may involve <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Black-box_testing\" title=\"Black-box testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fdf147e38381ccbe9b93d84a39e7fa54\">black-box testing<\/a> performed on a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System\" title=\"System\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dca080f9487afe3b315fe16a2d522534\">system<\/a> (for example: a piece of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_system\" title=\"Software system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f5da1a00677203bd9b989943f4ffd22b\">software<\/a>, lots of manufactured mechanical parts, or batches of chemical products) prior to its delivery.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>\nIn <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_testing\" title=\"Software testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b1f063d549d38c63342218d62a80c724\">software testing<\/a>, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Software_Testing_Qualifications_Board\" title=\"International Software Testing Qualifications Board\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c1b44c48e05ede289905d6ef9b0d828f\">ISTQB<\/a> defines <i>acceptance testing<\/i> as: <\/p><blockquote class=\"templatequote\"><p>Formal testing with respect to user needs, requirements, and business processes conducted to determine whether a system satisfies the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Acceptance_criteria\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Acceptance criteria\" data-key=\"b3c32267ccec3036082d7a43a6e288b2\">acceptance criteria<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> and to enable the user, customers or other authorized entity to determine whether to accept the system.<\/p><div class=\"templatequotecite\">\u2014\u200a<cite>Standard Glossary of Terms used in Software Testing<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"reference nowrap\"><span title=\"Page \/ location: 2\">:\u200a2\u200a<\/span><\/sup><\/cite><\/div><\/blockquote><p> Some forms of acceptance testing are, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/User_acceptance_testing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"User acceptance testing\" data-key=\"f1dfea5f339a4a5c7da0af9166f22b47\">user acceptance testing<\/a> (UAT), end-user testing, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operational_acceptance_testing\" title=\"Operational acceptance testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bba4c27871fadf16d5db0e39877437e\">operational acceptance testing<\/a> (OAT), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Acceptance_test-driven_development\" title=\"Acceptance test-driven development\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a3ed8f2b46d2ad466240cbe24e3e953\">acceptance test-driven development<\/a> (ATDD) and field (acceptance) testing. Acceptance criteria are the criteria that a system or component must satisfy in order to be accepted by a user, customer, or other authorized entity.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Overview\">Overview<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Testing is a set of activities conducted to facilitate discovery and\/or evaluation of properties of one or more items under test.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO_29119_Part_1_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO_29119_Part_1-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> Each individual test, known as a test case, exercises a set of predefined test activities, developed to drive the execution of the test item to meet test objectives; including correct implementation, error identification, quality verification and other valued detail.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO_29119_Part_1_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO_29119_Part_1-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> The test <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deployment_environment\" title=\"Deployment environment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1ad0cc488f3bb2307de1ff975baf80f9\">environment<\/a> is usually designed to be identical, or as close as possible, to the anticipated production environment. It includes all facilities, hardware, software, firmware, procedures and\/or documentation intended for or used to perform the testing of software.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO_29119_Part_1_6-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO_29119_Part_1-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>UAT and OAT test cases are ideally derived in collaboration with business customers, business analysts, testers, and developers. It is essential that these tests include both business logic tests as well as operational environment conditions. The business customers (product owners) are the primary <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Project_stakeholder\" title=\"Project stakeholder\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f020ef5f57bcf75aae14e3df0beec1a\">stakeholders<\/a> of these tests. As the test conditions successfully achieve their acceptance criteria, the stakeholders are reassured the development is progressing in the right direction.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO_29119_Part_4_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO_29119_Part_4-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>User acceptance test (UAT) criteria (in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Agile_software_development\" title=\"Agile software development\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afb817ba63b0b8da391f83df1b40c5cd\">agile software development<\/a>) are usually created by business customers and expressed in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Domain_specific_language\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Domain specific language\" data-key=\"0c66242a5f5ea0913e6a94ea29265961\">business domain language<\/a>. These are high-level tests to verify the completeness of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/User_story\" title=\"User story\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4844a398030133ebc478fa016c0d76d8\">user story<\/a> or stories 'played' during any sprint\/iteration.<\/li>\n<li>Operational acceptance test (OAT) criteria (regardless if using agile, iterative or sequential development) are defined in terms of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Functional_requirement\" title=\"Functional requirement\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"66d49483462c9dfe32ee1b73fbba0287\">functional<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Non-functional_requirement\" title=\"Non-functional requirement\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d85090ac46aeab566fa418f6f275b36e\">non-functional requirements<\/a>; covering key quality attributes of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_testing\" title=\"Software testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b1f063d549d38c63342218d62a80c724\">functional stability<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Portability_testing\" title=\"Portability testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"95e572e1fbe88ac53e47fa67ae2adb79\">portability<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reliability_theory\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Reliability theory\" data-key=\"54fb19c9d8290eba000e1ba18052fbea\">reliability<\/a>.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Process\">Process<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The acceptance test suite may need to be performed multiple times, as all of the test cases may not be executed within a single test iteration.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO_29119_Part_2_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO_29119_Part_2-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The acceptance test suite is run using predefined acceptance test procedures to direct the testers which data to use, the step-by-step processes to follow and the expected result following execution. The actual results are retained for comparison with the expected results.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO_29119_Part_2_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO_29119_Part_2-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> If the actual results match the expected results for each test case, the test case is said to pass. If the quantity of non-passing test cases does not breach the project's predetermined threshold, the test suite is said to pass. If it does, the system may either be rejected or accepted on conditions previously agreed between the sponsor and the manufacturer.\n<\/p><p>The anticipated result of a successful test execution:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>test cases are executed, using predetermined data<\/li>\n<li>actual results are recorded<\/li>\n<li>actual and expected results are compared, and<\/li>\n<li>test results are determined.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>The objective is to provide confidence that the developed product meets both the functional and non-functional requirements. The purpose of conducting acceptance testing is that once completed, and provided the acceptance criteria are met, it is expected the sponsors will sign-off on the product development\/enhancement as satisfying the defined requirements (previously agreed between business and product provider\/developer).\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"User_acceptance_testing\">User acceptance testing<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>User acceptance testing (UAT) consists of a process of verifying that a solution works for the user.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> It is not <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System_testing\" title=\"System testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"779eb70baf35bbdec954caf8fc209b76\">system testing<\/a> (ensuring software does not crash and meets documented requirements) but rather ensures that the solution will work for the user (i.e. tests that the user accepts the solution); software vendors often refer to this as \"Beta testing\".\n<\/p><p>This testing should be undertaken by the intended <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/End_user\" title=\"End user\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"32b92ad43512dfac27f60b77fc7d1a85\">end user<\/a>, or a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Subject-matter_expert\" title=\"Subject-matter expert\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b020a306f7def2c4e22ce3436ce4ab0a\">subject-matter expert<\/a> (SME), preferably the owner or client of the solution under test, and provide a summary of the findings for confirmation to proceed after trial or review. In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_development_process\" title=\"Software development process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b625ec27484d01f1edaa461ce66ec0a\">software development<\/a>, UAT as one of the final stages of a project often occurs before a client or customer accepts the new system. Users of the system perform tests in line with what would occur in real-life scenarios.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>It is important that the materials given to the tester be similar to the materials that the end user will have. Testers should be given real-life scenarios such as the three most common or difficult tasks that the users they represent will undertake.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The UAT acts as a final verification of the required business functionality and proper functioning of the system, emulating real-world conditions on behalf of the paying client or a specific large customer. If the software works as required and without issues during normal use, one can reasonably extrapolate the same level of stability in production.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>User tests, usually performed by clients or by end-users, do not normally focus on identifying simple cosmetic problems such as spelling errors, nor on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_bug\" title=\"Software bug\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00049a1c4790d11263f4838c2bbca3a0\">showstopper<\/a> defects, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Crash_(computing)\" title=\"Crash (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b4b64fa9a74c76c69173d73e9d6b6c0c\">software crashes<\/a>; testers and developers identify and fix these issues during earlier <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unit_testing\" title=\"Unit testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ccd96295ece3bd8cce89bb756eedce3f\">unit testing<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Integration_testing\" title=\"Integration testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fad9ca4fe33fe8ee6d541f0b4b070b38\">integration testing<\/a>, and system testing phases.\n<\/p><p>UAT should be executed against test scenarios.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> Test scenarios usually differ from System or Functional test cases in that they represent a \"player\" or \"user\" journey. The broad nature of the test scenario ensures that the focus is on the journey and not on technical or system-specific details, staying away from \"click-by-click\" test steps to allow for a variance in users' behaviour. Test scenarios can be broken down into logical \"days\", which are usually where the actor (player\/customer\/operator) or system (backoffice, front end) changes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In industry, a common UAT is a factory acceptance test (FAT). This test takes place before installation of the equipment. Most of the time testers not only check that the equipment meets the specification, but also that it is fully functional. A FAT usually includes a check of completeness, a verification against contractual requirements, a proof of functionality (either by simulation or a conventional function test) and a final inspection.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The results of these tests give clients confidence in how the system will perform in production. There may also be legal or contractual requirements for acceptance of the system.\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Operational_acceptance_testing\">Operational acceptance testing<\/span><\/h2>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operational_acceptance_testing\" title=\"Operational acceptance testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bba4c27871fadf16d5db0e39877437e\">Operational acceptance testing<\/a><\/div>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operational_acceptance_testing\" title=\"Operational acceptance testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bba4c27871fadf16d5db0e39877437e\">Operational acceptance testing<\/a> (OAT) is used to conduct operational readiness (pre-release) of a product, service or system as part of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quality_management_system\" title=\"Quality management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d64fd726a87573213d8dce6e9f2fe22f\">quality management system<\/a>. OAT is a common type of non-functional <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_testing\" title=\"Software testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b1f063d549d38c63342218d62a80c724\">software testing<\/a>, used mainly in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_development\" title=\"Software development\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c33e9312f9d9e685db6b02808e7cb58\">software development<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_maintenance\" title=\"Software maintenance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8211caab69059eb6d3deb30cdd8be3c9\">software maintenance<\/a> projects. This type of testing focuses on the operational readiness of the system to be supported, and\/or to become part of the production environment.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Acceptance_testing_in_extreme_programming\">Acceptance testing in extreme programming<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Extreme_programming\" title=\"Extreme programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"76957492e64467025cc1867689408a4a\">Extreme programming<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Acceptance testing is a term used in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Agile_software_development\" title=\"Agile software development\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afb817ba63b0b8da391f83df1b40c5cd\">agile software development<\/a> methodologies, particularly <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Extreme_programming\" title=\"Extreme programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"76957492e64467025cc1867689408a4a\">extreme programming<\/a>, referring to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Functional_testing\" title=\"Functional testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bc7fa01c5bf62f7c96a83b775da586bd\">functional testing<\/a> of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/User_story\" title=\"User story\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4844a398030133ebc478fa016c0d76d8\">user story<\/a> by the software development team during the implementation phase.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The customer specifies scenarios to test when a user story has been correctly implemented. A story can have one or many acceptance tests, whatever it takes to ensure the functionality works. Acceptance tests are black-box system tests. Each acceptance test represents some expected result from the system. Customers are responsible for verifying the correctness of the acceptance tests and reviewing test scores to decide which failed tests are of highest priority. Acceptance tests are also used as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regression_testing\" title=\"Regression testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd5595feea9b213fc3d856c6298ab9d2\">regression tests<\/a> prior to a production release. A user story is not considered complete until it has passed its acceptance tests. This means that new acceptance tests must be created for each iteration or the development team will report zero progress.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Types_of_acceptance_testing\">Types of acceptance testing<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1097763485\" \/>\n<p>Typical types of acceptance testing include the following\n<\/p>\n<dl><dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Verification_and_validation#Activities\" title=\"Verification and validation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8dce5ae19b9a917969e22d9f68dd5431\">User acceptance testing<\/a><\/dt>\n<dd><\/dd>\n<dd>This may include factory acceptance testing (FAT), i.e. the testing done by a vendor before the product or system is moved to its destination site, after which site acceptance testing (SAT) may be performed by the users at the site.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd>\n<dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operational_acceptance_testing\" title=\"Operational acceptance testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bba4c27871fadf16d5db0e39877437e\">Operational acceptance testing<\/a><\/dt>\n<dd>Also known as operational readiness testing, this refers to the checking done to a system to ensure that processes and procedures are in place to allow the system to be used and maintained. This may include checks done to back-up facilities, procedures for disaster recovery, training for end users, maintenance procedures, and security procedures.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd>\n<dt>Contract and regulation acceptance testing<\/dt>\n<dd>In contract acceptance testing, a system is tested against acceptance criteria as documented in a contract, before the system is accepted. In regulation acceptance testing, a system is tested to ensure it meets governmental, legal and safety standards.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dt>Factory acceptance testing<\/dt>\n<dd>Acceptance testing conducted at the site at which the product is developed and performed by employees of the supplier organization, to determine whether a component or system satisfies the requirements, normally including hardware as well as software.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dt>Alpha and beta testing<\/dt>\n<dd>Alpha testing takes place at developers' sites, and involves testing of the operational system by internal staff, before it is released to external customers. Beta testing takes place at customers' sites, and involves testing by a group of customers who use the system at their own locations and provide feedback, before the system is released to other customers. The latter is often called \"field testing\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd><\/dl>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Acceptance_criteria\">Acceptance criteria<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>According to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Project_Management_Institute\" title=\"Project Management Institute\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fc9a5e1151dc1d7c098ebfd6a3ba9fc9\">Project Management Institute<\/a>, <b>acceptance criteria<\/b> is a \"set of conditions that is required to be met before deliverables are accepted.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEProject_Management_Institute2021\u00a7Glossary_Section_3._Definitions_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEProject_Management_Institute2021\u00a7Glossary_Section_3._Definitions-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup>\nRequirements found in acceptance criteria for a given component of the system are usually very detailed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEProject_Management_Institute2021\u00a72.6.2.1_Requirements_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEProject_Management_Institute2021\u00a72.6.2.1_Requirements-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"List_of_acceptance-testing_frameworks\">List of acceptance-testing frameworks<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Concordion\" title=\"Concordion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1fcf1acfad715c455e611a133700b1e9\">Concordion<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Specification_by_example\" title=\"Specification by example\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a0bd944c9486bb11c7d8e298e57ef4a\">Specification by example<\/a> (SbE) framework\n<ul><li>Concordion.NET, acceptance testing in .NET<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cucumber_(software)\" title=\"Cucumber (software)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5cbb20cf23969eda0344037d083dbcfc\">Cucumber<\/a>, a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Behavior-driven_development\" title=\"Behavior-driven development\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43fb65ff8c6690c15e75623da7f2648c\">behavior-driven development<\/a> (BDD) acceptance test framework\n<ul><li>Capybara, Acceptance test framework for Ruby web applications<\/li>\n<li>Behat, BDD acceptance framework for PHP<\/li>\n<li>Lettuce, BDD acceptance framework for Python<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cypress_(software)\" title=\"Cypress (software)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5029f11a6fe44c764881736b9f162aff\">Cypress<\/a><\/li>\n<li> for automated acceptance tests<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Framework_for_Integrated_Test\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Framework for Integrated Test\" data-key=\"ea0c881f9ad378c11327cba3392bd0df\">Framework for Integrated Test<\/a> (Fit)\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/FitNesse\" title=\"FitNesse\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef8fbc781a69e1df368b02988145e9c9\">FitNesse<\/a>, a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fork_(software_development)\" title=\"Fork (software development)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4513df80ee2020ee37a1b4b6a1244e81\">fork<\/a> of Fit<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gauge_(software)\" title=\"Gauge (software)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dcc4dbc8c5c4c8d7e7f79eef7ee94edf\">Gauge (software)<\/a>, Test Automation Framework from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thoughtworks\" title=\"Thoughtworks\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1ab2c7c271872e8d2f636b67b3345068\">Thoughtworks<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IMacros\" title=\"IMacros\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f41f56866ae9913d18489f69fab2aff4\">iMacros<\/a><\/li>\n<li>ItsNat Java Ajax web framework with built-in, server based, functional web testing capabilities.<\/li>\n<li> Test Automation Framework for functional testing, regression testing, GUI testing, data-driven and codeless testing of Desktop and Web applications.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mocha_(JavaScript_framework)\" title=\"Mocha (JavaScript framework)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"262dde01d622c1ca8597d443c4c7a1ba\">Mocha<\/a>, a popular web acceptance test framework based on Javascript and Node.js<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Playwright_(software)\" title=\"Playwright (software)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4569c547bf7e5407736474a868491ba2\">Playwright (software)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ranorex\" title=\"Ranorex\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96a521c26ff40bd92787b015a6616c91\">Ranorex<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robot_Framework\" title=\"Robot Framework\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"88c3d706d92266c6c9db62486a9a0610\">Robot Framework<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Selenium_(software)\" title=\"Selenium (software)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a7ded3f5f3a6c77a1c442fa875ce1e11\">Selenium<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Specification_by_example\" title=\"Specification by example\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a0bd944c9486bb11c7d8e298e57ef4a\">Specification by example<\/a> (Specs2)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Watir\" title=\"Watir\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cb09a57464e8a4d3d32615005ffb7efe\">Watir<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Acceptance_sampling\" title=\"Acceptance sampling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a89dc8197913a60d6f817efa411f8bfd\">Acceptance sampling<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conference_room_pilot\" title=\"Conference room pilot\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86602542e8c9227e5596d6b989423e9b\">Conference room pilot<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Development_stage\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Development stage\" data-key=\"879d5c847e693c558a2274da120d8b38\">Development stage<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dynamic_testing\" title=\"Dynamic testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4298ec6fb1019c7015dd85a2086debb4\">Dynamic testing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Engineering_validation_test\" title=\"Engineering validation test\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5205327dc7aa69ec740ae1599cc6b4c8\">Engineering validation test<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Grey_box_testing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Grey box testing\" data-key=\"c8b42efc7b3cf228ddbae06c0c0416cc\">Grey box testing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Test-driven_development\" title=\"Test-driven development\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"331f08e54da6c8ed5db765ffd90ded12\">Test-driven development<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/White_box_testing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"White box testing\" data-key=\"a0e663e657474c9e97b574b9703260bd\">White box testing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Functional_testing_(manufacturing)\" title=\"Functional testing (manufacturing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d20f4f77cb7f64ffc0630c67b2f3a2b6\">Functional testing (manufacturing)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">February 18,<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=SFIA&amp;rft.atitle=BPTS+-+Is+Business+process+testing+the+best+name+%2F+description.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsfia-online.org%2Fen%2Fsfia-8%2Fchange-requests%2Fbpts-is-business-process-testing-the-best-name-description&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBlack2009\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Black, Rex (August 2009). <span class=\"cs1-lock-registration\" title=\"Free registration required\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/managingtestingp00rexb\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Managing the Testing Process: Practical Tools and Techniques for Managing Hardware and Software Testing<\/i><\/a><\/span>. 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June 10, 2019.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=acceptance+criteria&amp;rft.pub=Innolution%2C+LLC&amp;rft.date=2019-06-10&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Finnolution.com%2Fresources%2Fglossary%2Facceptance-criteria&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/glossary.istqb.org\" target=\"_blank\">\"Standard Glossary of Terms used in Software Testing, Version 3.2: All Terms\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Software_Testing_Qualifications_Board\" title=\"International Software Testing Qualifications Board\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c1b44c48e05ede289905d6ef9b0d828f\">ISTQB<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">November 23,<\/span> 2020<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Standard+Glossary+of+Terms+used+in+Software+Testing%2C+Version+3.2%3A+All+Terms&amp;rft.pub=ISTQB&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fglossary.istqb.org&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation book cs1\"><i>ISO\/IEC\/IEEE International Standard - Systems and software engineering<\/i>. ISO\/IEC\/IEEE. 2010. pp.&#160;vol., no., pp.1\u2013418.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=ISO%2FIEC%2FIEEE+International+Standard+-+Systems+and+software+engineering&amp;rft.pages=vol.%2C+no.%2C+pp.1-418&amp;rft.pub=ISO%2FIEC%2FIEEE&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ISO_29119_Part_1-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO_29119_Part_1_6-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO_29119_Part_1_6-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO_29119_Part_1_6-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation book cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/home\/store\/catalogue_tc\/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=45142\" target=\"_blank\"><i>ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-1:2013 Software and Systems Engineering - Software Testing - Part 1: Concepts and Definitions<\/i><\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Organization_for_Standardization\" title=\"International Organization for Standardization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef9904309649741613d73bb73ca51e39\">ISO<\/a>. 2013<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">October 14,<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=ISO%2FIEC%2FIEEE+29119-1%3A2013+Software+and+Systems+Engineering+-+Software+Testing+-+Part+1%3A+Concepts+and+Definitions&amp;rft.pub=ISO&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fiso%2Fhome%2Fstore%2Fcatalogue_tc%2Fcatalogue_detail.htm%3Fcsnumber%3D45142&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ISO_29119_Part_4-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO_29119_Part_4_7-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation book cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/home\/store\/catalogue_tc\/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=60245\" target=\"_blank\"><i>ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-4:2013 Software and Systems Engineering - Software Testing - Part 4: Test Techniques<\/i><\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Organization_for_Standardization\" title=\"International Organization for Standardization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef9904309649741613d73bb73ca51e39\">ISO<\/a>. 2013<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">May 21,<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=ISO%2FIEC%2FIEEE+29119-2%3A2013+Software+and+Systems+Engineering+-+Software+Testing+-+Part+2%3A+Test+Processes&amp;rft.pub=ISO&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fiso%2Fhome%2Fstore%2Fcatalogue_tc%2Fcatalogue_detail.htm%3Fcsnumber%3D45142&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-9\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCimperman2006\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Cimperman, Rob (2006). <i>UAT Defined: A Guide to Practical User Acceptance Testing<\/i>. Pearson Education. pp.&#160;Chapter 2. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780132702621<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=UAT+Defined%3A+A+Guide+to+Practical+User+Acceptance+Testing&amp;rft.pages=Chapter+2&amp;rft.pub=Pearson+Education&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.isbn=9780132702621&amp;rft.aulast=Cimperman&amp;rft.aufirst=Rob&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-10\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGoethemvan_Hambling2013\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Goethem, Brian; van Hambling, Pauline (2013). <i>User acceptance testing&#160;: a step-by-step guide<\/i>. BCS Learning &amp; Development Limited. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781780171678<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=User+acceptance+testing+%3A+a+step-by-step+guide&amp;rft.pub=BCS+Learning+%26+Development+Limited&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.isbn=9781780171678&amp;rft.aulast=Goethem&amp;rft.aufirst=Brian&amp;rft.au=van+Hambling%2C+Pauline&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-11\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/eng.libretexts.org\/Courses\/Prince_Georges_Community_College\/INT_2840%3A_Systems_Analysis_and_Project_Management\/02%3A_Information_Systems_Development_And_RFP\/2.06%3A_Systems_Testing\" target=\"_blank\">\"2.6: Systems Testing\"<\/a>. <i>Engineering LibreTexts<\/i>. August 2, 2021<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">February 18,<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Engineering+LibreTexts&amp;rft.atitle=2.6%3A+Systems+Testing&amp;rft.date=2021-08-02&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feng.libretexts.org%2FCourses%2FPrince_Georges_Community_College%2FINT_2840%253A_Systems_Analysis_and_Project_Management%2F02%253A_Information_Systems_Development_And_RFP%2F2.06%253A_Systems_Testing&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-12\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPusuluri2006\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Pusuluri, Nageshwar Rao (2006). <i>Software Testing Concepts And Tools<\/i>. Dreamtech Press. p.&#160;62. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9788177227123<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Software+Testing+Concepts+And+Tools&amp;rft.pages=62&amp;rft.pub=Dreamtech+Press&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.isbn=9788177227123&amp;rft.aulast=Pusuluri&amp;rft.aufirst=Nageshwar+Rao&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-13\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.panaya.com\/blog\/testing\/testing-scenarios\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Get Reliable Usability and Avoid Risk with These Testing Scenarios\"<\/a>. <i>Panaya<\/i>. April 25, 2022<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">May 11,<\/span> 2022<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Panaya&amp;rft.atitle=Get+Reliable+Usability+and+Avoid+Risk+with+These+Testing+Scenarios&amp;rft.date=2022-04-25&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.panaya.com%2Fblog%2Ftesting%2Ftesting-scenarios%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-14\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFElazar2018\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Elazar, Eyal (April 23, 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.panaya.com\/blog\/testing\/what-is-uat-testing\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"What is User Acceptance Testing (UAT) - The Full Process Explained\"<\/a>. <i>Panaya<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">February 18,<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Panaya&amp;rft.atitle=What+is+User+Acceptance+Testing+%28UAT%29+-+The+Full+Process+Explained&amp;rft.date=2018-04-23&amp;rft.aulast=Elazar&amp;rft.aufirst=Eyal&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.panaya.com%2Fblog%2Ftesting%2Fwhat-is-uat-testing%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-15\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7717%2Fpeerj.14516%2Ftable-1\" target=\"_blank\">\"Table 1: The specifications of the ODE and RB models can be broken down into elements, the number of which can be compared\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7717%2Fpeerj.14516%2Ftable-1\" target=\"_blank\">10.7717\/peerj.14516\/table-1<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Table+1%3A+The+specifications+of+the+ODE+and+RB+models+can+be+broken+down+into+elements%2C+the+number+of+which+can+be+compared.&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7717%2Fpeerj.14516%2Ftable-1&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.7717%252Fpeerj.14516%252Ftable-1&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> <span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_journal\" title=\"Template:Cite journal\">cite journal<\/a>}}<\/code>: <\/span><span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\">Cite journal requires <code class=\"cs1-code\">|journal=<\/code> (<a href=\"#missing_periodical\" title=\"Help:CS1 errors\">help<\/a>)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-16\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.today\/20130204215825\/http:\/\/www.tuv.com\/en\/corporate\/business_customers\/materials_testing_and_inspection\/supply_chain_services\/factory_acceptance_test\/factory_acceptance_test.jsp\" target=\"_blank\">\"Factory Acceptance Test (FAT)\"<\/a>. Tuv.com. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.tuv.com\/en\/corporate\/business_customers\/materials_testing_and_inspection\/supply_chain_services\/factory_acceptance_test\/factory_acceptance_test.jsp\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on February 4, 2013<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">September 18,<\/span> 2012<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Factory+Acceptance+Test+%28FAT%29&amp;rft.pub=Tuv.com&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tuv.com%2Fen%2Fcorporate%2Fbusiness_customers%2Fmaterials_testing_and_inspection%2Fsupply_chain_services%2Ffactory_acceptance_test%2Ffactory_acceptance_test.jsp&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFVijay2018\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Vijay (February 2, 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.softwaretestinghelp.com\/what-is-acceptance-testing\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"What is Acceptance Testing (A Complete Guide)\"<\/a>. <i>Software Testing Help<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">September 20,<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Acceptance+Tests&amp;rft.pub=Extremeprogramming.org&amp;rft.aulast=Wells&amp;rft.aufirst=Don&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.extremeprogramming.org%2Frules%2Ffunctionaltests.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-20\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPrasad2012\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Prasad, Durga (March 29, 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170616183242\/http:\/\/www.kneat.com\/2012\/03\/29\/the-difference-between-a-fat-and-a-sat\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Difference Between a FAT and a SAT\"<\/a>. <i>Kneat.com<\/i>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.kneat.com\/2012\/03\/29\/the-difference-between-a-fat-and-a-sat\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on June 16, 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">July 27,<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Kneat.com&amp;rft.atitle=The+Difference+Between+a+FAT+and+a+SAT&amp;rft.date=2012-03-29&amp;rft.aulast=Prasad&amp;rft.aufirst=Durga&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kneat.com%2F2012%2F03%2F29%2Fthe-difference-between-a-fat-and-a-sat%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-21\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFTurner2020\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Turner, Paul (October 5, 2020). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/commissioningandstartup.com\/operational-readiness\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Operational Readiness\"<\/a>. <i>Commissioning and Startup<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">February 18,<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Commissioning+and+Startup&amp;rft.atitle=Operational+Readiness&amp;rft.date=2020-10-05&amp;rft.aulast=Turner&amp;rft.aufirst=Paul&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcommissioningandstartup.com%2Foperational-readiness%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-22\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBrosnan2021\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Brosnan, Adeline (January 12, 2021). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/legalvision.com.au\/acceptance-testing-information-technology-contracts\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Acceptance Testing in Information Technology Contracts | LegalVision\"<\/a>. <i>LegalVision<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">February 18,<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=LegalVision&amp;rft.atitle=Acceptance+Testing+in+Information+Technology+Contracts+%7C+LegalVision&amp;rft.date=2021-01-12&amp;rft.aulast=Brosnan&amp;rft.aufirst=Adeline&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flegalvision.com.au%2Facceptance-testing-information-technology-contracts%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-23\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20181105182224\/http:\/\/glossar.german-testing-board.info\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISTQB Standard glossary of terms used in Software Testing\"<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/glossar.german-testing-board.info\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on November 5, 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">March 15,<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=ISTQB+Standard+glossary+of+terms+used+in+Software+Testing&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fglossar.german-testing-board.info%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-24\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHamilton2020\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Hamilton, Thomas (April 3, 2020). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.guru99.com\/alpha-beta-testing-demystified.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Alpha Testing Vs Beta Testing \u2013 Difference Between Them\"<\/a>. <i>www.guru99.com<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">February 18,<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=www.guru99.com&amp;rft.atitle=Alpha+Testing+Vs+Beta+Testing+%E2%80%93+Difference+Between+Them&amp;rft.date=2020-04-03&amp;rft.aulast=Hamilton&amp;rft.aufirst=Thomas&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.guru99.com%2Falpha-beta-testing-demystified.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEProject_Management_Institute2021\u00a7Glossary_Section_3._Definitions-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEProject_Management_Institute2021\u00a7Glossary_Section_3._Definitions_25-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFProject_Management_Institute2021\">Project Management Institute 2021<\/a>, \u00a7Glossary Section 3. Definitions.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEProject_Management_Institute2021\u00a72.6.2.1_Requirements-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEProject_Management_Institute2021\u00a72.6.2.1_Requirements_26-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFProject_Management_Institute2021\">Project Management Institute 2021<\/a>, \u00a72.6.2.1 Requirements.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHamblingvan_Goethem2013\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Hambling, Brian; van Goethem, Pauline (2013). <i>User Acceptance Testing: A Step by Step Guide<\/i>. Swindon: BCS Learning and Development Ltd. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-78017-167-8<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=User+Acceptance+Testing%3A+A+Step+by+Step+Guide&amp;rft.place=Swindon&amp;rft.pub=BCS+Learning+and+Development+Ltd&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-78017-167-8&amp;rft.aulast=Hambling&amp;rft.aufirst=Brian&amp;rft.au=van+Goethem%2C+Pauline&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFProject_Management_Institute2021\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Project Management Institute (2021). <i>A guide to the project management body of knowledge (PMBOK guide)<\/i>. Project Management Institute (7th&#160;ed.). Newtown Square, PA. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-62825-664-2<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=A+guide+to+the+project+management+body+of+knowledge+%28PMBOK+guide%29&amp;rft.place=Newtown+Square%2C+PA&amp;rft.edition=7th&amp;rft.date=2021&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-62825-664-2&amp;rft.au=Project+Management+Institute&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_book\" title=\"Template:Cite book\">cite book<\/a>}}<\/code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bfc82be2a8039a5c9ddc70b6cb10bda\">link<\/a>)<\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><i><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/testingguidance.codeplex.com\" target=\"_blank\">Acceptance Test Engineering Guide<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171223193709\/http:\/\/testingguidance.codeplex.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> December 23, 2017, at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/i> by <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/msdn.com\/practices\" target=\"_blank\">Microsoft patterns &amp; practices<\/a><\/li>\n<li>\"<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.methodsandtools.com\/archive\/archive.php?id=23\" target=\"_blank\">Using Customer Tests to Drive Development<\/a>\" from <i><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.methodsandtools.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Methods &amp; Tools<\/a><\/i><\/li><\/ul>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319\" \/><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1400\nCached time: 20240107204707\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 0.474 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.652 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 2588\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 72175\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 2688\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 19\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 9\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 88830\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.309\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 10156791\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 574.641 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>31.54% 181.250 1 Template:Reflist\n18.55% 106.571 12 Template:Cite_web\n14.00% 80.440 1 Template:Short_description\n12.30% 70.670 1 Template:Software_testing\n11.71% 67.295 1 Template:Navbox\n 8.74% 50.236 2 Template:Pagetype\n 7.89% 45.366 1 Template:Authority_control\n 7.68% 44.104 1 Template:Expand_section\n 7.65% 43.987 2 Template:Ambox\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:3233-0!canonical and timestamp 20240107204707 and revision id 1194211720. Rendering was triggered because: api-parse\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Acceptance_testing\" data-key=\"fa8053416210852e9c9ee8f2e21b6b00\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110071345\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.143 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.486 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 81810\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 450.030 1 wikipedia:Acceptance_testing\n100.00% 450.030 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:105-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110071345 and revision id 49272. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Acceptance_testing\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Acceptance_testing<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","b7aeb98e179fa486c9d90dba98d5f450_images":[],"b7aeb98e179fa486c9d90dba98d5f450_timestamp":1704907020,"85305ea8bb1f390dd79f3ab3ec653819_type":"article","85305ea8bb1f390dd79f3ab3ec653819_title":"Laboratory Informatics Software Acquisition and Implementation Considerations","85305ea8bb1f390dd79f3ab3ec653819_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations","85305ea8bb1f390dd79f3ab3ec653819_plaintext":"\n\nLII:Laboratory Informatics Software Acquisition and Implementation ConsiderationsFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchContents \n\n1 Starting out \n\n1.1 Features and benefits \n1.2 Budgeting \n1.3 Demonstration and requirements \n\n\n2 Implementation \n\n2.1 Implementation details \n\n\n3 Services \n\n3.1 Hosting \n\n\n4 Maintenance, support, and warranty \n5 Putting it all together \n6 References \n\n\n\nStarting out \nThe two main questions you will need to answer at the outset are:\n\n1. What do I want the laboratory informatics solution to do for me?\n2. What kind of budget do I have?\nAdditionally\u2014and secondarily\u2014you'll want to be sure you can participate in one or more vendor demonstrations and, afterwards, build a requirements list.\n\nFeatures and benefits \nThe answer to the first question is largely the same as most other kinds of labs. The benefits of laboratory informatics software include:\n\nincreased accuracy, with a minimization or elimination of transcription and other errors;\nstreamlined processes, where each step in a protocol or method is completed in the proper order, with all requirements met, updating statuses automatically;\nautomation of integrated instruments, allowing for automatic uploading of samples\/specimens and processing of results;\nregulatory and standards compliance for your procedures helps keep you doing the right things the right ways, while tracking history so you can provide documentation when you need to;\ndata security via configurable role-based secure access to data, processes, reporting, etc.;\ncustom reporting tools, which allow you to design and generate reports to your own specifications, incorporating exactly the information you want;\ninstant data retrieval, allowing you to search and call up any information instantly according to any criteria (date range, test, product type, etc.), particularly useful during audits; and\ncost-effectiveness through improved efficiency and accuracy, which means less waste of time, and if a user-configurable system (as opposed to hard-coded, requiring development for any modifications), its return on investment {ROI) increases over time, due to built-in adaptability and thus longevity.\nBudgeting \nThe second question of budget is more difficult to answer by the fact that laboratory informatics software comes in all kinds of price ranges, from over $1 million all the way down to free. How are you supposed to honestly judge where the appropriate system price for your lab lies?\nThere are some basic realities that can help in figuring an appropriate budget, however.\n\n1. A rough sense of price can generally be based on how much ownership you want in the software itself and how many will be using the laboratory informatics solution.\nOwnership: Buying versus renting: There are two primary ways to price laboratory informatics software: a one-time license fee or a subscription (cloud-hosted software as a service or SaaS ). If you have your own dedicated IT department and staff, you may prefer the former. Otherwise, a SaaS-based subscription may well be the better and more cost-effective way to go (no IT costs at all other than internet access). This item will be part of your up-front cost and, in the case of a subscription, it will also figure in your first year and ongoing costs. A vendor may have a subscription fee of say $500, with the initial month due at signing. However, more often the vendor may require three months or even the first year up front, so be prepared to factor that into up-front costs. However, it still is almost always less expensive at the outset (and over time, if you factor in IT and service costs) than paying for a license fee.\nUser numbers: Named versus concurrent: In addition to the two types of software pricing above, there are pricing sub-types. Generally these are based on the number of users (or, in some cases, \"nodes,\" which are simply any entities that access the software, including other systems, instruments, etc.). How these are counted can vary. They may be counted as \"named\" users, which bases pricing on the actual individual users of the system, even if they may only log in once in awhile. Users typically may not use each other's logins (this is prohibited regardless of pricing structure, for GxP and other standard- and regulatory-based reasons). They may also be counted as \"concurrent\" users, which bases pricing on the maximum number of users who will be logged in at any given time. You can define an unlimited number of named users in the system, each with their own login credentials. However, only the number of (concurrent) users specified in the license\/subscription may be logged in at any one time. For example, you may have 10 staff, but due to work processes, shifts, etc., only up to six might ever be logged in simultaneously. Whereas this would require a named user license for 10, it would only require a concurrent user license for six. Finally, you may have the option for \"unlimited\" users. This may be useful for huge labs (typically 30 to 50 and up), where the license or subscription may simply be a flat fee that allows any number of users.\n2. Most costs are related to work. Try to choose a solution that has what you need out of the box, as much as possible. The more customized or unique options you ask for, the more it costs, because extra items are a function of the time it takes developers to add them.\n3. User-configurable solutions beat vendor-configurable solutions on cost-effectiveness. Many software vendors offer a free or low-cost option, but don't be fooled. They are in business to make money, and they are counting on the fact that you'll need to pay them to make things work, add necessary functionality, support, training, etc. If you can find one who offers a genuinely user-configurable solution, and whose manuals and other support materials are clearly helpful and available so you can adjust things the way you want, when you want, then that will go a long way toward budget efficiency and longevity.\n4. Interfaces cost money. If necessary, consider whether it's feasibly or not to phase in those instrument and other interfaces over time, as revenue eases cash flow. You may be able to go live with your laboratory informatics solution more quickly, entering results manually until you can afford to interface your instruments one-by-one. This goes for reports too. A standard report will do. You can make fancy ones later.\nPricing will vary depending on what kind of solution you need. For example, you'll probably want to budget a minimum of around $40,000 to $80,000 plus or minus, minimum, (including setup, training, interfaces, etc.) for a decent, bang-for-your-buck laboratory information management system (LIMS) with maybe an interface or two, plus an additional $300 to $900 per month (depending on number of users) for ongoing subscriptions. At around five concurrent (logged in at the same time) users, the economics start to favor purchasing perpetual licenses rather than paying subscription. Purchased licenses will also entail ongoing annual or monthly costs as well (maintenance, support, warranty for updates etc.), but somewhere around that number of users it may tend to be cheaper than a subscription option. Subscriptions (if available) are generally aimed at smaller labs. If you will be growing and scaling up, it may be a great way to get started, but ensure you have the option to switch to perpetual licenses later.\n\nDemonstration and requirements \nYou no doubt are quite familiar with all of your lab's or potential lab's processes, but that doesn't mean you necessarily have even an inkling about how exactly a laboratory informatics solution fits into your workflow. That's pretty common, and it's fine. That's what software companies should be able to show you. A good developer already generally understands your kind of lab but will ask you a lot of questions about exactly how you do things. It's the exceptions that need catering to. Doing a live demo (online is actually even better than in-person; it can be recorded so you can review and share it as much as you want) is a great context for exploring how a candidate software solution performs the functions your lab needs. It is interactive and live, so there can be no tricks\u2014you see just how it performs in real time, and you can throw as many intricate scenarios at the developer as you like. The demo experience can go a long way towards giving you a real feel for the software's suitability. Additionally, you can both (laboratory and vendor) gain a budgetary idea of cost based on what you do, what you want the software to do, what it can do, as well as the product and services pricing itself.\nOne note: too often labs think the first thing they must do is create a requirements list, then sit back and let the software vendors tell them how they meet those requirements. As mentioned earlier, even though laboratory personnel understand their lab and its processes, most don't have much of a clue about laboratory informatics and workflow integration. Participating in a a demo before creating the requirements list is a great way to plug in the features you have seen demonstrated to your lab's to your own processes and needs. After all, how can you effectively require specific functions if you don't fully know what a given laboratory informatics tool is capable of? After the demo, you are much more equipped to create a requirements list that becomes the contractual product set and statement\/scope of work (SOW) that represents your laboratory informatics solution.\n\nImplementation \nFeatures, budget, and requirements aside, you'll also want to consider what implementation details will affect your overall bottom line. There are two main keys to successful implementation: having an accurate SOW and high team availability.\n\n1. Accurate SOW: A statement of work or SOW describes the work that will be done by the vendor, including milestones, deliverables, and any other end products and services. It should be absolutely clear in both your and the vendor's minds exactly what the delivered, operational laboratory informatics solution should look like. If possible, ask for a validation script that addresses each function and process. Read through it and make sure you agree with each test, that it is an effective measure of the software function it purports to validate. If not, work with the vendor to modify it to your satisfaction. Remember, vendors are required to meet exactly what the contracted requirements are, no more or no less. The SOW should avoid ambiguity in all cases. If they are worded poorly, the delivered item may not match what you envisioned. This is also where the demo\u2014mentioned previously\u2014comes in handy. If it is documented (e.g., recorded), you can always use language like \"per demo\" or \"as demonstrated in demo\" so there is no question how a feature is supposed to work for you.\n2. High team availability: Make your team available. Far too many laboratory informatics solution implementations drag on way past what is needed simply because the lab doesn't keep up with the process. While regular daily operations consume a lot of time, and it can be very difficult to allocate extra time for bringing on the new software, it's best to just make the time. The initial energy and impetus of the implementation project\u2014which can take as few as a couple of weeks\u2014disappear surprisingly quickly once delays set in. Interest wanders and a once-great initiative becomes a nagging burden. The single greatest thing you can do to avoid this is allocate the right person(s) to focus on successfully getting the system in place on time and on (or under) budget. That means plenty of communication with the vendor's project manager, executing the training and any configuration tasks your lab is responsible for, and signing off when tasks are complete. You may be surprised how often unsuccessful implementations are actually the fault of the customer.\nImplementation details \nThe implementation itself can be quite simple for a pretty standard system. The minimum scenario would be one to five users, no customization, no configurations beyond standard setup (name the lab's location and any departments, add users, lab logo, address, etc. to report, enter contacts), no interfaces and around two hours of training (online, recorded for reference). And if the solution is cloud-hosted, there is no time (i.e., money) wasted in buying and\/or setting up servers, firewalls, etc., so the solution itself can optimistically be in place and running in a day. The rest is up to you; figure something like one to three weeks to go live (a little more if your schedule is tight).\nA larger and\/or more comprehensive implementation can include several components and be rolled out in phases over one to three months or so. In fact, you can be operational manually for as long as you need to be, bringing instrument interfaces in over time as your budget permits, which allows you to begin using the solution earlier. \nAll of the phases and their deliverables have price tags associated with them. Your total cost is a function of the license fee or subscription plus the work the vendor performs. The work they do (and the work you do) is what constitutes the implementation and its phases. They can include (in order):\n\nProject management: The vendor will provide a project manager to coordinate with you and make sure all deliverables are implemented on time and according to the contract. The cost of this is a function of their hours, which begin at the initial meeting (kickoff) and end once your system goes live and all deliverables have been met.\nKickoff meeting: This is the initial get-together between your project manager and theirs. Review the SOW and the plan to implement it, and clarify resource and time commitments and responsibilities, making sure the schedule works for everybody.\nSystem installation: If it's to be an onsite installation (discussed later), then your system administrator and the vendor's technical representatives will need to work closely to make sure this is done properly. If the vendor is hosting it for you, the system should be spun up and available for you to log in to within a day or so.\nGap analysis: This is the identification or verification of the gap between the system as installed and the system as fully functional according to the contract. There should not be any surprises here. If there are (and not good ones), the vendor should rectify them speedily and at no extra charge.\nWork plan (system acceptance test plan): This is the deliverable that spells out essentially what was discussed in the kickoff, with the gap analysis factored in. It's what will be worked towards in order to get to a fully functional, contractually complete system. It should include all tasks, including your verification and sign-off of each deliverable.\nAdministrator training: Whether a small and simple setup or something more complex, this is important and integral. Get it online and record it if you can. That way you can refer to it as often as you need to, and also use it to train new administrators.\nConfiguration and customization: This is really the bulk portion of implementation. It includes the standard configuration of the solution, plus any extras: instrument interfaces, system\/software\/agency interfaces, additional custom reports, screen modifications, new fields, etc. (beyond standard setup), adding tests, custom notifications\/alerts, web portal configuration, additional training, etc.\nSystem validation and acceptance: This should be going on throughout the implementation as you sign off on each completed task. Then the final acceptance of the complete system is simply a matter of final overall review and sign-off. A more comprehensive validation involves test scripts for each function, and you will need to go through each, noting pass\/fail and any comments. If more work is needed to bring things up to full acceptance level, the vendor (or you, if it was your responsibility) should apply whatever resources necessary to swiftly bring the items to acceptance level.\nUser training: Like admin training, user training is essential for a professional, dedicated laboratory informatics system. And in the same ways, online training by job function is the most effective method, enabling recorded sessions to be referred back to by the trainees and used for repeat and additional staff training.\nGo-live support: As with any new informatics system, it is a great contributor to a successful launch if the vendor's support staff are readily available during the initial \"go-live\" period. This may be a few days, a week or two, or a month, depending on complexity, number of users\/samples, etc.\nOne year (times X) maintenance and support: This recurring item can be included with your monthly or annual subscription if your solution is a cloud-hosted SaaS one. Otherwise, if you purchase licenses (the vendor may still offer cloud-hosting if you want), then this is a separate annual fee. It's usually wise to include this, at least for the first few years so that updates and upgrades are included, and support hours help your users as they become more comfortable and proficient. Cost usually is around 15-20% of original license fee annually, or bundled into a subscription automatically.\nServices \nWhen calculating the overall costs associated with implementing your laboratory informatics solution, don't forget to include calculations of services. No matter how pre-configured the solution may be, any professional laboratory informatics solution will require some amount of standard setup to reflect your particular lab, e.g., lab name and contact details for reports\/COA, entering users and their roles\/access permissions, adding and\/or modifying tests and processes\/workflows, renaming some fields, adding\/hiding fields, setting up a web portal, interfaces, etc. As mentioned previously, equally indispensable is proper training for both administrators and users. And you may find at any time that you would like additional features or functions. The services here are listed in hourly units. (Again, be very careful if any items that are services-based are listed as fixed-price items.)\nServices can include:\n\nKickoff meeting: initial planning, identify delta, set schedule, etc.\nProject management\nSetup\nTraining (user and admin)\nAdditional configurations and\/or customization\nInterfaces\nCustom screens\nCustom reports and labels\nAdditional triggers, alerts, etc.\nAdditional or custom functionality\nValidation\/Acceptance testing: either to a third-party standard (certification) or to manufacturer claims\/specs\/contract\nHosting\nHosting \nFrom the previous list of services, most items have been talked about in some regard, but the hosting of your software deserves a few additional comments. There is strong \"service\" component that comes with whoever is responsible for hosting your laboratory informatics solution, whether that's you (self-hosted) or some other provider (cloud-hosted). \nIf you choose to self-host the software, you will have most likely decided to buy the software license rather than rent the solution via a subscription. This is typically the domain of larger businesses that have their own IT department with the knowledge and budget to tackle most of the implementation and much of the maintenance. Even then, there may be times where outside IT help and\/or support is required from a consultant or the original software vendor, and this must be calculated into any potential future costs.\nIf you choose to cloud-host the software, you're either hosting the software on your company's cloud (if they are large enough to have such resources in the first place) or, more likely, you're choosing another company to host the software for you. Regardless of whether its you or another company, several questions emerge about the cloud facilities:\n\nDoes the cloud hosting provider provide purpose-built, reliable and secure cloud hosting infrastructure housed in a state-of-the-art data center that is SSAE 16 SOC 2 certified?\nAre industry standard hardware, software, and configuration practices employed, ensuring first-class performance, security and reliability, with a full 100% uptime guarantee?\nAre global cloud networks employed to provide a seamless global cloud hosting service?\nCan facility meet the special requirements for HIPAA, CLIA, 21 CFR Part 11, or other regulatory compliance data? For example, does it have comprehensive redundancy, failover, data backup and protection (database backups and system-wide backups in secondary location for redundancy), and SSL security and encryption?\nOf course, the software can not only be hosted in the cloud but also be served up as a service, typically arranged through the vendor. This SaaS-based approach has its own advantages, as previously discussed.\n\n Maintenance, support, and warranty \nThe maintenance, support and warranty (MSW) offered by the vendor you choose is almost as important as the laboratory informatics solution itself. The solution is likely to become mission-critical, so having a reliable and responsive team and resources available 24\/7 is hugely important in retaining operational and competitive status. Downtime can negatively affect not only immediate customer satisfaction but also your reputation. And professional reputations take a long time and hard work to build, though they can be destroyed swiftly and easily.\nAs such, when budgeting for a solution, be sure to ask about the company's MSW coverage. Determine what it includes exactly, what it doesn't, and the cost. For example, a purchased LIMS will usually include an MSW as a percentage of the license fee, typically 15-20% annually. It should include some support hours (check how many) so your users can contact the company and get help when they encounter problems, as they are still learning the details and becoming comfortable with the system (that's called support). It should include updates and upgrades (maintenance), and unlimited free fixes of any bugs (warranty).\nIf the solution is a cloud-hosted, SaaS system, then these are typically rolled in with the annual or monthly subscription (and are typically less costly anyway, since it's easier for the vendor to access and work with the system). Even a purchased, perpetual licensed solution may be available as a cloud-hosted option, and it may be at a lower rate than if you host it yourself (for the same reason). And you have the added bonus of not needing your own servers and IT personnel.\nFinally, any provider should warranty (stand behind) all of their work for as long as you are our customer. Any customization work, setup, or configurations they do should also be guaranteed; if they don't work, they should be corrected to perform the way they're supposed to at no additional charge.\n\nPutting it all together \nAfter considering all the above, it's time to put it all together. The importance of an accurate statement of work, as reflected in the sales agreement, can't be understated. Each line item should clearly show exactly what is expected, being as specific as possible, since this will be the entire contractual obligation for both parties. Obviously, the line items may differ from system to system somewhat, according to what features and functions are included by default with the laboratory informatics solution and which, if any, are additional. While the contract SOW is always ultimately an estimate, if careful attention was paid to the above, then it should be quite accurate, and in fact the final cost may even be below the quoted cost if you prioritize your own obligations so that the vendor's hours are used sparingly and efficiently.\nThe costs can be a mixture of subscriptions (annual and\/or monthly), fixed one-time costs (unit of \"Each\") and\/or hourly services. However, the reality is that they really are either license\/subscription or services. Any fixed costs for other items are really for services, and represent one of two possible scenarios:\n\nFinal fixed cost: In this case, the cost has been figured by the vendor so as to cover their worst-case hourly labor total. If the item (typically interfaces) is not \"worst case,\" then you are overpaying.\n\"Expandable\" fixed cost: This is as bad as final fixed cost, and maybe even worse because it's almost a case of \"bait-and-switch,\" popping up as a surprise. The initial \"fixed cost\" number is low, and additional hourly services are needed to actually deliver the item. This will have been provided for somewhere in the small print. The bottom line is that everything in the solution is really either licensing or hourly services. Just be careful if they are portrayed as anything else.\nIt is important to be clear which category each line item falls under when figuring costs, which can be divided into 1. up-front (due upon signing), 2. annual, and 3. ongoing (e.g., SaaS subscription). It is useful to clearly lay out each and compute initial costs, as well as first year and subsequent years' costings. \nAs an example, imagine you're considering a cloud-based SaaS LIMS:\n\n1. Initial: Your initial layout may be as little as your first month's subscription plus the first 40 hours of services, say $500 + $6600 = $7,100. Different vendors have different policies, however, and you may be required to pay for your first full year's subscription and no services, or some other combination. Normally, though, any instrument interface or other services charges aren't due until they are implemented, which may be a few weeks or even a month or so down the road, depending on your budget, complexity of the SOW, and urgency.\n2. First year: Your first year's expenses will include everything, including initial license fees, all setup and training, any interfaces and additional configurations or customization, and first annual maintenance, service, and warranty (MSW). (If this isn't included in the SaaS subscription, then it usually commences on full system delivery).\n3. Ongoing: Your subscription and MSW will be the only ongoing expenses (included as one in this example), unless you choose to have additional interfaces or other services performed at any time.\nYour total laboratory informatics software costs are tallied according to the licenses or subscriptions and hourly services, plus any additional MSW. Two ways to help maximize affordability and success are 1. as stated before, make sure you plan as thoroughly as possible and set aside sufficient funding for the lab operation you envision, and 2. plan out your implementation, perhaps staggering some of the major non-central items to be phased in over time in favor of getting operational with your solution as early as possible.\n\nReferences \nAbdula, M.; Averdunk, I.; Barcia, R. et al.&#32;(2018).&#32;The Cloud Adoption Playbook: Proven Strategies for Transforming Your Organization with the Cloud.&#32;John Wiley &amp; Sons.&#32;pp.&#160;272.&#32;ISBN&#160;9781119491859. &#160; \nASTM Subcommittee E13.15 on Analytical Data&#32;(2018).&#32;\"ASTM E1578-18, Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics\".&#32;ASTM International.&#32;https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1578.htm . &#160; \nCSols, Inc.&#32;(24 January 2019).&#32;\"How Much Does a LIMS Cost?\".&#32;Technology Networks.&#32;Technology Networks, Ltd.&#32;https:\/\/www.technologynetworks.com\/tn\/videos\/how-much-does-a-lims-cost-314433 . &#160; \nGordon-Byrne, G.&#32;(2014).&#32;Buying, Supporting, Maintaining Software and Equipment.&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp.&#160;359.&#32;ISBN&#160;9781482232790. &#160; \nHice, R.C.&#32;(2016).&#32;\"Considerations in Purchasing a LIMS\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Abbott Informatics Corporation.&#32;https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/whitepaper-considerations-in-purchasing-a-lims.pdf . &#160; \nKaldrack, I.; Leeker, M.&#32;(2015).&#32;There Is No Software, There Are Just Services.&#32;Meson Press.&#32;pp.&#160;114.&#32;ISBN&#160;9783957960566. &#160; \nLabVantage Solutions&#32;(28 October 2017).&#32;\"The True Cost of LIMS\".&#32;LabVantage Blog.&#32;LabVantage Solutions, Inc.&#32;https:\/\/www.labvantage.com\/the-true-cost-of-lims\/ . &#160; \nOrchard Software&#32;(7 November 2018).&#32;\"Considering a New Laboratory Information System Investment? Read Orchard Software's White Paper Overview of the Total Cost of Ownership for an LIS\".&#32;Orchard Software Corporation.&#32;https:\/\/www.orchardsoft.com\/blog\/considering-a-new-laboratory-information-system-investment-read-orchard-softwares-overview-of-the-total-cost-of-ownership-for-an-lis . &#160; \nRoe, R.&#32;(2017).&#32;\"The Future of Laboratory Informatics\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Laboratory Informatics Guide 2018.&#32;Europa Science Ltd.&#32;pp. 12\u201316.&#32;https:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/sites\/default\/files\/content\/LIG2018%20web.pdf . &#160; \n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations<\/a>\nCategory: LII:Guides, white papers, and other publicationsNavigation menuPage actionsLIIDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsLIIDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 9 February 2022, at 20:06.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 1,800 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","85305ea8bb1f390dd79f3ab3ec653819_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-202 ns-subject page-LII_Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations rootpage-LII_Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">LII:Laboratory Informatics Software Acquisition and Implementation Considerations<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\">\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Starting_out\">Starting out<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The two main questions you will need to answer at the outset are:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>1. What do I want the laboratory informatics solution to do for me?<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dd>2. What kind of budget do I have?<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>Additionally\u2014and secondarily\u2014you'll want to be sure you can participate in one or more vendor demonstrations and, afterwards, build a requirements list.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Features_and_benefits\">Features and benefits<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The answer to the first question is largely the same as most other kinds of labs. The benefits of laboratory informatics software include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>increased accuracy, with a minimization or elimination of transcription and other errors;<\/li>\n<li>streamlined processes, where each step in a protocol or method is completed in the proper order, with all requirements met, updating statuses automatically;<\/li>\n<li>automation of integrated instruments, allowing for automatic uploading of samples\/specimens and processing of results;<\/li>\n<li>regulatory and standards compliance for your procedures helps keep you doing the right things the right ways, while tracking history so you can provide documentation when you need to;<\/li>\n<li>data security via configurable role-based secure access to data, processes, reporting, etc.;<\/li>\n<li>custom reporting tools, which allow you to design and generate reports to your own specifications, incorporating exactly the information you want;<\/li>\n<li>instant data retrieval, allowing you to search and call up any information instantly according to any criteria (date range, test, product type, etc.), particularly useful during audits; and<\/li>\n<li>cost-effectiveness through improved efficiency and accuracy, which means less waste of time, and if a user-configurable system (as opposed to hard-coded, requiring development for any modifications), its return on investment {ROI) increases over time, due to built-in adaptability and thus longevity.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Budgeting\">Budgeting<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The second question of budget is more difficult to answer by the fact that laboratory informatics software comes in all kinds of price ranges, from over $1 million all the way down to free. How are you supposed to honestly judge where the appropriate system price for your lab lies?\n<\/p><p>There are some basic realities that can help in figuring an appropriate budget, however.\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>1. A rough sense of price can generally be based on how much ownership you want in the software itself and how many will be using the laboratory informatics solution.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dd><i>Ownership: Buying versus renting<\/i>: There are two primary ways to price laboratory informatics software: a one-time license fee or a subscription (cloud-hosted <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_as_a_service\" title=\"Software as a service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd\">software as a service<\/a> or SaaS ). If you have your own dedicated IT department and staff, you may prefer the former. Otherwise, a SaaS-based subscription may well be the better and more cost-effective way to go (no IT costs at all other than internet access). This item will be part of your up-front cost and, in the case of a subscription, it will also figure in your first year and ongoing costs. A vendor may have a subscription fee of say $500, with the initial month due at signing. However, more often the vendor may require three months or even the first year up front, so be prepared to factor that into up-front costs. However, it still is almost always less expensive at the outset (and over time, if you factor in IT and service costs) than paying for a license fee.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dd><i>User numbers: Named versus concurrent<\/i>: In addition to the two types of software pricing above, there are pricing sub-types. Generally these are based on the number of users (or, in some cases, \"nodes,\" which are simply any entities that access the software, including other systems, instruments, etc.). How these are counted can vary. They may be counted as \"named\" users, which bases pricing on the actual individual users of the system, even if they may only log in once in awhile. Users typically may not use each other's logins (this is prohibited regardless of pricing structure, for GxP and other standard- and regulatory-based reasons). They may also be counted as \"concurrent\" users, which bases pricing on the maximum number of users who will be logged in at any given time. You can define an unlimited number of named users in the system, each with their own login credentials. However, only the number of (concurrent) users specified in the license\/subscription may be logged in at any one time. For example, you may have 10 staff, but due to work processes, shifts, etc., only up to six might ever be logged in simultaneously. Whereas this would require a named user license for 10, it would only require a concurrent user license for six. Finally, you may have the option for \"unlimited\" users. This may be useful for huge labs (typically 30 to 50 and up), where the license or subscription may simply be a flat fee that allows any number of users.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dd>2. Most costs are related to work. Try to choose a solution that has what you need out of the box, as much as possible. The more customized or unique options you ask for, the more it costs, because extra items are a function of the time it takes developers to add them.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dd>3. User-configurable solutions beat vendor-configurable solutions on cost-effectiveness. Many software vendors offer a free or low-cost option, but don't be fooled. They are in business to make money, and they are counting on the fact that you'll need to pay them to make things work, add necessary functionality, support, training, etc. If you can find one who offers a genuinely user-configurable solution, and whose manuals and other support materials are clearly helpful and available so you can adjust things the way you want, when you want, then that will go a long way toward budget efficiency and longevity.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dd>4. Interfaces cost money. If necessary, consider whether it's feasibly or not to phase in those instrument and other interfaces over time, as revenue eases cash flow. You may be able to go live with your laboratory informatics solution more quickly, entering results manually until you can afford to interface your instruments one-by-one. This goes for reports too. A standard report will do. You can make fancy ones later.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>Pricing will vary depending on what kind of solution you need. For example, you'll probably want to budget a minimum of around $40,000 to $80,000 plus or minus, minimum, (including setup, training, interfaces, etc.) for a decent, bang-for-your-buck <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00\">laboratory information management system<\/a> (LIMS) with maybe an interface or two, plus an additional $300 to $900 per month (depending on number of users) for ongoing subscriptions. At around five concurrent (logged in at the same time) users, the economics start to favor purchasing perpetual licenses rather than paying subscription. Purchased licenses will also entail ongoing annual or monthly costs as well (maintenance, support, warranty for updates etc.), but somewhere around that number of users it may tend to be cheaper than a subscription option. Subscriptions (if available) are generally aimed at smaller labs. If you will be growing and scaling up, it may be a great way to get started, but ensure you have the option to switch to perpetual licenses later.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Demonstration_and_requirements\">Demonstration and requirements<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>You no doubt are quite familiar with all of your lab's or potential lab's processes, but that doesn't mean you necessarily have even an inkling about how exactly a laboratory informatics solution fits into your workflow. That's pretty common, and it's fine. That's what software companies should be able to show you. A good developer already generally understands your kind of lab but will ask you a lot of questions about exactly how you do things. It's the exceptions that need catering to. Doing a live demo (online is actually even better than in-person; it can be recorded so you can review and share it as much as you want) is a great context for exploring how a candidate software solution performs the functions your lab needs. It is interactive and live, so there can be no tricks\u2014you see just how it performs in real time, and you can throw as many intricate scenarios at the developer as you like. The demo experience can go a long way towards giving you a real feel for the software's suitability. Additionally, you can both (laboratory and vendor) gain a budgetary idea of cost based on what you do, what you want the software to do, what it can do, as well as the product and services pricing itself.\n<\/p><p>One note: too often labs think the first thing they must do is create a requirements list, then sit back and let the software vendors tell them how they meet those requirements. As mentioned earlier, even though laboratory personnel understand their lab and its processes, most don't have much of a clue about laboratory informatics and workflow integration. Participating in a a demo before creating the requirements list is a great way to plug in the features you have seen demonstrated to your lab's to your own processes and needs. After all, how can you effectively require specific functions if you don't fully know what a given laboratory informatics tool is capable of? After the demo, you are much more equipped to create a requirements list that becomes the contractual product set and statement\/scope of work (SOW) that represents your laboratory informatics solution.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Implementation\">Implementation<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Features, budget, and requirements aside, you'll also want to consider what implementation details will affect your overall bottom line. There are two main keys to successful implementation: having an accurate SOW and high team availability.\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>1. <i>Accurate SOW<\/i>: A statement of work or SOW describes the work that will be done by the vendor, including milestones, deliverables, and any other end products and services. It should be absolutely clear in both your and the vendor's minds exactly what the delivered, operational laboratory informatics solution should look like. If possible, ask for a validation script that addresses each function and process. Read through it and make sure you agree with each test, that it is an effective measure of the software function it purports to validate. If not, work with the vendor to modify it to your satisfaction. Remember, vendors are required to meet exactly what the contracted requirements are, no more or no less. The SOW should avoid ambiguity in all cases. If they are worded poorly, the delivered item may not match what you envisioned. This is also where the demo\u2014mentioned previously\u2014comes in handy. If it is documented (e.g., recorded), you can always use language like \"per demo\" or \"as demonstrated in demo\" so there is no question how a feature is supposed to work for you.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dd>2. <i>High team availability<\/i>: Make your team available. Far too many laboratory informatics solution implementations drag on way past what is needed simply because the lab doesn't keep up with the process. While regular daily operations consume a lot of time, and it can be very difficult to allocate extra time for bringing on the new software, it's best to just make the time. The initial energy and impetus of the implementation project\u2014which can take as few as a couple of weeks\u2014disappear surprisingly quickly once delays set in. Interest wanders and a once-great initiative becomes a nagging burden. The single greatest thing you can do to avoid this is allocate the right person(s) to focus on successfully getting the system in place on time and on (or under) budget. That means plenty of communication with the vendor's project manager, executing the training and any configuration tasks your lab is responsible for, and signing off when tasks are complete. You may be surprised how often unsuccessful implementations are actually the fault of the customer.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Implementation_details\">Implementation details<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The implementation itself can be quite simple for a pretty standard system. The minimum scenario would be one to five users, no customization, no configurations beyond standard setup (name the lab's location and any departments, add users, lab logo, address, etc. to report, enter contacts), no interfaces and around two hours of training (online, recorded for reference). And if the solution is cloud-hosted, there is no time (i.e., money) wasted in buying and\/or setting up servers, firewalls, etc., so the solution itself can optimistically be in place and running in a day. The rest is up to you; figure something like one to three weeks to go live (a little more if your schedule is tight).\n<\/p><p>A larger and\/or more comprehensive implementation can include several components and be rolled out in phases over one to three months or so. In fact, you can be operational manually for as long as you need to be, bringing instrument interfaces in over time as your budget permits, which allows you to begin using the solution earlier. \n<\/p><p>All of the phases and their deliverables have price tags associated with them. Your total cost is a function of the license fee or subscription plus the work the vendor performs. The work they do (and the work you do) is what constitutes the implementation and its phases. They can include (in order):\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Project management: The vendor will provide a project manager to coordinate with you and make sure all deliverables are implemented on time and according to the contract. The cost of this is a function of their hours, which begin at the initial meeting (kickoff) and end once your system goes live and all deliverables have been met.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li>Kickoff meeting: This is the initial get-together between your project manager and theirs. Review the SOW and the plan to implement it, and clarify resource and time commitments and responsibilities, making sure the schedule works for everybody.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li>System installation: If it's to be an onsite installation (discussed later), then your system administrator and the vendor's technical representatives will need to work closely to make sure this is done properly. If the vendor is hosting it for you, the system should be spun up and available for you to log in to within a day or so.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li>Gap analysis: This is the identification or verification of the gap between the system as installed and the system as fully functional according to the contract. There should not be any surprises here. If there are (and not good ones), the vendor should rectify them speedily and at no extra charge.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li>Work plan (system acceptance test plan): This is the deliverable that spells out essentially what was discussed in the kickoff, with the gap analysis factored in. It's what will be worked towards in order to get to a fully functional, contractually complete system. It should include all tasks, including your verification and sign-off of each deliverable.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li>Administrator training: Whether a small and simple setup or something more complex, this is important and integral. Get it online and record it if you can. That way you can refer to it as often as you need to, and also use it to train new administrators.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li>Configuration and customization: This is really the bulk portion of implementation. It includes the standard configuration of the solution, plus any extras: instrument interfaces, system\/software\/agency interfaces, additional custom reports, screen modifications, new fields, etc. (beyond standard setup), adding tests, custom notifications\/alerts, web portal configuration, additional training, etc.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li>System validation and acceptance: This should be going on throughout the implementation as you sign off on each completed task. Then the final acceptance of the complete system is simply a matter of final overall review and sign-off. A more comprehensive validation involves test scripts for each function, and you will need to go through each, noting pass\/fail and any comments. If more work is needed to bring things up to full acceptance level, the vendor (or you, if it was your responsibility) should apply whatever resources necessary to swiftly bring the items to acceptance level.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li>User training: Like admin training, user training is essential for a professional, dedicated laboratory informatics system. And in the same ways, online training by job function is the most effective method, enabling recorded sessions to be referred back to by the trainees and used for repeat and additional staff training.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li>Go-live support: As with any new informatics system, it is a great contributor to a successful launch if the vendor's support staff are readily available during the initial \"go-live\" period. This may be a few days, a week or two, or a month, depending on complexity, number of users\/samples, etc.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li>One year (times X) maintenance and support: This recurring item can be included with your monthly or annual subscription if your solution is a cloud-hosted SaaS one. Otherwise, if you purchase licenses (the vendor may still offer cloud-hosting if you want), then this is a separate annual fee. It's usually wise to include this, at least for the first few years so that updates and upgrades are included, and support hours help your users as they become more comfortable and proficient. Cost usually is around 15-20% of original license fee annually, or bundled into a subscription automatically.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Services\">Services<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>When calculating the overall costs associated with implementing your laboratory informatics solution, don't forget to include calculations of services. No matter how pre-configured the solution may be, any professional laboratory informatics solution will require some amount of standard setup to reflect your particular lab, e.g., lab name and contact details for reports\/COA, entering users and their roles\/access permissions, adding and\/or modifying tests and processes\/workflows, renaming some fields, adding\/hiding fields, setting up a web portal, interfaces, etc. As mentioned previously, equally indispensable is proper training for both administrators and users. And you may find at any time that you would like additional features or functions. The services here are listed in hourly units. (Again, be very careful if any items that are services-based are listed as fixed-price items.)\n<\/p><p>Services can include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Kickoff meeting: initial planning, identify delta, set schedule, etc.<\/li>\n<li>Project management<\/li>\n<li>Setup<\/li>\n<li>Training (user and admin)<\/li>\n<li>Additional configurations and\/or customization\n<ul><li>Interfaces<\/li>\n<li>Custom screens<\/li>\n<li>Custom reports and labels<\/li>\n<li>Additional triggers, alerts, etc.<\/li>\n<li>Additional or custom functionality<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>Validation\/Acceptance testing: either to a third-party standard (certification) or to manufacturer claims\/specs\/contract<\/li>\n<li>Hosting<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Hosting\">Hosting<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>From the previous list of services, most items have been talked about in some regard, but the hosting of your software deserves a few additional comments. There is strong \"service\" component that comes with whoever is responsible for hosting your laboratory informatics solution, whether that's you (self-hosted) or some other provider (cloud-hosted). \n<\/p><p>If you choose to self-host the software, you will have most likely decided to buy the software license rather than rent the solution via a subscription. This is typically the domain of larger businesses that have their own IT department with the knowledge and budget to tackle most of the implementation and much of the maintenance. Even then, there may be times where outside IT help and\/or support is required from a consultant or the original software vendor, and this must be calculated into any potential future costs.\n<\/p><p>If you choose to cloud-host the software, you're either hosting the software on your company's cloud (if they are large enough to have such resources in the first place) or, more likely, you're choosing another company to host the software for you. Regardless of whether its you or another company, several questions emerge about the cloud facilities:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Does the cloud hosting provider provide purpose-built, reliable and secure cloud hosting infrastructure housed in a state-of-the-art data center that is SSAE 16 SOC 2 certified?<\/li>\n<li>Are industry standard hardware, software, and configuration practices employed, ensuring first-class performance, security and reliability, with a full 100% uptime guarantee?<\/li>\n<li>Are global cloud networks employed to provide a seamless global cloud hosting service?<\/li>\n<li>Can facility meet the special requirements for <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/HIPAA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"HIPAA\" data-key=\"70050974d1eda9ff8cf9ecf7e4fcd015\">HIPAA<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/CLIA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"CLIA\" data-key=\"9c0b9bbf5c8d2310833a79d137ac621e\">CLIA<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\" title=\"21 CFR Part 11\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a\">21 CFR Part 11<\/a>, or other regulatory compliance data? For example, does it have comprehensive redundancy, failover, data backup and protection (database backups and system-wide backups in secondary location for redundancy), and SSL security and encryption?<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Of course, the software can not only be hosted in the cloud but also be served up as a service, typically arranged through the vendor. This SaaS-based approach has its own advantages, as previously discussed.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Maintenance,_support,_and_warranty\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Maintenance.2C_support.2C_and_warranty\">Maintenance, support, and warranty<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The maintenance, support and warranty (MSW) offered by the vendor you choose is almost as important as the laboratory informatics solution itself. The solution is likely to become mission-critical, so having a reliable and responsive team and resources available 24\/7 is hugely important in retaining operational and competitive status. Downtime can negatively affect not only immediate customer satisfaction but also your reputation. And professional reputations take a long time and hard work to build, though they can be destroyed swiftly and easily.\n<\/p><p>As such, when budgeting for a solution, be sure to ask about the company's MSW coverage. Determine what it includes exactly, what it doesn't, and the cost. For example, a purchased LIMS will usually include an MSW as a percentage of the license fee, typically 15-20% annually. It should include some support hours (check how many) so your users can contact the company and get help when they encounter problems, as they are still learning the details and becoming comfortable with the system (that's called support). It should include updates and upgrades (maintenance), and unlimited free fixes of any bugs (warranty).\n<\/p><p>If the solution is a cloud-hosted, SaaS system, then these are typically rolled in with the annual or monthly subscription (and are typically less costly anyway, since it's easier for the vendor to access and work with the system). Even a purchased, perpetual licensed solution may be available as a cloud-hosted option, and it may be at a lower rate than if you host it yourself (for the same reason). And you have the added bonus of not needing your own servers and IT personnel.\n<\/p><p>Finally, any provider should warranty (stand behind) all of their work for as long as you are our customer. Any customization work, setup, or configurations they do should also be guaranteed; if they don't work, they should be corrected to perform the way they're supposed to at no additional charge.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Putting_it_all_together\">Putting it all together<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>After considering all the above, it's time to put it all together. The importance of an accurate statement of work, as reflected in the sales agreement, can't be understated. Each line item should clearly show exactly what is expected, being as specific as possible, since this will be the entire contractual obligation for both parties. Obviously, the line items may differ from system to system somewhat, according to what features and functions are included by default with the laboratory informatics solution and which, if any, are additional. While the contract SOW is always ultimately an estimate, if careful attention was paid to the above, then it should be quite accurate, and in fact the final cost may even be below the quoted cost if you prioritize your own obligations so that the vendor's hours are used sparingly and efficiently.\n<\/p><p>The costs can be a mixture of subscriptions (annual and\/or monthly), fixed one-time costs (unit of \"Each\") and\/or hourly services. However, the reality is that they really are either license\/subscription or services. Any fixed costs for other items are really for services, and represent one of two possible scenarios:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Final fixed cost: In this case, the cost has been figured by the vendor so as to cover their worst-case hourly labor total. If the item (typically interfaces) is not \"worst case,\" then you are overpaying.<\/li>\n<li>\"Expandable\" fixed cost: This is as bad as final fixed cost, and maybe even worse because it's almost a case of \"bait-and-switch,\" popping up as a surprise. The initial \"fixed cost\" number is low, and additional hourly services are needed to actually deliver the item. This will have been provided for somewhere in the small print. The bottom line is that everything in the solution is really either licensing or hourly services. Just be careful if they are portrayed as anything else.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>It is important to be clear which category each line item falls under when figuring costs, which can be divided into 1. up-front (due upon signing), 2. annual, and 3. ongoing (e.g., SaaS subscription). It is useful to clearly lay out each and compute initial costs, as well as first year and subsequent years' costings. \n<\/p><p>As an example, imagine you're considering a cloud-based SaaS LIMS:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>1. Initial: Your initial layout may be as little as your first month's subscription plus the first 40 hours of services, say $500 + $6600 = $7,100. Different vendors have different policies, however, and you may be required to pay for your first full year's subscription and no services, or some other combination. Normally, though, any instrument interface or other services charges aren't due until they are implemented, which may be a few weeks or even a month or so down the road, depending on your budget, complexity of the SOW, and urgency.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dd>2. First year: Your first year's expenses will include everything, including initial license fees, all setup and training, any interfaces and additional configurations or customization, and first annual maintenance, service, and warranty (MSW). (If this isn't included in the SaaS subscription, then it usually commences on full system delivery).<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dd>3. Ongoing: Your subscription and MSW will be the only ongoing expenses (included as one in this example), unless you choose to have additional interfaces or other services performed at any time.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>Your total laboratory informatics software costs are tallied according to the licenses or subscriptions and hourly services, plus any additional MSW. Two ways to help maximize affordability and success are 1. as stated before, make sure you plan as thoroughly as possible and set aside sufficient funding for the lab operation you envision, and 2. plan out your implementation, perhaps staggering some of the major non-central items to be phased in over time in favor of getting operational with your solution as early as possible.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation book\">Abdula, M.; Averdunk, I.; Barcia, R. et al.&#32;(2018).&#32;<i>The Cloud Adoption Playbook: Proven Strategies for Transforming Your Organization with the Cloud<\/i>.&#32;John Wiley &amp; Sons.&#32;pp.&#160;272.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781119491859.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Cloud+Adoption+Playbook%3A+Proven+Strategies+for+Transforming+Your+Organization+with+the+Cloud&amp;rft.aulast=Abdula%2C+M.%3B+Averdunk%2C+I.%3B+Barcia%2C+R.+et+al.&amp;rft.au=Abdula%2C+M.%3B+Averdunk%2C+I.%3B+Barcia%2C+R.+et+al.&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B272&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft.isbn=9781119491859&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation web\">ASTM Subcommittee E13.15 on Analytical Data&#32;(2018).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1578.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"ASTM E1578-18, Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics\"<\/a>.&#32;ASTM International<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1578.htm\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1578.htm<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ASTM+E1578-18%2C+Standard+Guide+for+Laboratory+Informatics&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=ASTM+Subcommittee+E13.15+on+Analytical+Data&amp;rft.au=ASTM+Subcommittee+E13.15+on+Analytical+Data&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft.pub=ASTM+International&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.astm.org%2FStandards%2FE1578.htm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation web\">CSols, Inc.&#32;(24 January 2019).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.technologynetworks.com\/tn\/videos\/how-much-does-a-lims-cost-314433\" target=\"_blank\">\"How Much Does a LIMS Cost?\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Technology Networks<\/i>.&#32;Technology Networks, Ltd<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.technologynetworks.com\/tn\/videos\/how-much-does-a-lims-cost-314433\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.technologynetworks.com\/tn\/videos\/how-much-does-a-lims-cost-314433<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=How+Much+Does+a+LIMS+Cost%3F&amp;rft.atitle=Technology+Networks&amp;rft.aulast=CSols%2C+Inc.&amp;rft.au=CSols%2C+Inc.&amp;rft.date=24+January+2019&amp;rft.pub=Technology+Networks%2C+Ltd&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.technologynetworks.com%2Ftn%2Fvideos%2Fhow-much-does-a-lims-cost-314433&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation book\">Gordon-Byrne, G.&#32;(2014).&#32;<i>Buying, Supporting, Maintaining Software and Equipment<\/i>.&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp.&#160;359.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781482232790.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Buying%2C+Supporting%2C+Maintaining+Software+and+Equipment&amp;rft.aulast=Gordon-Byrne%2C+G.&amp;rft.au=Gordon-Byrne%2C+G.&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B359&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.isbn=9781482232790&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation web\">Hice, R.C.&#32;(2016).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/whitepaper-considerations-in-purchasing-a-lims.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Considerations in Purchasing a LIMS\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Abbott Informatics Corporation<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/whitepaper-considerations-in-purchasing-a-lims.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/whitepaper-considerations-in-purchasing-a-lims.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Considerations+in+Purchasing+a+LIMS&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Hice%2C+R.C.&amp;rft.au=Hice%2C+R.C.&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft.pub=Abbott+Informatics+Corporation&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.informatics.abbott%2Fshared%2Fwhitepaper-considerations-in-purchasing-a-lims.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation book\">Kaldrack, I.; Leeker, M.&#32;(2015).&#32;<i>There Is No Software, There Are Just Services<\/i>.&#32;Meson Press.&#32;pp.&#160;114.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9783957960566.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=There+Is+No+Software%2C+There+Are+Just+Services&amp;rft.aulast=Kaldrack%2C+I.%3B+Leeker%2C+M.&amp;rft.au=Kaldrack%2C+I.%3B+Leeker%2C+M.&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B114&amp;rft.pub=Meson+Press&amp;rft.isbn=9783957960566&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation web\">LabVantage Solutions&#32;(28 October 2017).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.labvantage.com\/the-true-cost-of-lims\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The True Cost of LIMS\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>LabVantage Blog<\/i>.&#32;LabVantage Solutions, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.labvantage.com\/the-true-cost-of-lims\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.labvantage.com\/the-true-cost-of-lims\/<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+True+Cost+of+LIMS&amp;rft.atitle=LabVantage+Blog&amp;rft.aulast=LabVantage+Solutions&amp;rft.au=LabVantage+Solutions&amp;rft.date=28+October+2017&amp;rft.pub=LabVantage+Solutions%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.labvantage.com%2Fthe-true-cost-of-lims%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation web\">Orchard Software&#32;(7 November 2018).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.orchardsoft.com\/blog\/considering-a-new-laboratory-information-system-investment-read-orchard-softwares-overview-of-the-total-cost-of-ownership-for-an-lis\" target=\"_blank\">\"Considering a New Laboratory Information System Investment? Read Orchard Software's White Paper Overview of the Total Cost of Ownership for an LIS\"<\/a>.&#32;Orchard Software Corporation<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.orchardsoft.com\/blog\/considering-a-new-laboratory-information-system-investment-read-orchard-softwares-overview-of-the-total-cost-of-ownership-for-an-lis\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.orchardsoft.com\/blog\/considering-a-new-laboratory-information-system-investment-read-orchard-softwares-overview-of-the-total-cost-of-ownership-for-an-lis<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Considering+a+New+Laboratory+Information+System+Investment%3F+Read+Orchard+Software%27s+White+Paper+Overview+of+the+Total+Cost+of+Ownership+for+an+LIS&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Orchard+Software&amp;rft.au=Orchard+Software&amp;rft.date=7+November+2018&amp;rft.pub=Orchard+Software+Corporation&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.orchardsoft.com%2Fblog%2Fconsidering-a-new-laboratory-information-system-investment-read-orchard-softwares-overview-of-the-total-cost-of-ownership-for-an-lis&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation web\">Roe, R.&#32;(2017).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/sites\/default\/files\/content\/LIG2018%20web.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Future of Laboratory Informatics\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;<i>Laboratory Informatics Guide 2018<\/i>.&#32;Europa Science Ltd.&#32;pp. 12\u201316<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/sites\/default\/files\/content\/LIG2018%20web.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/sites\/default\/files\/content\/LIG2018%20web.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+Future+of+Laboratory+Informatics&amp;rft.atitle=Laboratory+Informatics+Guide+2018&amp;rft.aulast=Roe%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Roe%2C+R.&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft.pages=pp.+12%E2%80%9316&amp;rft.pub=Europa+Science+Ltd&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientific-computing.com%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fcontent%2FLIG2018%2520web.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110164156\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.176 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.201 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 6129\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 38337\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 14343\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 16\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 0\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 161.045 1 -total\n 84.54% 136.150 9 Template:Citation\/core\n 51.39% 82.755 3 Template:Cite_book\n 47.64% 76.729 6 Template:Cite_web\n 12.95% 20.855 6 Template:Date\n 11.39% 18.348 3 Template:Citation\/identifier\n 6.43% 10.362 12 Template:Citation\/make_link\n 3.25% 5.237 6 Template:Hide_in_print\n 3.22% 5.180 3 Template:Only_in_print\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10944-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110164156 and revision id 46272. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","85305ea8bb1f390dd79f3ab3ec653819_images":[],"85305ea8bb1f390dd79f3ab3ec653819_timestamp":1704907020,"65c80aae9714da73905a2a343d8e6a81_type":"article","65c80aae9714da73905a2a343d8e6a81_title":"System integration","65c80aae9714da73905a2a343d8e6a81_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/System_integration","65c80aae9714da73905a2a343d8e6a81_plaintext":"\n\nSystem integrationFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System_integration?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/System_integration\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/System_integration<\/a>\nCategories: Business and data managementSoftware and hardware termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 19 May 2018, at 17:59.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 2,031 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","65c80aae9714da73905a2a343d8e6a81_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-System_integration rootpage-System_integration skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">System integration<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System_integration?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System_integration\" data-key=\"f6418d682ca1c64236b013d57e27099f\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171659\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.079 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.157 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 100\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 152.834 1 wikipedia:System_integration\n100.00% 152.834 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10593-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171659 and revision id 33267. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/System_integration\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/System_integration<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","65c80aae9714da73905a2a343d8e6a81_images":[],"65c80aae9714da73905a2a343d8e6a81_timestamp":1704907019,"2e9d1c3a7073bee59b3d3b6e5aca466d_type":"article","2e9d1c3a7073bee59b3d3b6e5aca466d_title":"SCADA","2e9d1c3a7073bee59b3d3b6e5aca466d_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/SCADA","2e9d1c3a7073bee59b3d3b6e5aca466d_plaintext":"\n\nSCADAFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchControl system architecture for supervision of machines and processes\n This article's lead section may be too short to adequately summarize the key points. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. (January 2024 ) \nPart of a series of articles onMachine industry \nManufacturing methods\nBatch production\nJob production\nFlow production\nLean manufacturing\nAgile manufacturing\n\nIndustrial technologies\nPLM\nRCM\nTPM\nVDM\nQRM\nTOC\nSix Sigma\nTQM\nZD\n\nInformation and communication\nISA-88\nISA-95\nERP\nIEC 62264\nB2MML\n\nProcess control\nPLC\nDCS\nSCADA\nvte\nSCADA (Supervisory control and data acquisition) is a control system architecture comprising computers, networked data communications and graphical user interfaces for high-level supervision of machines and processes. It also covers sensors and other devices, such as programmable logic controllers, which interface with process plant or machinery.\nThe operator interfaces which enable monitoring and the issuing of process commands, like controller set point changes, are handled through the SCADA computer system. The subordinated operations, e.g. the real-time control logic or controller calculations, are performed by networked modules connected to the field sensors and actuators.\nThe SCADA concept was developed to be a universal means of remote-access to a variety of local control modules, which could be from different manufacturers and allowing access through standard automation protocols. In practice, large SCADA systems have grown to become very similar to distributed control systems in function, while using multiple means of interfacing with the plant. They can control large-scale processes that can include multiple sites, and work over large distances as well as small distance. It is one of the most commonly-used types of industrial control systems, in spite of concerns about SCADA systems being vulnerable to cyberwarfare\/cyberterrorism attacks.[citation needed ]\n\n\n\nControl operations \nFunctional levels of a manufacturing control operation\n\nThe key attribute of a SCADA system is its ability to perform a supervisory operation over a variety of other proprietary devices.\n\nLevel 0 contains the field devices such as flow and temperature sensors, and final control elements, such as control valves.\nLevel 1 contains the industrialised input\/output (I\/O) modules, and their associated distributed electronic processors.\nLevel 2 contains the supervisory computers, which collate information from processor nodes on the system, and provide the operator control screens.\nLevel 3 is the production control level, which does not directly control the process, but is concerned with monitoring production and targets.\nLevel 4 is the production scheduling level.\nLevel 1 contains the programmable logic controllers (PLCs) or remote terminal units (RTUs).\nLevel 2 contains the SCADA to readings and equipment status reports that are communicated to level 2 SCADA as required. Data is then compiled and formatted in such a way that a control room operator using the HMI (Human Machine Interface) can make supervisory decisions to adjust or override normal RTU (PLC) controls. Data may also be fed to a historian, often built on a commodity database management system, to allow trending and other analytical auditing.\nSCADA systems typically use a tag database, which contains data elements called tags or points, which relate to specific instrumentation or actuators within the process system. Data is accumulated against these unique process control equipment tag references.\n\nComponents \nTypical SCADA mimic shown as an animation. For process plants, these are based upon the piping and instrumentation diagram.\n More complex SCADA animation showing control of four batch cookers\n\nA SCADA system usually consists of the following main elements:\n\nSupervisory computers\nThis is the core of the SCADA system, gathering data on the process and sending control commands to the field connected devices. It refers to the computer and software responsible for communicating with the field connection controllers, which are RTUs and PLCs, and includes the HMI software running on operator workstations. In smaller SCADA systems, the supervisory computer may be composed of a single PC, in which case the HMI is a part of this computer. In larger SCADA systems, the master station may include several HMIs hosted on client computers, multiple servers for data acquisition, distributed software applications, and disaster recovery sites. To increase the integrity of the system the multiple servers will often be configured in a dual-redundant or hot-standby formation providing continuous control and monitoring in the event of a server malfunction or breakdown.\nRemote terminal units\nRTUs[1] connect to sensors and actuators in the process, and are networked to the supervisory computer system. RTUs have embedded control capabilities and often conform to the IEC 61131-3 standard for programming and support automation via ladder logic, a function block diagram or a variety of other languages. Remote locations often have little or no local infrastructure so it is not uncommon to find RTUs running off a small solar power system, using radio, GSM or satellite for communications, and being ruggedised to survive from -20C to +70C or even -40C to +85C without external heating or cooling equipment.\nProgrammable logic controllers\nPLCs are connected to sensors and actuators in the process, and are networked to the supervisory system. In factory automation, PLCs typically have a high speed connection to the SCADA system. In remote applications, such as a large water treatment plant, PLCs may connect directly to SCADA over a wireless link, or more commonly, utilise an RTU for the communications management. PLCs are specifically designed for control and were the founding platform for the IEC 61131-3 programming languages. For economical reasons, PLCs are often used for remote sites where there is a large I\/O count, rather than utilising an RTU alone.\nCommunication infrastructure\nThis connects the supervisory computer system to the RTUs and PLCs, and may use industry standard or manufacturer proprietary protocols. Both RTUs and PLCs operate autonomously on the near-real time control of the process, using the last command given from the supervisory system. Failure of the communications network does not necessarily stop the plant process controls, and on resumption of communications, the operator can continue with monitoring and control. Some critical systems will have dual redundant data highways, often cabled via diverse routes.\nHuman-machine interface\nThe HMI is the operator window of the supervisory system. It presents plant information to the operating personnel graphically in the form of mimic diagrams, which are a schematic representation of the plant being controlled, and alarm and event logging pages. The HMI is linked to the SCADA supervisory computer to provide live data to drive the mimic diagrams, alarm displays and trending graphs. In many installations the HMI is the graphical user interface for the operator, collects all data from external devices, creates reports, performs alarming, sends notifications, etc. Mimic diagrams consist of line graphics and schematic symbols to represent process elements, or may consist of digital photographs of the process equipment overlain with animated symbols. Supervisory operation of the plant is by means of the HMI, with operators issuing commands using mouse pointers, keyboards and touch screens. For example, a symbol of a pump can show the operator that the pump is running, and a flow meter symbol can show how much fluid it is pumping through the pipe. The operator can switch the pump off from the mimic by a mouse click or screen touch. The HMI will show the flow rate of the fluid in the pipe decrease in real time. The HMI package for a SCADA system typically includes a drawing program that the operators or system maintenance personnel use to change the way these points are represented in the interface. These representations can be as simple as an on-screen traffic light, which represents the state of an actual traffic light in the field, or as complex as a multi-projector display representing the position of all of the elevators in a skyscraper or all of the trains on a railway. A historian is a software service within the HMI which accumulates time-stamped data, events, and alarms in a database which can be queried or used to populate graphic trends in the HMI. The historian is a client that requests data from a data acquisition server.[2]\nAlarm handling \nFurther information: Alarm management\nAn important part of most SCADA implementations is alarm handling. The system monitors whether certain alarm conditions are satisfied, to determine when an alarm event has occurred. Once an alarm event has been detected, one or more actions are taken (such as the activation of one or more alarm indicators, and perhaps the generation of email or text messages so that management or remote SCADA operators are informed). In many cases, a SCADA operator may have to acknowledge the alarm event; this may deactivate some alarm indicators, whereas other indicators remain active until the alarm conditions are cleared.\nAlarm conditions can be explicit\u2014for example, an alarm point is a digital status point that has either the value NORMAL or ALARM that is calculated by a formula based on the values in other analogue and digital points\u2014or implicit: the SCADA system might automatically monitor whether the value in an analogue point lies outside high and low- limit values associated with that point.\nExamples of alarm indicators include a siren, a pop-up box on a screen, or a coloured or flashing area on a screen (that might act in a similar way to the \"fuel tank empty\" light in a car); in each case, the role of the alarm indicator is to draw the operator's attention to the part of the system 'in alarm' so that appropriate action can be taken.\n\n PLC\/RTU programming \n\"Smart\" RTUs, or standard PLCs, are capable of autonomously executing simple logic processes without involving the supervisory computer. They employ standardized control programming languages such as under, IEC 61131-3 (a suite of five programming languages including function block, ladder, structured text, sequence function charts and instruction list), is frequently used to create programs which run on these RTUs and PLCs. Unlike a procedural language like C or FORTRAN, IEC 61131-3 has minimal training requirements by virtue of resembling historic physical control arrays. This allows SCADA system engineers to perform both the design and implementation of a program to be executed on an RTU or PLC.\nA programmable automation controller (PAC) is a compact controller that combines the features and capabilities of a PC-based control system with that of a typical PLC. PACs are deployed in SCADA systems to provide RTU and PLC functions. In many electrical substation SCADA applications, \"distributed RTUs\" use information processors or station computers to communicate with digital protective relays, PACs, and other devices for I\/O, and communicate with the SCADA master in lieu of a traditional RTU.\n\nPLC commercial integration \nSince about 1998, virtually all major PLC manufacturers have offered integrated HMI\/SCADA systems, many of them using open and non-proprietary communications protocols. Numerous specialized third-party HMI\/SCADA packages, offering built-in compatibility with most major PLCs, have also entered the market, allowing mechanical engineers, electrical engineers and technicians to configure HMIs themselves, without the need for a custom-made program written by a software programmer. The Remote Terminal Unit (RTU) connects to physical equipment. Typically, an RTU converts the electrical signals from the equipment to digital values. By converting and sending these electrical signals out to equipment the RTU can control equipment.\n\nCommunication infrastructure and methods \nSCADA systems have traditionally used combinations of radio and direct wired connections, although SONET\/SDH is also frequently used for large systems such as railways and power stations. The remote management or monitoring function of a SCADA system is often referred to as telemetry. Some users want SCADA data to travel over their pre-established corporate networks or to share the network with other applications. The legacy of the early low-bandwidth protocols remains, though.\nSCADA protocols are designed to be very compact. Many are designed to send information only when the master station polls the RTU. Typical legacy SCADA protocols include Modbus RTU, RP-570, Profibus and Conitel. These communication protocols, with the exception of Modbus (Modbus has been made open by Schneider Electric), are all SCADA-vendor specific but are widely adopted and used. Standard protocols are IEC 60870-5-101 or 104, IEC 61850 and DNP3. These communication protocols are standardized and recognized by all major SCADA vendors. Many of these protocols now contain extensions to operate over TCP\/IP. Although the use of conventional networking specifications, such as TCP\/IP, blurs the line between traditional and industrial networking, they each fulfill fundamentally differing requirements.[3] Network simulation can be used in conjunction with SCADA simulators to perform various 'what-if' analyses.\nWith increasing security demands (such as North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) and critical infrastructure protection (CIP) in the US), there is increasing use of satellite-based communication. This has the key advantages that the infrastructure can be self-contained (not using circuits from the public telephone system), can have built-in encryption, and can be engineered to the availability and reliability required by the SCADA system operator. Earlier experiences using consumer-grade VSAT were poor. Modern carrier-class systems provide the quality of service required for SCADA.[4]\nRTUs and other automatic controller devices were developed before the advent of industry wide standards for interoperability. The result is that developers and their management created a multitude of control protocols. Among the larger vendors, there was also the incentive to create their own protocol to \"lock in\" their customer base. A list of automation protocols is compiled here.\nAn example of efforts by vendor groups to standardize automation protocols is the OPC-UA (formerly \"OLE for process control\" now Open Platform Communications Unified Architecture).\n\nArchitecture development \nThe United States Army's Training Manual 5-601 covers \"SCADA Systems for C4ISR Facilities\"\n\nSCADA systems have evolved through four generations as follows:[5][6][7][8]\nEarly SCADA system computing was done by large minicomputers. Common network services did not exist at the time SCADA was developed. Thus SCADA systems were independent systems with no connectivity to other systems. The communication protocols used were strictly proprietary at that time. The first-generation SCADA system redundancy was achieved using a back-up mainframe system connected to all the Remote Terminal Unit sites and was used in the event of failure of the primary mainframe system.[9] Some first generation SCADA systems were developed as \"turn key\" operations that ran on minicomputers such as the PDP-11 series.[10]\nSCADA information and command processing were distributed across multiple stations which were connected through a LAN. Information was shared in near real time. Each station was responsible for a particular task, which reduced the cost as compared to First Generation SCADA. The network protocols used were still not standardized. Since these protocols were proprietary, very few people beyond the developers knew enough to determine how secure a SCADA installation was. Security of the SCADA installation was usually overlooked.\nSimilar to a distributed architecture, any complex SCADA can be reduced to the simplest components and connected through communication protocols. In the case of a networked design, the system may be spread across more than one LAN network called a process control network (PCN) and separated geographically. Several distributed architecture SCADAs running in parallel, with a single supervisor and historian, could be considered a network architecture. This allows for a more cost-effective solution in very large scale systems.\nThe growth of the internet has led SCADA systems to implement web technologies allowing users to view data, exchange information and control processes from anywhere in the world through web SOCKET connection.[11][12] The early 2000s saw the proliferation of Web SCADA systems.[13][14][15] Web SCADA systems use internet browsers such as Google Chrome and Mozilla Firefox as the graphical user interface (GUI) for the operators HMI.[16][13] This simplifies the client side installation and enables users to access the system from various platforms with web browsers such as servers, personal computers, laptops, tablets and mobile phones.[13][17]\n\nSecurity \nSCADA systems that tie together decentralized facilities such as power, oil, gas pipelines, water distribution and wastewater collection systems were designed to be open, robust, and easily operated and repaired, but not necessarily secure.[18][19] The move from proprietary technologies to more standardized and open solutions together with the increased number of connections between SCADA systems, office networks and the Internet has made them more vulnerable to types of network attacks that are relatively common in computer security. For example, United States Computer Emergency Readiness Team (US-CERT) released a vulnerability advisory[20] warning that unauthenticated users could download sensitive configuration information including password hashes from an Inductive Automation Ignition system utilizing a standard attack type leveraging access to the Tomcat Embedded Web server. Security researcher Jerry Brown submitted a similar advisory regarding a buffer overflow vulnerability[21] in a Wonderware InBatchClient ActiveX control. Both vendors made updates available prior to public vulnerability release. Mitigation recommendations were standard patching practices and requiring VPN access for secure connectivity. Consequently, the security of some SCADA-based systems has come into question as they are seen as potentially vulnerable to cyber attacks.[22][23][24]\nIn particular, security researchers are concerned about:\n\nThe lack of concern about security and authentication in the design, deployment and operation of some existing SCADA networks\nThe belief that SCADA systems have the benefit of security through obscurity through the use of specialized protocols and proprietary interfaces\nThe belief that SCADA networks are secure because they are physically secured\nThe belief that SCADA networks are secure because they are disconnected from the Internet\nSCADA systems are used to control and monitor physical processes, examples of which are transmission of electricity, transportation of gas and oil in pipelines, water distribution, traffic lights, and other systems used as the basis of modern society. The security of these SCADA systems is important because compromise or destruction of these systems would impact multiple areas of society far removed from the original compromise. For example, a blackout caused by a compromised electrical SCADA system would cause financial losses to all the customers that received electricity from that source. How security will affect legacy SCADA and new deployments remains to be seen.\nThere are many threat vectors to a modern SCADA system. One is the threat of unauthorized access to the control software, whether it is human access or changes induced intentionally or accidentally by virus infections and other software threats residing on the control host machine. Another is the threat of packet access to the network segments hosting SCADA devices. In many cases, the control protocol lacks any form of cryptographic security, allowing an attacker to control a SCADA device by sending commands over a network. In many cases SCADA users have assumed that having a VPN offered sufficient protection, unaware that security can be trivially bypassed with physical access to SCADA-related network jacks and switches. Industrial control vendors suggest approaching SCADA security like Information Security with a defense in depth strategy that leverages common IT practices.[25] Apart from that, research has shown that the architecture of SCADA systems has several other vulnerabilities, including direct tampering with RTUs, communication links from RTUs to the control center, and IT software and databases in the control center.[26] The RTUs could, for instance, be targets of deception attacks injecting false data [27] or denial-of-service attacks. \nThe reliable function of SCADA systems in our modern infrastructure may be crucial to public health and safety. As such, attacks on these systems may directly or indirectly threaten public health and safety. Such an attack has already occurred, carried out on Maroochy Shire Council's sewage control system in Queensland, Australia.[28] Shortly after a contractor installed a SCADA system in January 2000, system components began to function erratically. Pumps did not run when needed and alarms were not reported. More critically, sewage flooded a nearby park and contaminated an open surface-water drainage ditch and flowed 500 meters to a tidal canal. The SCADA system was directing sewage valves to open when the design protocol should have kept them closed. Initially this was believed to be a system bug. Monitoring of the system logs revealed the malfunctions were the result of cyber attacks. Investigators reported 46 separate instances of malicious outside interference before the culprit was identified. The attacks were made by a disgruntled ex-employee of the company that had installed the SCADA system. The ex-employee was hoping to be hired by the utility full-time to maintain the system.\nIn April 2008, the Commission to Assess the Threat to the United States from Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP) Attack issued a Critical Infrastructures Report which discussed the extreme vulnerability of SCADA systems to an electromagnetic pulse (EMP) event. After testing and analysis, the Commission concluded: \"SCADA systems are vulnerable to an EMP event. The large numbers and widespread reliance on such systems by all of the Nation\u2019s critical infrastructures represent a systemic threat to their continued operation following an EMP event. Additionally, the necessity to reboot, repair, or replace large numbers of geographically widely dispersed systems will considerably impede the Nation\u2019s recovery from such an assault.\"[29]\nMany vendors of SCADA and control products have begun to address the risks posed by unauthorized access by developing lines of specialized industrial firewall and VPN solutions for TCP\/IP-based SCADA networks as well as external SCADA monitoring and recording equipment.\nThe International Society of Automation (ISA) started formalizing SCADA security requirements in 2007 with a working group, WG4. WG4 \"deals specifically with unique technical requirements, measurements, and other features required to evaluate and assure security resilience and performance of industrial automation and control systems devices\".[30]\n\nThe increased interest in SCADA vulnerabilities has resulted in vulnerability researchers discovering vulnerabilities in commercial SCADA software and more general offensive SCADA techniques presented to the general security community.[31] In electric and gas utility SCADA systems, the vulnerability of the large installed base of wired and wireless serial communications links is addressed in some cases by applying bump-in-the-wire devices that employ authentication and Advanced Encryption Standard encryption rather than replacing all existing nodes.[32]\nIn June 2010, anti-virus security company VirusBlokAda reported the first detection of malware that attacks SCADA systems (Siemens' WinCC\/PCS 7 systems) running on Windows operating systems. The malware is called Stuxnet and uses four zero-day attacks to install a rootkit which in turn logs into the SCADA's database and steals design and control files.[33][34] The malware is also capable of changing the control system and hiding those changes. The malware was found on 14 systems, the majority of which were located in Iran.[35]\nIn October 2013 National Geographic released a docudrama titled American Blackout which dealt with an imagined large-scale cyber attack on SCADA and the United States' electrical grid.[36]\n\nUses \nExample of SCADA used in office environment to remotely monitor a process\n\nBoth large and small systems can be built using the SCADA concept. These systems can range from just tens to thousands of control loops, depending on the application. Example processes include industrial, infrastructure, and facility-based processes, as described below:\n\nIndustrial processes include manufacturing, process control, power generation, fabrication, and refining, and may run in continuous, batch, repetitive, or discrete modes.\nInfrastructure processes may be public or private, and include water treatment and distribution, wastewater collection and treatment, oil and gas pipelines, electric power transmission and distribution, and wind farms.\nFacility processes, including buildings, airports, ships, and space stations. They monitor and control heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems (HVAC), access, and energy consumption.\nHowever, SCADA systems may have security vulnerabilities, so the systems should be evaluated to identify risks and solutions implemented to mitigate those risks.[37]\n\nSee also \nDNP3&#160;\u2013 Computer network protocol\nIEC 60870\nEPICS&#160;\u2013 Software infrastructure for building distributed control systems\nReferences \n\n\n^ Jeff Hieb (2008). Security Hardened Remote Terminal Units for SCADA Networks. University of Louisville. \n\n^ Aquino-Santos, Raul (30 November 2010). Emerging Technologies in Wireless Ad-hoc Networks: Applications and Future Development: Applications and Future Development. IGI Global. pp.&#160;43\u2013. ISBN&#160;978-1-60960-029-7. \n\n^ \"Introduction to Industrial Control Networks\" (PDF) . IEEE Communications Surveys and Tutorials. 2012. \n\n^ Bergan, Christian (August 2011). \"Demystifying Satellite for the Smart Grid: Four Common Misconceptions\". Electric Light &amp; Power. Utility Automation &amp; Engineering T&amp;D. Tulsa, OK: PennWell. 16 (8). Four. Archived from the original on 31 March 2012. Retrieved 2 May 2012 . satellite is a cost-effective and secure solution that can provide backup communications and easily support core smart grid applications like SCADA, telemetry, AMI backhaul and distribution automation \n\n^ OFFICE OF THE MANAGER NATIONAL COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMctober 2004. \"Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) Systems\" (PDF) . NATIONAL COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 July 2015. Retrieved 14 July 2015 . {{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_web\" title=\"Template:Cite web\">cite web<\/a>}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) \n\n^ \"SCADA Systems april 2014\". \n\n^ J. Russel. \"A Brief History of SCADA\/EMS (2015)\". Archived from the original on 11 August 2015. \n\n^ Abbas, H.A. (2014). Future SCADA challenges and the promising solution: the agent-based SCADA. IJCIS, 10, 307-333. \n\n^ Security Hardened Remote Terminal Units for SCADA Networks. 2008. pp.&#160;12\u2013. ISBN&#160;978-0-549-54831-7. \n\n^ UJVAROSI1, Alexandru (2 November 2016). \"EVOLUTION OF SCADA SYSTEMS\" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 October 2021. {{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_web\" title=\"Template:Cite web\">cite web<\/a>}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) \n\n^ R. Fan, L. Cheded and O. Toker, \"Internet-based SCADA: a new approach using Java and XML,\" in Computing &amp; Control Engineering Journal, vol. 16, no. 5, pp. 22-26, Oct.-Nov. 2005. \n\n^ R. J. Robles and T. H. Kim, \u201cArchitecture for SCADA with Mobile Remote Components\u201d, Proceedings of the 12th WSEAS International Conference on Automatic Control, Modelling &amp; Simulation. \n\n^ a b c Abbas, H.A. and Mohamed, A.M. (2011) \u2018Review in the design of web based SCADA systems based on OPC DA protocol\u2019, International Journal of Computer Networks, February, Vol. 2, No. 6, pp.266\u2013277, Malaysia. \n\n^ Qiu B, Gooi HB. Web-based scada display systems (wsds) for access via internet. Power Systems, IEEE Transactions on 2000;15(2):681\u2013686. \n\n^ Li D, Serizawa Y, Kiuchi M. Concept design for a web-based supervisory control and data-acquisition (scada) system. In: Transmission and Distribution Conference and Exhibition 2002: Asia Pacific. IEEE\/PES; Vol. 1; p. 32\u201336. \n\n^ Kovaliuk, D. O., Huza, K. M., &amp; Kovaliuk, O. O. (2018). Development of SCADA System based on Web Technologies. International Journal of Information Engineering and Electronic Business (IJIEEB), 10(2), 25-32. \n\n^ J. M. Lynch, \u201cAn Internet Based SCADA System\u201d, BSc Project Report, University of Southern Queensland, Queensland, Oct. 2005 \n\n^ Boyes, Walt (2011). Instrumentation Reference Book, 4th Edition. USA: Butterworth-Heinemann. p.&#160;27. ISBN&#160;978-0-7506-8308-1. \n\n^ Siggins, Morgana. \"14 Major SCADA Attacks and What You Can Learn From Them\". DPS Telecom. Retrieved 26 April 2021 . \n\n^ \"ICSA-11-231-01\u2014INDUCTIVE AUTOMATION IGNITION INFORMATION DISCLOSURE VULNERABILITY\" (PDF) . 19 August 2011. Retrieved 21 January 2013 . \n\n^ \"ICSA-11-094-01\u2014WONDERWARE INBATCH CLIENT ACTIVEX BUFFER OVERFLOW\" (PDF) . 13 April 2011. Retrieved 26 March 2013 . \n\n^ \"Cyberthreats, Vulnerabilities and Attacks on SCADA Networks\" (PDF) . Rosa Tang, berkeley.edu. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 August 2012. Retrieved 1 August 2012 . \n\n^ D. Maynor and R. Graham (2006). \"SCADA Security and Terrorism: We're Not Crying Wolf\" (PDF) . \n\n^ Robert Lemos (26 July 2006). \"SCADA system makers pushed toward security\". SecurityFocus. Retrieved 9 May 2007 . \n\n^ \"Industrial Security Best Practices\" (PDF) . Rockwell Automation. Retrieved 26 March 2013 . \n\n^ Giani, A.; Sastry, S.; Johansson, H.; Sandberg, H. (2009). \"The VIKING project: An initiative on resilient control of power networks\". 2009 2nd International Symposium on Resilient Control Systems. IEEE. pp.&#160;31\u201335. doi:10.1109\/ISRCS.2009.5251361. ISBN&#160;978-1-4244-4853-1. S2CID&#160;14917254. \n\n^ Liu, Y.; Ning, P.; Reiter, MK. (May 2011). \"False Data Injection Attacks against State Estimation in Electric Power Grids\". ACM Transactions on Information and System Security. Vol.&#160;14. Association for Computing Machinery. pp.&#160;1\u201333. doi:10.1145\/1952982.1952995. S2CID&#160;2305736. \n\n^ Slay, J.; Miller, M. (November 2007). \"Chpt 6: Lessons Learned from the Maroochy Water Breach\". Critical infrastructure protection (Online-Ausg.&#160;ed.). Springer Boston. pp.&#160;73\u201382. doi:10.1007\/978-0-387-75462-8_6. ISBN&#160;978-0-387-75461-1. \n\n^ http:\/\/www.empcommission.org\/docs\/A2473-EMP_Commission-7MB.pdf[bare URL PDF ] \n\n^ \"Security for all\". InTech. June 2008. Retrieved 2 May 2012 . \n\n^ \"SCADA Security \u2013 Generic Electric Grid Malware Design\". Archived from the original on 7 January 2009. \n\n^ KEMA, Inc (November 2006). \"Substation Communications: Enabler of Automation\". Utilities Telecom Council. pp.&#160;3\u201321. Archived from the original on 3 November 2007. Retrieved 19 January 2022 . \n\n^ Mills, Elinor (21 July 2010). \"Details of the first-ever control system malware (FAQ)\". CNET. Retrieved 21 July 2010 . \n\n^ \"SIMATIC WinCC \/ SIMATIC PCS 7: Information concerning Malware \/ Virus \/ Trojan\". Siemens. 21 July 2010. Retrieved 22 July 2010 . malware (trojan) which affects the visualization system WinCC SCADA. \n\n^ \"Siemens: Stuxnet worm hit industrial systems\". Archived from the original on 25 May 2012. Retrieved 16 September 2010 . \n\n^ \"American Blackout\". National Geographic Channel. Archived from the original on 13 March 2015. Retrieved 14 October 2016 . \n\n^ Boyer, Stuart A. (2010). SCADA Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition. USA: ISA - International Society of Automation. p.&#160;179. ISBN&#160;978-1-936007-09-7. \n\n\nExternal links \n\n\n \nWikimedia Commons has media related to SCADA .\n\nUK SCADA security guidelines\nBBC NEWS | Technology | Spies 'infiltrate US power grid'\nAuthority control databases: National \nGermany \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/SCADA\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/SCADA<\/a>\nCategories: Automation and artificial intelligenceSoftware and hardware termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 12 June 2022, at 14:35.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 8,303 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","2e9d1c3a7073bee59b3d3b6e5aca466d_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-SCADA rootpage-SCADA skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">SCADA<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Control system architecture for supervision of machines and processes<\/div>\n\n<table class=\"sidebar nomobile nowraplinks\" style=\"\"><tbody><tr><td class=\"sidebar-pretitle\">Part of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Secondary_sector_of_the_economy\" title=\"Category:Secondary sector of the economy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8738f5908a3d26c370b92dae6a7fd74e\">a series<\/a> of articles on<\/td><\/tr><tr><th class=\"sidebar-title-with-pretitle\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_industry\" title=\"Machine industry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"87b43a64fdde8fb9931765745f0f4b30\">Machine industry<\/a><\/th><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-image\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Factory.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"Mill\" data-key=\"d351a635bebbc6ee8dd434d1fff2b504\"><img alt=\"Mill\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/a\/a2\/Factory.svg\/100px-Factory.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"100\" height=\"87\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td><\/tr><tr><th class=\"sidebar-heading\">\nManufacturing methods<\/th><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Batch_production\" title=\"Batch production\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b2a7d36847ccfae344ebe6c2f63991d\">Batch production<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Job_production\" title=\"Job production\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f2028953f5b5c6b0a521c118d0cd714c\">Job production<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mass_production\" title=\"Mass production\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0942146b8f1674b633f30d7b5194e86c\">Flow production<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lean_manufacturing\" title=\"Lean manufacturing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4b188b1c560ee0ed6744b64fbdcfd8a8\">Lean manufacturing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Agile_manufacturing\" title=\"Agile manufacturing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"59c533647305e8767f2867b7a2776c53\">Agile manufacturing<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><th class=\"sidebar-heading\">\nIndustrial technologies<\/th><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Product_lifecycle\" title=\"Product lifecycle\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aa4f586aeb46599f41d6c16fd937e59f\">PLM<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reliability-centered_maintenance\" title=\"Reliability-centered maintenance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f9bdc28d169c4fc55d738e1912b43a07\">RCM<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Total_productive_maintenance\" title=\"Total productive maintenance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"97d8e2af12f3270c150b261e5740732b\">TPM<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Value-driven_maintenance\" title=\"Value-driven maintenance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"03343f05a686b7469d2132a830229cb3\">VDM<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quick_response_manufacturing\" title=\"Quick response manufacturing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6d5f32c06a600564186ad90b1dac933b\">QRM<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Theory_of_constraints\" title=\"Theory of constraints\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cec1750193750c7522c6c87cd1760d4c\">TOC<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Six_Sigma\" title=\"Six Sigma\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0be577435c2e3aecd2fbb7a226eb9558\">Six Sigma<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Total_quality_management\" title=\"Total quality management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d7ff8974e0ed3e523301170d7548c0c5\">TQM<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Zero_Defects\" title=\"Zero Defects\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"029d294bd8ef6e319db7e29423c0c272\">ZD<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><th class=\"sidebar-heading\">\nInformation and communication<\/th><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISA-88\" title=\"ISA-88\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"55e12cf2a731e0e7b2ac05571a4eecf2\">ISA-88<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ANSI\/ISA-95\" title=\"ANSI\/ISA-95\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea52a70bb98c751624c2fe83fe4fe637\">ISA-95<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_resource_planning\" title=\"Enterprise resource planning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"850b202e706427b4bdd62fd8c05e7c80\">ERP<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IEC_62264\" title=\"IEC 62264\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8e8af4df7e24d159947ef68c6cde919b\">IEC 62264<\/a><\/li>\n<li>B2MML<\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><th class=\"sidebar-heading\">\nProcess control<\/th><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Programmable_logic_controller\" title=\"Programmable logic controller\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3fdc9aaee22e550e6104618c6d3a34bf\">PLC<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_control_system\" title=\"Distributed control system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"77be10c62739469e9e86f0aefca144a9\">DCS<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a class=\"mw-selflink selflink\">SCADA<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-navbar\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p><b>SCADA<\/b> (<b>Supervisory control and data acquisition<\/b>) is a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Control_system\" title=\"Control system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1de85e21d2395f64ea337c4e8194d71\">control system<\/a> architecture comprising <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer\" title=\"Computer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"90ce149db23a6fc17d1d225fac611846\">computers<\/a>, networked data communications and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Graphical_user_interface\" title=\"Graphical user interface\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8d175c82419cd6c13f710e9a4be77e8c\">graphical user interfaces<\/a> for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/High-level\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"High-level\" data-key=\"5530ec5d57cf8ae63e60239b3809481e\">high-level<\/a> supervision of machines and processes. It also covers sensors and other devices, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Programmable_logic_controller\" title=\"Programmable logic controller\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3fdc9aaee22e550e6104618c6d3a34bf\">programmable logic controllers<\/a>, which interface with process plant or machinery.\n<\/p><p>The operator interfaces which enable monitoring and the issuing of process commands, like controller set point changes, are handled through the SCADA computer system. The subordinated operations, e.g. the real-time control logic or controller calculations, are performed by networked modules connected to the field <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sensor\" title=\"Sensor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f309353c1f8a54286958707160bba6d\">sensors<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Actuators\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Actuators\" data-key=\"ac0ed144c0f5272f9883d48d3e134560\">actuators<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>The SCADA concept was developed to be a universal means of remote-access to a variety of local control modules, which could be from different manufacturers and allowing access through standard automation <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_automation_protocols\" title=\"List of automation protocols\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60f488306d138b9861061723cc450457\">protocols<\/a>. In practice, large SCADA systems have grown to become very similar to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_control_system\" title=\"Distributed control system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"77be10c62739469e9e86f0aefca144a9\">distributed control systems<\/a> in function, while using multiple means of interfacing with the plant. They can control large-scale processes that can include multiple sites, and work over large distances as well as small distance. It is one of the most commonly-used types of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Industrial_control_system\" title=\"Industrial control system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7097366ddc1f8c002dc0cf5e764769df\">industrial control systems<\/a>, in spite of concerns about SCADA systems being vulnerable to cyberwarfare\/cyberterrorism attacks.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2021)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Control_operations\">Control operations<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Functional_levels_of_a_Distributed_Control_System.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"468654e5bb47b08aaa43f5a85599d5c7\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/1\/10\/Functional_levels_of_a_Distributed_Control_System.svg\/500px-Functional_levels_of_a_Distributed_Control_System.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"mw-file-element\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Functional levels of a manufacturing control operation<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>The key attribute of a SCADA system is its ability to perform a supervisory operation over a variety of other proprietary devices.\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Level 0 contains the field devices such as flow and temperature sensors, and final control elements, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Control_valve\" title=\"Control valve\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c76c0213cf3ad86e102e79d75132ca9\">control valves<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>Level 1 contains the industrialised input\/output (I\/O) modules, and their associated distributed electronic processors.<\/li>\n<li>Level 2 contains the supervisory computers, which collate information from processor nodes on the system, and provide the operator control screens.<\/li>\n<li>Level 3 is the production control level, which does not directly control the process, but is concerned with monitoring production and targets.<\/li>\n<li>Level 4 is the production scheduling level.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Level 1 contains the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Programmable_logic_controller\" title=\"Programmable logic controller\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3fdc9aaee22e550e6104618c6d3a34bf\">programmable logic controllers<\/a> (PLCs) or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_terminal_unit\" title=\"Remote terminal unit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"882bfdd118491b79f02a4532b92383a6\">remote terminal units<\/a> (RTUs).\n<\/p><p>Level 2 contains the SCADA to readings and equipment status reports that are communicated to level 2 SCADA as required. Data is then compiled and formatted in such a way that a control room operator using the HMI (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_Machine_Interface\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Human Machine Interface\" data-key=\"1521262d0526ed3aa3ba74728dff4a8e\">Human Machine Interface<\/a>) can make supervisory decisions to adjust or override normal RTU (PLC) controls. Data may also be fed to a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operational_historian\" title=\"Operational historian\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"39ba116c50252703fc2cce894a97975f\">historian<\/a>, often built on a commodity <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database_management_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Database management system\" data-key=\"824748614afaae7c7e98b483b4aee777\">database management system<\/a>, to allow trending and other analytical auditing.\n<\/p><p>SCADA systems typically use a <i>tag database<\/i>, which contains data elements called <i>tags<\/i> or <i>points<\/i>, which relate to specific instrumentation or actuators within the process system. Data is accumulated against these unique process control equipment tag references.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Components\">Components<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Scada_std_anim_no_lang.gif\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"d98c0dff772fac7bcad7ff7acfe666b8\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/8\/88\/Scada_std_anim_no_lang.gif\/220px-Scada_std_anim_no_lang.gif\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"157\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Typical SCADA mimic shown as an animation. For process plants, these are based upon the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Piping_and_instrumentation_diagram\" title=\"Piping and instrumentation diagram\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01f7fe804abadbb882e52dbd16026b49\">piping and instrumentation diagram<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><span><video id=\"rdp-ebb-mwe_player_0\" poster=\"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/d\/d8\/Scada_Animation.ogv\/220px--Scada_Animation.ogv.jpg\" controls=\"\" preload=\"none\" class=\"mw-file-element\" width=\"220\" height=\"126\" data-durationhint=\"64\" data-mwtitle=\"Scada_Animation.ogv\" data-mwprovider=\"wikimediacommons\" resource=\"\/wiki\/File:Scada_Animation.ogv\"><source src=\"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/d\/d8\/Scada_Animation.ogv\/Scada_Animation.ogv.480p.vp9.webm\" type=\"video\/webm; codecs=&quot;vp9, opus&quot;\" data-transcodekey=\"480p.vp9.webm\" data-width=\"838\" data-height=\"480\" \/><source src=\"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/d\/d8\/Scada_Animation.ogv\" type=\"video\/ogg; codecs=&quot;theora&quot;\" data-width=\"960\" data-height=\"550\" \/><source src=\"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/d\/d8\/Scada_Animation.ogv\/Scada_Animation.ogv.240p.vp9.webm\" type=\"video\/webm; codecs=&quot;vp9, opus&quot;\" data-transcodekey=\"240p.vp9.webm\" data-width=\"418\" data-height=\"240\" \/><source src=\"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/d\/d8\/Scada_Animation.ogv\/Scada_Animation.ogv.m3u8\" type=\"application\/vnd.apple.mpegurl\" data-transcodekey=\"m3u8\" data-width=\"418\" data-height=\"240\" \/><source src=\"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/d\/d8\/Scada_Animation.ogv\/Scada_Animation.ogv.360p.vp9.webm\" type=\"video\/webm; codecs=&quot;vp9, opus&quot;\" data-transcodekey=\"360p.vp9.webm\" data-width=\"628\" data-height=\"360\" \/><source src=\"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/d\/d8\/Scada_Animation.ogv\/Scada_Animation.ogv.360p.webm\" type=\"video\/webm; codecs=&quot;vp8, vorbis&quot;\" data-transcodekey=\"360p.webm\" data-width=\"628\" data-height=\"360\" \/><\/video><\/span><figcaption>More complex SCADA animation showing control of four batch cookers<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>A SCADA system usually consists of the following main elements:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dt>Supervisory computers<\/dt>\n<dd>This is the core of the SCADA system, gathering data on the process and sending control commands to the field connected devices. It refers to the computer and software responsible for communicating with the field connection controllers, which are RTUs and PLCs, and includes the HMI software running on operator workstations. In smaller SCADA systems, the supervisory computer may be composed of a single PC, in which case the HMI is a part of this computer. In larger SCADA systems, the master station may include several HMIs hosted on client computers, multiple servers for data acquisition, distributed software applications, and disaster recovery sites. To increase the integrity of the system the multiple servers will often be configured in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dual_modular_redundancy\" title=\"Dual modular redundancy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8c4092737f9e2c96a615aa5e5421a31a\">dual-redundant<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hot_spare\" title=\"Hot spare\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cff8ae8c52b2cc2a87ac89f2a23ed5c4\">hot-standby<\/a> formation providing continuous control and monitoring in the event of a server malfunction or breakdown.<\/dd>\n<dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_terminal_unit\" title=\"Remote terminal unit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"882bfdd118491b79f02a4532b92383a6\">Remote terminal units<\/a><\/dt>\n<dd>RTUs<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Hieb2008_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Hieb2008-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> connect to sensors and actuators in the process, and are networked to the supervisory computer system. RTUs have embedded control capabilities and often conform to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IEC_61131-3\" title=\"IEC 61131-3\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1d89c32d05b417e5ae2fee75a6f8b51e\">IEC 61131-3<\/a> standard for programming and support automation via <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ladder_logic\" title=\"Ladder logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1232cf9dbdaf33ef0f07680000d09691\">ladder logic<\/a>, a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Function_block_diagram\" title=\"Function block diagram\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ea6600caf3c9543a9b143590ffac91e\">function block diagram<\/a> or a variety of other languages. Remote locations often have little or no local infrastructure so it is not uncommon to find RTUs running off a small <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Solar_power\" title=\"Solar power\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43c50e554521e0a9f9c0f1c631605ae8\">solar power<\/a> system, using radio, GSM or satellite for communications, and being ruggedised to survive from -20C to +70C or even -40C to +85C without external heating or cooling equipment.<\/dd>\n<dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Programmable_logic_controller\" title=\"Programmable logic controller\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3fdc9aaee22e550e6104618c6d3a34bf\">Programmable logic controllers<\/a><\/dt>\n<dd>PLCs are connected to sensors and actuators in the process, and are networked to the supervisory system. In factory automation, PLCs typically have a high speed connection to the SCADA system. In remote applications, such as a large water treatment plant, PLCs may connect directly to SCADA over a wireless link, or more commonly, utilise an RTU for the communications management. PLCs are specifically designed for control and were the founding platform for the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IEC_61131-3\" title=\"IEC 61131-3\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1d89c32d05b417e5ae2fee75a6f8b51e\">IEC 61131-3<\/a> programming languages. For economical reasons, PLCs are often used for remote sites where there is a large I\/O count, rather than utilising an RTU alone.<\/dd>\n<dt>Communication infrastructure<\/dt>\n<dd>This connects the supervisory computer system to the RTUs and PLCs, and may use industry standard or manufacturer proprietary protocols. Both RTUs and PLCs operate autonomously on the near-real time control of the process, using the last command given from the supervisory system. Failure of the communications network does not necessarily stop the plant process controls, and on resumption of communications, the operator can continue with monitoring and control. Some critical systems will have dual redundant data highways, often cabled via diverse routes.<\/dd>\n<dt>Human-machine interface<\/dt>\n<dd>The HMI is the operator window of the supervisory system. It presents plant information to the operating personnel graphically in the form of mimic diagrams, which are a schematic representation of the plant being controlled, and alarm and event logging pages. The HMI is linked to the SCADA supervisory computer to provide live data to drive the mimic diagrams, alarm displays and trending graphs. In many installations the HMI is the graphical user interface for the operator, collects all data from external devices, creates reports, performs alarming, sends notifications, etc. Mimic diagrams consist of line graphics and schematic symbols to represent process elements, or may consist of digital photographs of the process equipment overlain with animated symbols. Supervisory operation of the plant is by means of the HMI, with operators issuing commands using mouse pointers, keyboards and touch screens. For example, a symbol of a pump can show the operator that the pump is running, and a flow meter symbol can show how much fluid it is pumping through the pipe. The operator can switch the pump off from the mimic by a mouse click or screen touch. The HMI will show the flow rate of the fluid in the pipe decrease in real time. The HMI package for a SCADA system typically includes a drawing program that the operators or system maintenance personnel use to change the way these points are represented in the interface. These representations can be as simple as an on-screen traffic light, which represents the state of an actual traffic light in the field, or as complex as a multi-projector display representing the position of all of the elevators in a skyscraper or all of the trains on a railway. A <i>historian<\/i> is a software service within the HMI which accumulates time-stamped data, events, and alarms in a database which can be queried or used to populate graphic trends in the HMI. The historian is a client that requests data from a data acquisition server.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Raul2010_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Raul2010-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd><\/dl>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Alarm_handling\">Alarm handling<\/span><\/h2>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alarm_management\" title=\"Alarm management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c13ec479d0cec16e299d0a71dc7d98d5\">Alarm management<\/a><\/div>\n<p>An important part of most SCADA implementations is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alarm_management\" title=\"Alarm management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c13ec479d0cec16e299d0a71dc7d98d5\">alarm handling<\/a>. The system monitors whether certain alarm conditions are satisfied, to determine when an alarm event has occurred. Once an alarm event has been detected, one or more actions are taken (such as the activation of one or more alarm indicators, and perhaps the generation of email or text messages so that management or remote SCADA operators are informed). In many cases, a SCADA operator may have to acknowledge the alarm event; this may deactivate some alarm indicators, whereas other indicators remain active until the alarm conditions are cleared.\n<\/p><p>Alarm conditions can be explicit\u2014for example, an alarm point is a digital status point that has either the value NORMAL or ALARM that is calculated by a formula based on the values in other analogue and digital points\u2014or implicit: the SCADA system might automatically monitor whether the value in an analogue point lies outside high and low- limit values associated with that point.\n<\/p><p>Examples of alarm indicators include a siren, a pop-up box on a screen, or a coloured or flashing area on a screen (that might act in a similar way to the \"fuel tank empty\" light in a car); in each case, the role of the alarm indicator is to draw the operator's attention to the part of the system 'in alarm' so that appropriate action can be taken.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-PLC.2FRTU_programming\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"PLC\/RTU_programming\">PLC\/RTU programming<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>\"Smart\" RTUs, or standard PLCs, are capable of autonomously executing simple logic processes without involving the supervisory computer. They employ standardized control programming languages such as under, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IEC_61131-3\" title=\"IEC 61131-3\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1d89c32d05b417e5ae2fee75a6f8b51e\">IEC 61131-3<\/a> (a suite of five programming languages including function block, ladder, structured text, sequence function charts and instruction list), is frequently used to create programs which run on these RTUs and PLCs. Unlike a procedural language like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/C_(programming_language)\" title=\"C (programming language)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1bcae5a7bc976642e1a629835ef2d576\">C<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/FORTRAN\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"FORTRAN\" data-key=\"79813ce51e7eccde64a30a7e90acf3c1\">FORTRAN<\/a>, IEC 61131-3 has minimal training requirements by virtue of resembling historic physical control arrays. This allows SCADA system engineers to perform both the design and implementation of a program to be executed on an RTU or PLC.\n<\/p><p>A (PAC) is a compact controller that combines the features and capabilities of a PC-based control system with that of a typical PLC. PACs are deployed in SCADA systems to provide RTU and PLC functions. In many electrical substation SCADA applications, \"distributed RTUs\" use information processors or station computers to communicate with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_protective_relay\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Digital protective relay\" data-key=\"5d14c5a13d41d3b780d17e7ee0ffb227\">digital protective relays<\/a>, PACs, and other devices for I\/O, and communicate with the SCADA master in lieu of a traditional RTU.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"PLC_commercial_integration\">PLC commercial integration<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Since about 1998, virtually all major PLC manufacturers have offered integrated HMI\/SCADA systems, many of them using open and non-proprietary communications protocols. Numerous specialized third-party HMI\/SCADA packages, offering built-in compatibility with most major PLCs, have also entered the market, allowing mechanical engineers, electrical engineers and technicians to configure HMIs themselves, without the need for a custom-made program written by a software programmer. The Remote Terminal Unit (RTU) connects to physical equipment. Typically, an RTU converts the electrical signals from the equipment to digital values. By converting and sending these electrical signals out to equipment the RTU can control equipment.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Communication_infrastructure_and_methods\">Communication infrastructure and methods<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>SCADA systems have traditionally used combinations of radio and direct wired connections, although <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Synchronous_optical_networking\" title=\"Synchronous optical networking\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"977937a300fd1c61ae940129c72c5c86\">SONET\/SDH<\/a> is also frequently used for large systems such as railways and power stations. The remote management or monitoring function of a SCADA system is often referred to as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Telemetry\" title=\"Telemetry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c545b141a6ba0ffe8a862c83b5264e29\">telemetry<\/a>. Some users want SCADA data to travel over their pre-established corporate networks or to share the network with other applications. The legacy of the early low-bandwidth protocols remains, though.\n<\/p><p>SCADA protocols are designed to be very compact. Many are designed to send information only when the master station polls the RTU. Typical legacy SCADA protocols include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modbus\" title=\"Modbus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"08a97b574bdc2660de15a9f4ad46712f\">Modbus<\/a> RTU, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/RP-570\" title=\"RP-570\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"965549dc43783510194f0a94dfac47ed\">RP-570<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Profibus\" title=\"Profibus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d166d7664ea6cb0b593963fc9c72026d\">Profibus<\/a> and Conitel. These communication protocols, with the exception of Modbus (Modbus has been made open by Schneider Electric), are all SCADA-vendor specific but are widely adopted and used. Standard protocols are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IEC_60870-5\" title=\"IEC 60870-5\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0f1204de617ada7950f626eda8ad019b\">IEC 60870-5-101 or 104<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IEC_61850\" title=\"IEC 61850\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fedb4e9db17d9997b0fedd63167a893a\">IEC 61850<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DNP3\" title=\"DNP3\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"10675409723204c80ee1bf2dcff659bc\">DNP3<\/a>. These communication protocols are standardized and recognized by all major SCADA vendors. Many of these protocols now contain extensions to operate over <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/TCP\/IP\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"TCP\/IP\" data-key=\"84b18b48751f58d72e97090dd52bdf15\">TCP\/IP<\/a>. Although the use of conventional networking specifications, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/TCP\/IP\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"TCP\/IP\" data-key=\"84b18b48751f58d72e97090dd52bdf15\">TCP\/IP<\/a>, blurs the line between traditional and industrial networking, they each fulfill fundamentally differing requirements.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GallowayIntro_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GallowayIntro-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Network_simulation\" title=\"Network simulation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"893b65707a026a3baf68c9eea352f2ac\">Network simulation<\/a> can be used in conjunction with SCADA simulators to perform various 'what-if' analyses.\n<\/p><p>With increasing security demands (such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/North_American_Electric_Reliability_Corporation\" title=\"North American Electric Reliability Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"da052fa8735d2287a614a023d243371b\">North American Electric Reliability Corporation<\/a> (NERC) and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Critical_infrastructure_protection\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Critical infrastructure protection\" data-key=\"a6b3ba829d3402be1f3cf04c4af22ffd\">critical infrastructure protection<\/a> (CIP) in the US), there is increasing use of satellite-based communication. This has the key advantages that the infrastructure can be self-contained (not using circuits from the public telephone system), can have built-in encryption, and can be engineered to the availability and reliability required by the SCADA system operator. Earlier experiences using consumer-grade <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Very-small-aperture_terminal\" title=\"Very-small-aperture terminal\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d54206de9b90854e5642c23c1dab6de3\">VSAT<\/a> were poor. Modern carrier-class systems provide the quality of service required for SCADA.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-berganELP_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-berganELP-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>RTUs and other automatic controller devices were developed before the advent of industry wide standards for interoperability. The result is that developers and their management created a multitude of control protocols. Among the larger vendors, there was also the incentive to create their own protocol to \"lock in\" their customer base. A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_automation_protocols\" title=\"List of automation protocols\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60f488306d138b9861061723cc450457\">list of automation protocols<\/a> is compiled here.\n<\/p><p>An example of efforts by vendor groups to standardize automation protocols is the OPC-UA (formerly \"OLE for process control\" now <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OPC_Unified_Architecture\" title=\"OPC Unified Architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afc8b7d4d184c186dd32e73415cb9975\">Open Platform Communications Unified Architecture<\/a>).\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Architecture_development\">Architecture development<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:SCADA_C4ISR_Facilities.pdf\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"5e19474ef2e29b387f387b2db4e3fa26\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/d\/de\/SCADA_C4ISR_Facilities.pdf\/page1-220px-SCADA_C4ISR_Facilities.pdf.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"285\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_Army\" title=\"United States Army\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4953a7376db554b7dca4567931273f6b\">United States Army<\/a>'s Training Manual 5-601 covers \"SCADA Systems for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/C4ISTAR\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"C4ISTAR\" data-key=\"19355e088b0f8961384bab9e3abbc2c3\">C4ISR<\/a> Facilities\"<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>SCADA systems have evolved through four generations as follows:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Early SCADA system computing was done by large <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Minicomputers\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Minicomputers\" data-key=\"cf25015b95746267574051d3bec5e722\">minicomputers<\/a>. Common network services did not exist at the time SCADA was developed. Thus SCADA systems were independent systems with no connectivity to other systems. The communication protocols used were strictly proprietary at that time. The first-generation SCADA system redundancy was achieved using a back-up mainframe system connected to all the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_Terminal_Unit\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Remote Terminal Unit\" data-key=\"e44d4a867bdfd25535353fea456bcd07\">Remote Terminal Unit<\/a> sites and was used in the event of failure of the primary mainframe system.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Proquest-text_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Proquest-text-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> Some first generation SCADA systems were developed as \"turn key\" operations that ran on minicomputers such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PDP-11\" title=\"PDP-11\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2f35b800e752418a9aa72ddfdd7d3d9d\">PDP-11<\/a> series.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>SCADA information and command processing were distributed across multiple stations which were connected through a LAN. Information was shared in near real time. Each station was responsible for a particular task, which reduced the cost as compared to First Generation SCADA. The network protocols used were still not standardized. Since these protocols were proprietary, very few people beyond the developers knew enough to determine how secure a SCADA installation was. Security of the SCADA installation was usually overlooked.\n<\/p><p>Similar to a distributed architecture, any complex SCADA can be reduced to the simplest components and connected through communication protocols. In the case of a networked design, the system may be spread across more than one LAN network called a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Process_control_network\" title=\"Process control network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8b829bfaa002f65e7524cce14a8a85d5\">process control network (PCN)<\/a> and separated geographically. Several distributed architecture SCADAs running in parallel, with a single supervisor and historian, could be considered a network architecture. This allows for a more cost-effective solution in very large scale systems.\n<\/p><p>The growth of the internet has led SCADA systems to implement web technologies allowing users to view data, exchange information and control processes from anywhere in the world through web SOCKET connection.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> The early 2000s saw the proliferation of Web SCADA systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-web_SCADA_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-web_SCADA-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> Web SCADA systems use internet browsers such as Google Chrome and Mozilla Firefox as the graphical user interface (GUI) for the operators HMI.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-web_SCADA_13-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-web_SCADA-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> This simplifies the client side installation and enables users to access the system from various platforms with web browsers such as servers, personal computers, laptops, tablets and mobile phones.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-web_SCADA_13-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-web_SCADA-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Security\">Security<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>SCADA systems that tie together decentralized facilities such as power, oil, gas pipelines, water distribution and wastewater collection systems were designed to be open, robust, and easily operated and repaired, but not necessarily secure.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> The move from proprietary technologies to more standardized and open solutions together with the increased number of connections between SCADA systems, office networks and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet\" title=\"Internet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"785db8f45a1d954b8b828e881da99594\">Internet<\/a> has made them more vulnerable to types of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Attack_(computing)#Types_of_attacks\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Attack (computing)\" data-key=\"6964a3614cad6662efd5d883e5e7941b\">network attacks<\/a> that are relatively common in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_security\" title=\"Computer security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5c2aa75aadd7f77c4f5ad26205c4c77b\">computer security<\/a>. For example, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ICS-CERT\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ICS-CERT\" data-key=\"ce1609ce86367899ef66cee3704d0a51\">United States Computer Emergency Readiness Team (US-CERT)<\/a> released a vulnerability advisory<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> warning that unauthenticated users could download sensitive configuration information including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptographic_hash_function#File_or_data_identifier\" title=\"Cryptographic hash function\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f5c25925a33237b6c45563894e641285\">password hashes<\/a> from an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inductive_Automation\" title=\"Inductive Automation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"23ee915cbddf0bfc7476dca42b0a38ff\">Inductive Automation<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ignition_SCADA\" title=\"Ignition SCADA\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce69a68e3015c106e4fca4e831ea5da1\">Ignition<\/a> system utilizing a standard <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantic_URL_attack\" title=\"Semantic URL attack\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3b7544f795f8586bb109031931834a99\">attack type<\/a> leveraging access to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apache_Tomcat\" title=\"Apache Tomcat\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"41ea5a3dd693b864ae027cd3a522c68e\">Tomcat<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Embedded_Web_server\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Embedded Web server\" data-key=\"0b5a71aafba0a8f345ca08daa2a72e6a\">Embedded Web server<\/a>. Security researcher Jerry Brown submitted a similar advisory regarding a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Buffer_overflow\" title=\"Buffer overflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bf438fc270f1a494ade76df74757bc25\">buffer overflow<\/a> vulnerability<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup> in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wonderware\" title=\"Wonderware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"19933cbb00a67868ad127e4d23a40c6d\">Wonderware<\/a> InBatchClient <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ActiveX_control\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ActiveX control\" data-key=\"6307d39d351807bc755b9f5b5d341c59\">ActiveX control<\/a>. Both vendors made updates available prior to public vulnerability release. Mitigation recommendations were standard <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_patching\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Software patching\" data-key=\"48308dee8493b5a6786740a94d4981f3\">patching<\/a> practices and requiring <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/VPN\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"VPN\" data-key=\"2fedc043829d288ebbac275ab418a4e9\">VPN<\/a> access for secure connectivity. Consequently, the security of some SCADA-based systems has come into question as they are seen as potentially vulnerable to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyber_attack\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cyber attack\" data-key=\"eb26486672f040020bd5dde1e7407979\">cyber attacks<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NGF-CA-GT-01_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NGF-CA-GT-01-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In particular, security researchers are concerned about:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>The lack of concern about security and authentication in the design, deployment and operation of some existing SCADA networks<\/li>\n<li>The belief that SCADA systems have the benefit of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_through_obscurity\" title=\"Security through obscurity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0115ebd38ed59692a7d35d9af2553c78\">security through obscurity<\/a> through the use of specialized protocols and proprietary interfaces<\/li>\n<li>The belief that SCADA networks are secure because they are physically secured<\/li>\n<li>The belief that SCADA networks are secure because they are disconnected from the Internet<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>SCADA systems are used to control and monitor physical processes, examples of which are transmission of electricity, transportation of gas and oil in pipelines, water distribution, traffic lights, and other systems used as the basis of modern society. The security of these SCADA systems is important because compromise or destruction of these systems would impact multiple areas of society far removed from the original compromise. For example, a blackout caused by a compromised electrical SCADA system would cause financial losses to all the customers that received electricity from that source. How security will affect legacy SCADA and new deployments remains to be seen.\n<\/p><p>There are many threat vectors to a modern SCADA system. One is the threat of unauthorized access to the control software, whether it is human access or changes induced intentionally or accidentally by virus infections and other software threats residing on the control host machine. Another is the threat of packet access to the network segments hosting SCADA devices. In many cases, the control protocol lacks any form of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptography\" title=\"Cryptography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62b04254e6577239d817b9eb81a22073\">cryptographic security<\/a>, allowing an attacker to control a SCADA device by sending commands over a network. In many cases SCADA users have assumed that having a VPN offered sufficient protection, unaware that security can be trivially bypassed with physical access to SCADA-related network jacks and switches. Industrial control vendors suggest approaching SCADA security like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_security\" title=\"Information security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f71a603755a900e335af2b5cfacd0cfc\">Information Security<\/a> with a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Defense_in_depth#Information_security\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Defense in depth\" data-key=\"d0219bad546db334e635385cdd7faf97\">defense in depth<\/a> strategy that leverages common IT practices.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-25\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup> Apart from that, research has shown that the architecture of SCADA systems has several other vulnerabilities, including direct tampering with RTUs, communication links from RTUs to the control center, and IT software and databases in the control center.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GianiSastry_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GianiSastry-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup> The RTUs could, for instance, be targets of deception attacks injecting false data <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LiuNing_27-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LiuNing-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Denial-of-service_attack\" title=\"Denial-of-service attack\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60592f037a0652dd16c640127be8ca89\">denial-of-service attacks<\/a>. \n<\/p><p>The reliable function of SCADA systems in our modern infrastructure may be crucial to public health and safety. As such, attacks on these systems may directly or indirectly threaten public health and safety. Such an attack has already occurred, carried out on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shire_of_Maroochy\" title=\"Shire of Maroochy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b6d5da163fa061033b89257efa22ddd6\">Maroochy Shire<\/a> Council's sewage control system in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Queensland\" title=\"Queensland\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"32fa9c15393acb2030b965b638664978\">Queensland<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Australia\" title=\"Australia\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9c2db49e6ded3da2c9ba98e453f9ea81\">Australia<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SlayMiller_28-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SlayMiller-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup> Shortly after a contractor installed a SCADA system in January 2000, system components began to function erratically. Pumps did not run when needed and alarms were not reported. More critically, sewage flooded a nearby park and contaminated an open surface-water drainage ditch and flowed 500 meters to a tidal canal. The SCADA system was directing sewage valves to open when the design protocol should have kept them closed. Initially this was believed to be a system bug. Monitoring of the system logs revealed the malfunctions were the result of cyber attacks. Investigators reported 46 separate instances of malicious outside interference before the culprit was identified. The attacks were made by a disgruntled ex-employee of the company that had installed the SCADA system. The ex-employee was hoping to be hired by the utility full-time to maintain the system.\n<\/p><p>In April 2008, the Commission to Assess the Threat to the United States from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electromagnetic_pulse\" title=\"Electromagnetic pulse\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0e8597cc3231bb63bb78ec3a6a808cde\">Electromagnetic Pulse<\/a> (EMP) Attack issued a Critical Infrastructures Report which discussed the extreme vulnerability of SCADA systems to an electromagnetic pulse (EMP) event. After testing and analysis, the Commission concluded: \"SCADA systems are vulnerable to an EMP event. The large numbers and widespread reliance on such systems by all of the Nation\u2019s critical infrastructures represent a systemic threat to their continued operation following an EMP event. Additionally, the necessity to reboot, repair, or replace large numbers of geographically widely dispersed systems will considerably impede the Nation\u2019s recovery from such an assault.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Critical_Infrastructures_Report,_Congressional_EMP_Commission,_2008_29-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Critical_Infrastructures_Report,_Congressional_EMP_Commission,_2008-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Many vendors of SCADA and control products have begun to address the risks posed by unauthorized access by developing lines of specialized industrial <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Firewall_(computing)\" title=\"Firewall (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"853725a035c106719dbf2660d8eca0b8\">firewall<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/VPN\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"VPN\" data-key=\"2fedc043829d288ebbac275ab418a4e9\">VPN<\/a> solutions for TCP\/IP-based SCADA networks as well as external SCADA monitoring and recording equipment.\n<\/p><p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Society_of_Automation\" title=\"International Society of Automation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1ff182414f4f7f4646636260fd3ac3d6\">International Society of Automation<\/a> (ISA) started formalizing SCADA security requirements in 2007 with a working group, WG4. WG4 \"deals specifically with unique technical requirements, measurements, and other features required to evaluate and assure security resilience and performance of industrial automation and control systems devices\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-InTechViaISA_30-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-InTechViaISA-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><p>The increased interest in SCADA vulnerabilities has resulted in vulnerability researchers discovering vulnerabilities in commercial SCADA software and more general offensive SCADA techniques presented to the general security community.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-31\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup> In electric and gas utility SCADA systems, the vulnerability of the large installed base of wired and wireless serial communications links is addressed in some cases by applying <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bump-in-the-wire\" title=\"Bump-in-the-wire\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c97060ef216749fc43e46a332f6acb75\">bump-in-the-wire<\/a> devices that employ authentication and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Advanced_Encryption_Standard\" title=\"Advanced Encryption Standard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0411feeb59e8eb26837d638e589e3fb6\">Advanced Encryption Standard<\/a> encryption rather than replacing all existing nodes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-32\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In June 2010, anti-virus security company <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vba32_AntiVirus\" title=\"Vba32 AntiVirus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"393ad14c8be8811d23678c9a26043577\">VirusBlokAda<\/a> reported the first detection of malware that attacks SCADA systems (Siemens' <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/WinCC\" title=\"WinCC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"03dcbe2993d0fdee8db7c92aa108fbd3\">WinCC<\/a>\/PCS 7 systems) running on Windows operating systems. The malware is called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stuxnet\" title=\"Stuxnet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7fe09aa4c27ed6a49567adfe2e873a0d\">Stuxnet<\/a> and uses four <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Zero-day_attack\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Zero-day attack\" data-key=\"0860a4fc3172685747936484b5e1e132\">zero-day attacks<\/a> to install a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rootkit\" title=\"Rootkit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a7793d0bd5b59ddf8ae3408cb4ba7e1b\">rootkit<\/a> which in turn logs into the SCADA's database and steals design and control files.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-33\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-34\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup> The malware is also capable of changing the control system and hiding those changes. The malware was found on 14 systems, the majority of which were located in Iran.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-35\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-35\">[35]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In October 2013 <i>National Geographic<\/i> released a docudrama titled <i>American Blackout<\/i> which dealt with an imagined large-scale cyber attack on SCADA and the United States' electrical grid.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-36\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Uses\">Uses<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Freer_Water_Control_and_Improvement_District_-_Diana_Adame.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"202d9c1da4a758086d87f55a99569dcd\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/fb\/Freer_Water_Control_and_Improvement_District_-_Diana_Adame.jpg\/220px-Freer_Water_Control_and_Improvement_District_-_Diana_Adame.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"146\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Example of SCADA used in office environment to remotely monitor a process<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>Both large and small systems can be built using the SCADA concept. These systems can range from just tens to thousands of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Control_loop\" title=\"Control loop\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8418ef4a8e592bc5027f4a562871f2d\">control loops<\/a>, depending on the application. Example processes include industrial, infrastructure, and facility-based processes, as described below:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Industrial_process\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Industrial process\" data-key=\"d9cdfe84733dd18d56b41060aa6b1d21\">Industrial processes<\/a> include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Manufacturing\" title=\"Manufacturing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6006bee4beb95438f126e392ca7941c7\">manufacturing<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Process_control\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Process control\" data-key=\"d54acfdf96b6148908918addebc4599d\">process control<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Power_generation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Power generation\" data-key=\"9b75c2cb2c0471ab660f002cf2602ce0\">power generation<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fabrication_(metal)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Fabrication (metal)\" data-key=\"6a3ba705deb22a29b797a5ec1075318d\">fabrication<\/a>, and refining, and may run in continuous, batch, repetitive, or discrete modes.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Infrastructure\" title=\"Infrastructure\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1bb70668db4564897263976d0920fec5\">Infrastructure<\/a> processes may be public or private, and include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Water_treatment\" title=\"Water treatment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01c5bdee79105707e542fc537884b7c7\">water treatment<\/a> and distribution, wastewater collection and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Waste_water_treatment\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Waste water treatment\" data-key=\"2669bfd7bb8ab9f1710fe0ff232ee43c\">treatment<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fossil_gas_pipeline\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Fossil gas pipeline\" data-key=\"6d442d53c068b8ac7660617fe76cfacd\">oil and gas pipelines<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electric_power_transmission\" title=\"Electric power transmission\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7fbf6feb5061cc7364cc11b7b3d8cab1\">electric power transmission<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electric_power_distribution\" title=\"Electric power distribution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96df69cefaf15aed56a711b0b0429d4b\">distribution<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wind_farm\" title=\"Wind farm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3890e79c5be3cee5d22b1eba5331aeba\">wind farms<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>Facility processes, including buildings, airports, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ship#Today\" title=\"Ship\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8b29dd8a33ba41c1b6927563c3690a3d\">ships<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Space_station\" title=\"Space station\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8d59a845d2ea7886f07e3ee2903e3aef\">space stations<\/a>. They monitor and control <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heating,_ventilation,_and_air_conditioning\" title=\"Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3668cf02b534a55f05c569594b227668\">heating, ventilation, and air conditioning<\/a> systems (HVAC), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Access_control\" title=\"Access control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f978f594d7eee9299dbb3da18ee80a8c\">access<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Efficient_energy_use\" title=\"Efficient energy use\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"23990d9aad3c8edc9cd59c0d0acd3f66\">energy consumption<\/a>.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>However, SCADA systems may have security vulnerabilities, so the systems should be evaluated to identify risks and solutions implemented to mitigate those risks.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-37\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DNP3\" title=\"DNP3\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"10675409723204c80ee1bf2dcff659bc\">DNP3<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Computer network protocol<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IEC_60870\" title=\"IEC 60870\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e294716992812261427aaa80b1871ec\">IEC 60870<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/EPICS\" title=\"EPICS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a20e5ff31a56dfc872161b9afeea6b18\">EPICS<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Software infrastructure for building distributed control systems<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-Hieb2008-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Hieb2008_1-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFJeff_Hieb2008\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Jeff Hieb (2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=A-_PPgAACAAJ\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Security Hardened Remote Terminal Units for SCADA Networks<\/i><\/a>. University of Louisville.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Security+Hardened+Remote+Terminal+Units+for+SCADA+Networks&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Louisville&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.au=Jeff+Hieb&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA-_PPgAACAAJ&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Raul2010-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Raul2010_2-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAquino-Santos,_Raul2010\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Aquino-Santos, Raul (30 November 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=UN2eBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA43\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Emerging Technologies in Wireless Ad-hoc Networks: Applications and Future Development: Applications and Future Development<\/i><\/a>. IGI Global. pp.&#160;43\u2013. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-60960-029-7<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Emerging+Technologies+in+Wireless+Ad-hoc+Networks%3A+Applications+and+Future+Development%3A+Applications+and+Future+Development&amp;rft.pages=43-&amp;rft.pub=IGI+Global&amp;rft.date=2010-11-30&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-60960-029-7&amp;rft.au=Aquino-Santos%2C+Raul&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUN2eBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA43&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GallowayIntro-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-GallowayIntro_3-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.rfidblog.org.uk\/Preprint-GallowayHancke-IndustrialControlSurvey.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Introduction to Industrial Control Networks\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>IEEE Communications Surveys and Tutorials<\/i>. 2012.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=IEEE+Communications+Surveys+and+Tutorials&amp;rft.atitle=Introduction+to+Industrial+Control+Networks&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rfidblog.org.uk%2FPreprint-GallowayHancke-IndustrialControlSurvey.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-berganELP-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-berganELP_4-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBergan2011\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Bergan, Christian (August 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120331210553\/http:\/\/www.elp.com\/index\/display\/article-display\/5666163079\/articles\/utility-automation-engineering-td\/volume-16\/issue-8\/features\/demystifying-satellite-for-the-smart-grid-four-common-misconceptions.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Demystifying Satellite for the Smart Grid: Four Common Misconceptions\"<\/a>. <i>Electric Light &amp; Power<\/i>. Utility Automation &amp; Engineering T&amp;D. Tulsa, OK: PennWell. <b>16<\/b> (8). Four. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.elp.com\/index\/display\/article-display\/5666163079\/articles\/utility-automation-engineering-td\/volume-16\/issue-8\/features\/demystifying-satellite-for-the-smart-grid-four-common-misconceptions.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 31 March 2012<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2 May<\/span> 2012<\/span>. <q>satellite is a cost-effective and secure solution that can provide backup communications and easily support core smart grid applications like SCADA, telemetry, AMI backhaul and distribution automation<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Electric+Light+%26+Power&amp;rft.atitle=Demystifying+Satellite+for+the+Smart+Grid%3A+Four+Common+Misconceptions&amp;rft.volume=16&amp;rft.issue=8&amp;rft.pages=Four&amp;rft.date=2011-08&amp;rft.aulast=Bergan&amp;rft.aufirst=Christian&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.elp.com%2Findex%2Fdisplay%2Farticle-display%2F5666163079%2Farticles%2Futility-automation-engineering-td%2Fvolume-16%2Fissue-8%2Ffeatures%2Fdemystifying-satellite-for-the-smart-grid-four-common-misconceptions.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFOFFICE_OF_THE_MANAGER_NATIONAL_COMMUNICATIONS_SYSTEMctober_2004\" class=\"citation web cs1\">OFFICE OF THE MANAGER NATIONAL COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMctober 2004. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150714225002\/https:\/\/scadahacker.com\/library\/Documents\/ICS_Basics\/SCADA%20Basics%20-%20NCS%20TIB%2004-1.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) Systems\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. NATIONAL COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/scadahacker.com\/library\/Documents\/ICS_Basics\/SCADA%20Basics%20-%20NCS%20TIB%2004-1.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 14 July 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">14 July<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Supervisory+Control+and+Data+Acquisition+%28SCADA%29+Systems&amp;rft.pub=NATIONAL+COMMUNICATIONS+SYSTEM&amp;rft.au=OFFICE+OF+THE+MANAGER+NATIONAL+COMMUNICATIONS+SYSTEMctober+2004&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscadahacker.com%2Flibrary%2FDocuments%2FICS_Basics%2FSCADA%2520Basics%2520-%2520NCS%2520TIB%252004-1.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_web\" title=\"Template:Cite web\">cite web<\/a>}}<\/code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c038bc1c366392c430552d4d7ede182e\">link<\/a>)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-6\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/articles\/scada-systems\" target=\"_blank\">\"SCADA Systems april 2014\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=SCADA+Systems+april+2014&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.engineersgarage.com%2Farticles%2Fscada-systems&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-7\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFJ._Russel\" class=\"citation web cs1\">J. Russel. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150811051350\/http:\/\/scadahistory.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Brief History of SCADA\/EMS (2015)\"<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/scadahistory.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 11 August 2015.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+SCADA%2FEMS+%282015%29&amp;rft.au=J.+Russel&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscadahistory.com%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-8\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Abbas, H.A. (2014). Future SCADA challenges and the promising solution: the agent-based SCADA. IJCIS, 10, 307-333.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Proquest-text-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Proquest-text_9-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation book cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=d5O5N1vjbQgC&pg=PA12\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Security Hardened Remote Terminal Units for SCADA Networks<\/i><\/a>. 2008. pp.&#160;12\u2013. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-549-54831-7<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Security+Hardened+Remote+Terminal+Units+for+SCADA+Networks&amp;rft.pages=12-&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-549-54831-7&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dd5O5N1vjbQgC%26pg%3DPA12&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-10\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFUJVAROSI12016\" class=\"citation web cs1\">UJVAROSI1, Alexandru (2 November 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20211028142517\/https:\/\/webbut.unitbv.ro\/BU2015\/Series%20I\/2016\/BULETIN%20I%20PDF\/Ujvarosi_Al.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"EVOLUTION OF SCADA SYSTEMS\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/webbut.unitbv.ro\/BU2015\/Series%20I\/2016\/BULETIN%20I%20PDF\/Ujvarosi_Al.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 28 October 2021.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=EVOLUTION+OF+SCADA+SYSTEMS&amp;rft.date=2016-11-02&amp;rft.aulast=UJVAROSI1&amp;rft.aufirst=Alexandru&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwebbut.unitbv.ro%2FBU2015%2FSeries%2520I%2F2016%2FBULETIN%2520I%2520PDF%2FUjvarosi_Al.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_web\" title=\"Template:Cite web\">cite web<\/a>}}<\/code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c038bc1c366392c430552d4d7ede182e\">link<\/a>)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-11\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">R. Fan, L. Cheded and O. Toker, \"Internet-based SCADA: a new approach using Java and XML,\" in Computing &amp; Control Engineering Journal, vol. 16, no. 5, pp. 22-26, Oct.-Nov. 2005.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-12\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">R. J. Robles and T. H. Kim, \u201cArchitecture for SCADA with Mobile Remote Components\u201d, Proceedings of the 12th WSEAS International Conference on Automatic Control, Modelling &amp; Simulation.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-web_SCADA-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-web_SCADA_13-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-web_SCADA_13-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-web_SCADA_13-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Abbas, H.A. and Mohamed, A.M. (2011) \u2018Review in the design of web based SCADA systems based on OPC DA protocol\u2019, International Journal of Computer Networks, February, Vol. 2, No. 6, pp.266\u2013277, Malaysia.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-14\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Qiu B, Gooi HB. Web-based scada display systems (wsds) for access via internet. Power Systems, IEEE Transactions on 2000;15(2):681\u2013686.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-15\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Li D, Serizawa Y, Kiuchi M. Concept design for a web-based supervisory control and data-acquisition (scada) system. In: Transmission and Distribution Conference and Exhibition 2002: Asia Pacific. IEEE\/PES; Vol. 1; p. 32\u201336.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-16\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Kovaliuk, D. O., Huza, K. M., &amp; Kovaliuk, O. O. (2018). Development of SCADA System based on Web Technologies. International Journal of Information Engineering and Electronic Business (IJIEEB), 10(2), 25-32.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">J. M. Lynch, \u201cAn Internet Based SCADA System\u201d, BSc Project Report, University of Southern Queensland, Queensland, Oct. 2005<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-18\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBoyes2011\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Boyes, Walt (2011). <i>Instrumentation Reference Book, 4th Edition<\/i>. 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Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.c4-security.com\/SCADA%20Security%20-%20Generic%20Electric%20Grid%20Malware%20Design%20-%20SyScan08.pps\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 7 January 2009.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=SCADA+Security+%E2%80%93+Generic+Electric+Grid+Malware+Design&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.c4-security.com%2FSCADA%2520Security%2520-%2520Generic%2520Electric%2520Grid%2520Malware%2520Design%2520-%2520SyScan08.pps&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-32\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKEMA,_Inc2006\" class=\"citation web cs1\">KEMA, Inc (November 2006). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20071103173939\/http:\/\/www.utc.org\/?p=33398\" target=\"_blank\">\"Substation Communications: Enabler of Automation\"<\/a>. Utilities Telecom Council. pp.&#160;3\u201321. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.utc.org\/?p=33398\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 3 November 2007<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 January<\/span> 2022<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Substation+Communications%3A+Enabler+of+Automation&amp;rft.pages=3-21&amp;rft.pub=Utilities+Telecom+Council&amp;rft.date=2006-11&amp;rft.au=KEMA%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.utc.org%2F%3Fp%3D33398&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-33\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-33\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMills2010\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Mills, Elinor (21 July 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/news.cnet.com\/8301-27080_3-20011159-245.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Details of the first-ever control system malware (FAQ)\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CNET\" title=\"CNET\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4d7fa1f62b9f9bf1be2936ffd96f9142\">CNET<\/a><\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 July<\/span> 2010<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=CNET&amp;rft.atitle=Details+of+the+first-ever+control+system+malware+%28FAQ%29&amp;rft.date=2010-07-21&amp;rft.aulast=Mills&amp;rft.aufirst=Elinor&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.cnet.com%2F8301-27080_3-20011159-245.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-34\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-34\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/support.automation.siemens.com\/WW\/llisapi.dll?func=cslib.csinfo&lang=en&objid=43876783&caller=view\" target=\"_blank\">\"SIMATIC WinCC \/ SIMATIC PCS 7: Information concerning Malware \/ Virus \/ Trojan\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Siemens\" title=\"Siemens\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c6a901b7c31bfd5653cdfb35be89a4c5\">Siemens<\/a>. 21 July 2010<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">22 July<\/span> 2010<\/span>. <q>malware (trojan) which affects the visualization system WinCC SCADA.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=SIMATIC+WinCC+%2F+SIMATIC+PCS+7%3A+Information+concerning+Malware+%2F+Virus+%2F+Trojan&amp;rft.pub=Siemens&amp;rft.date=2010-07-21&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsupport.automation.siemens.com%2FWW%2Fllisapi.dll%3Ffunc%3Dcslib.csinfo%26lang%3Den%26objid%3D43876783%26caller%3Dview&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-35\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-35\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.today\/20120525053210\/http:\/\/www.computerworld.com\/s\/article\/print\/9185419\/Siemens_Stuxnet_worm_hit_industrial_systems?taxonomyName=Network+Security&taxonomyId=142\" target=\"_blank\">\"Siemens: Stuxnet worm hit industrial systems\"<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.computerworld.com\/s\/article\/print\/9185419\/Siemens_Stuxnet_worm_hit_industrial_systems?taxonomyName=Network+Security&taxonomyId=142\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 25 May 2012<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">16 September<\/span> 2010<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Siemens%3A+Stuxnet+worm+hit+industrial+systems&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerworld.com%2Fs%2Farticle%2Fprint%2F9185419%2FSiemens_Stuxnet_worm_hit_industrial_systems%3FtaxonomyName%3DNetwork%2BSecurity%26taxonomyId%3D142&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-36\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-36\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150313204218\/http:\/\/channel.nationalgeographic.com\/american-blackout\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"American Blackout\"<\/a>. National Geographic Channel. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/channel.nationalgeographic.com\/american-blackout\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 13 March 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">14 October<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=American+Blackout&amp;rft.pub=National+Geographic+Channel&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fchannel.nationalgeographic.com%2Famerican-blackout%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-37\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBoyer2010\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Boyer, Stuart A. (2010). <i>SCADA Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition<\/i>. USA: ISA - International Society of Automation. p.&#160;179. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-936007-09-7<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=SCADA+Supervisory+Control+and+Data+Acquisition&amp;rft.place=USA&amp;rft.pages=179&amp;rft.pub=ISA+-+International+Society+of+Automation&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-936007-09-7&amp;rft.aulast=Boyer&amp;rft.aufirst=Stuart+A.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130620125607\/http:\/\/www.cpni.gov.uk\/advice\/cyber\/scada\/\" target=\"_blank\">UK SCADA security guidelines<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/news.bbc.co.uk\/1\/hi\/technology\/7990997.stm\" target=\"_blank\">BBC NEWS | Technology | Spies 'infiltrate US power grid'<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\">\n<\/p>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1408\nCached time: 20240106225429\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 0.578 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.753 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 2665\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 69742\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 2496\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 14\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 7\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 100448\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.409\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 20001358\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 674.463 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>33.94% 228.900 1 Template:Refs\n16.64% 112.212 3 Template:Annotated_link\n15.91% 107.326 8 Template:Cite_book\n10.79% 72.755 1 Template:Manufacturing\n 9.77% 65.890 1 Template:Sidebar\n 9.42% 63.505 16 Template:Cite_web\n 8.88% 59.899 1 Template:Short_description\n 7.21% 48.640 1 Template:Lead_too_short\n 6.96% 46.974 1 Template:Commonscat\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:62437-0!canonical and timestamp 20240106225428 and revision id 1194043705. Rendering was triggered because: api-parse\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SCADA\" data-key=\"bcdd4e4161b269208db7fefa5e48e170\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110045226\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.113 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.327 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 105788\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 300.138 1 wikipedia:SCADA\n100.00% 300.138 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10541-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110045226 and revision id 48273. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/SCADA\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/SCADA<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","2e9d1c3a7073bee59b3d3b6e5aca466d_images":[],"2e9d1c3a7073bee59b3d3b6e5aca466d_timestamp":1704907019,"01c62ea09e654406931e8a39ce135a3d_type":"article","01c62ea09e654406931e8a39ce135a3d_title":"Remote data capture","01c62ea09e654406931e8a39ce135a3d_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Remote_data_capture","01c62ea09e654406931e8a39ce135a3d_plaintext":"\n\nRemote data captureFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_data_capture?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Remote_data_capture\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Remote_data_capture<\/a>\nCategory: Software and hardware termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 18 April 2020, at 23:06.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 1,285 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","01c62ea09e654406931e8a39ce135a3d_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Remote_data_capture rootpage-Remote_data_capture skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Remote data capture<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_data_capture?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_data_capture\" data-key=\"3367c2de338bc8d5f4d229c2e3672e3a\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171659\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.084 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.153 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 101\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 148.972 1 wikipedia:Remote_data_capture\n100.00% 148.972 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:11888-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171659 and revision id 39068. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Remote_data_capture\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Remote_data_capture<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","01c62ea09e654406931e8a39ce135a3d_images":[],"01c62ea09e654406931e8a39ce135a3d_timestamp":1704907019,"fad029fc2cfce528b947912a1100541b_type":"article","fad029fc2cfce528b947912a1100541b_title":"Predictive maintenance","fad029fc2cfce528b947912a1100541b_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Predictive_maintenance","fad029fc2cfce528b947912a1100541b_plaintext":"\n\nPredictive maintenanceFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Predictive_maintenance?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Predictive_maintenance\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Predictive_maintenance<\/a>\nCategory: Automation and artificial intelligenceHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 12 June 2022, at 14:35.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 2,783 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","fad029fc2cfce528b947912a1100541b_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Predictive_maintenance rootpage-Predictive_maintenance skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Predictive maintenance<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Predictive_maintenance?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Predictive_maintenance\" data-key=\"3f463ab7bb793745fc5ea96e1976e12a\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171658\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.085 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.156 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 104\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 151.524 1 wikipedia:Predictive_maintenance\n100.00% 151.524 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10590-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171658 and revision id 48272. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Predictive_maintenance\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Predictive_maintenance<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","fad029fc2cfce528b947912a1100541b_images":[],"fad029fc2cfce528b947912a1100541b_timestamp":1704907018,"79aab39cfa124c958cd1dbcab3dde122_type":"article","79aab39cfa124c958cd1dbcab3dde122_title":"Machine learning","79aab39cfa124c958cd1dbcab3dde122_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Machine_learning","79aab39cfa124c958cd1dbcab3dde122_plaintext":"\n\nMachine learningFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchStudy of algorithms that improve automatically through experience\nFor the journal, see Machine Learning (journal).\n\"Statistical learning\" redirects here. For statistical learning in linguistics, see statistical learning in language acquisition.\nPart of a series onMachine learning\r\nand data mining\nParadigms\nSupervised learning\nUnsupervised learning\nOnline learning\nBatch learning\nMeta-learning\nSemi-supervised learning\nSelf-supervised learning\nReinforcement learning\nRule-based learning\nQuantum machine learning\n\nProblems\nClassification\nGenerative model\nRegression\nClustering\ndimension reduction\ndensity estimation\nAnomaly detection\nData Cleaning\nAutoML\nAssociation rules\nSemantic analysis\nStructured prediction\nFeature engineering\nFeature learning\nLearning to rank\nGrammar induction\nOntology learning\nMultimodal learning\n\nSupervised learning\r\n(classification&#160;\u2022 regression) \nApprenticeship learning\nDecision trees\nEnsembles\nBagging\nBoosting\nRandom forest\nk-NN\nLinear regression\nNaive Bayes\nArtificial neural networks\nLogistic regression\nPerceptron\nRelevance vector machine (RVM)\nSupport vector machine (SVM)\n\nClustering\nBIRCH\nCURE\nHierarchical\nk-means\nFuzzy\nExpectation\u2013maximization (EM)\n\r\nDBSCAN\nOPTICS\nMean shift\n\nDimensionality reduction\nFactor analysis\nCCA\nICA\nLDA\nNMF\nPCA\nPGD\nt-SNE\nSDL\n\nStructured prediction\nGraphical models\nBayes net\nConditional random field\nHidden Markov\n\nAnomaly detection\nRANSAC\nk-NN\nLocal outlier factor\nIsolation forest\n\nArtificial neural network\nAutoencoder\nCognitive computing\nDeep learning\nDeepDream\nFeedforward neural network\nRecurrent neural network\nLSTM\nGRU\nESN\nreservoir computing\nRestricted Boltzmann machine\nGAN\nDiffusion model\nSOM\nConvolutional neural network\nU-Net\nTransformer\nVision\nSpiking neural network\nMemtransistor\nElectrochemical RAM (ECRAM)\n\nReinforcement learning\nQ-learning\nSARSA\nTemporal difference (TD)\nMulti-agent\nSelf-play\n\nLearning with humans\nActive learning\nCrowdsourcing\nHuman-in-the-loop\n\nModel diagnostics\nLearning curve\n\nMathematical foundations\nKernel machines\nBias\u2013variance tradeoff\nComputational learning theory\nEmpirical risk minimization\nOccam learning\nPAC learning\nStatistical learning\nVC theory\n\nMachine-learning venues\nECML PKDD\nNeurIPS\nICML\nICLR\nIJCAI\nML\nJMLR\n\nRelated articles\nGlossary of artificial intelligence\nList of datasets for machine-learning research\nList of datasets in computer vision and image processing\nOutline of machine learning\nvte\nPart of a series onArtificial intelligence\nMajor goals\nArtificial general intelligence\nPlanning\nComputer vision\nGeneral game playing\nKnowledge reasoning\nMachine learning\nNatural language processing\nRobotics\nAI safety\n\nApproaches\nSymbolic\nDeep learning\nBayesian networks\nEvolutionary algorithms\nSituated approach\nHybrid intelligent systems\nSystems integration\n\nApplications\nProjects\nDeepfake\nMachine translation\nArt\nHealthcare\nMental health\nGovernment\nMusic\nIndustry\nEarth sciences\nBioinformatics\nPhysics\n\nPhilosophy\nChinese room\nFriendly AI\nControl problem\/Takeover\nEthics\nExistential risk\nTuring test\nRegulation\n\nHistory\nTimeline\nProgress\nAI winter\nAI boom\n\nTechnology\nProgramming languages\n\nGlossary\nGlossary\nvte\nMachine learning (ML) is a field of study in artificial intelligence concerned with the development and study of statistical algorithms that can learn from data and generalize to unseen data, and thus perform tasks without explicit instructions.[1] Recently, generative artificial neural networks have been able to surpass many previous approaches in performance.[2][3]\nMachine learning approaches have been applied to large language models, computer vision, speech recognition, email filtering, agriculture, and medicine, where it is too costly to develop algorithms to perform the needed tasks.[4][5] ML is known in its application across business problems under the name predictive analytics. Although not all machine learning is statistically based, computational statistics is an important source of the field's methods.\nThe mathematical foundations of ML are provided by mathematical optimization (mathematical programming) methods. Data mining is a related (parallel) field of study, focusing on exploratory data analysis through unsupervised learning.[7][8] From a theoretical point of view Probably approximately correct learning provides a framework for describing machine learning.\n\n\nHistory and relationships to other fields \nSee also: Timeline of machine learning\nThe term machine learning was coined in 1959 by Arthur Samuel, an IBM employee and pioneer in the field of computer gaming and artificial intelligence.[9][10] The synonym self-teaching computers was also used in this time period.[11][12]\nAlthough the earliest machine learning model was introduced in the 1950s when Arthur Samuel invented a program that calculated the winning chance in checkers for each side, the history of machine learning roots back to decades of human desire and effort to study human cognitive processes.[13] In 1949, Canadian psychologist Donald Hebb published the book The Organization of Behavior, in which he introduced a theoretical neural structure formed by certain interactions among nerve cells.[14] Hebb's model of neurons interacting with one another set a groundwork for how AIs and machine learning algorithms work under nodes, or artificial neurons used by computers to communicate data.[13] Other researchers who have studied human cognitive systems contributed to the modern machine learning technologies as well, including logician Walter Pitts and Warren McCulloch, who proposed the early mathematical models of neural networks to come up with algorithms that mirror human thought processes.[13]\nBy the early 1960s an experimental \"learning machine\" with punched tape memory, called Cybertron, had been developed by Raytheon Company to analyze sonar signals, electrocardiograms, and speech patterns using rudimentary reinforcement learning. It was repetitively \"trained\" by a human operator\/teacher to recognize patterns and equipped with a \"goof\" button to cause it to re-evaluate incorrect decisions.[15] A representative book on research into machine learning during the 1960s was Nilsson's book on Learning Machines, dealing mostly with machine learning for pattern classification.[16] Interest related to pattern recognition continued into the 1970s, as described by Duda and Hart in 1973.[17] In 1981 a report was given on using teaching strategies so that a neural network learns to recognize 40 characters (26 letters, 10 digits, and 4 special symbols) from a computer terminal.[18]\nTom M. Mitchell provided a widely quoted, more formal definition of the algorithms studied in the machine learning field: \"A computer program is said to learn from experience E with respect to some class of tasks T and performance measure P if its performance at tasks in T, as measured by P, improves with experience E.\"[19] This definition of the tasks in which machine learning is concerned offers a fundamentally operational definition rather than defining the field in cognitive terms. This follows Alan Turing's proposal in his paper \"Computing Machinery and Intelligence\", in which the question \"Can machines think?\" is replaced with the question \"Can machines do what we (as thinking entities) can do?\".[20]\nModern-day machine learning has two objectives, one is to classify data based on models which have been developed, the other purpose is to make predictions for future outcomes based on these models. A hypothetical algorithm specific to classifying data may use computer vision of moles coupled with supervised learning in order to train it to classify the cancerous moles. A machine learning algorithm for stock trading may inform the trader of future potential predictions.[21]\n\nArtificial intelligence \nMachine learning as subfield of AI[22]\n\nAs a scientific endeavor, machine learning grew out of the quest for artificial intelligence (AI). In the early days of AI as an academic discipline, some researchers were interested in having machines learn from data. They attempted to approach the problem with various symbolic methods, as well as what were then termed \"neural networks\"; these were mostly perceptrons and other models that were later found to be reinventions of the generalized linear models of statistics.[23] Probabilistic reasoning was also employed, especially in automated medical diagnosis.[24]:\u200a488\u200a \nHowever, an increasing emphasis on the logical, knowledge-based approach caused a rift between AI and machine learning. Probabilistic systems were plagued by theoretical and practical problems of data acquisition and representation.[24]:\u200a488\u200a By 1980, expert systems had come to dominate AI, and statistics was out of favor.[25] Work on symbolic\/knowledge-based learning did continue within AI, leading to inductive logic programming, but the more statistical line of research was now outside the field of AI proper, in pattern recognition and information retrieval.[24]:\u200a708\u2013710,\u200a755\u200a Neural networks research had been abandoned by AI and computer science around the same time. This line, too, was continued outside the AI\/CS field, as \"connectionism\", by researchers from other disciplines including Hopfield, Rumelhart, and Hinton. Their main success came in the mid-1980s with the reinvention of backpropagation.[24]:\u200a25\u200a \nMachine learning (ML), reorganized and recognized as its own field, started to flourish in the 1990s. The field changed its goal from achieving artificial intelligence to tackling solvable problems of a practical nature. It shifted focus away from the symbolic approaches it had inherited from AI, and toward methods and models borrowed from statistics, fuzzy logic, and probability theory.[25]\n\nData mining \nMachine learning and data mining often employ the same methods and overlap significantly, but while machine learning focuses on prediction, based on known properties learned from the training data, data mining focuses on the discovery of (previously) unknown properties in the data (this is the analysis step of knowledge discovery in databases). Data mining uses many machine learning methods, but with different goals; on the other hand, machine learning also employs data mining methods as \"unsupervised learning\" or as a preprocessing step to improve learner accuracy. Much of the confusion between these two research communities (which do often have separate conferences and separate journals, ECML PKDD being a major exception) comes from the basic assumptions they work with: in machine learning, performance is usually evaluated with respect to the ability to reproduce known knowledge, while in knowledge discovery and data mining (KDD) the key task is the discovery of previously unknown knowledge. Evaluated with respect to known knowledge, an uninformed (unsupervised) method will easily be outperformed by other supervised methods, while in a typical KDD task, supervised methods cannot be used due to the unavailability of training data.\nMachine learning also has intimate ties to optimization: many learning problems are formulated as minimization of some loss function on a training set of examples. Loss functions express the discrepancy between the predictions of the model being trained and the actual problem instances (for example, in classification, one wants to assign a label to instances, and models are trained to correctly predict the pre-assigned labels of a set of examples).[26]\n\nGeneralization \nThe difference between optimization and machine learning arises from the goal of generalization: while optimization algorithms can minimize the loss on a training set, machine learning is concerned with minimizing the loss on unseen samples. Characterizing the generalization of various learning algorithms is an active topic of current research, especially for deep learning algorithms.\n\nStatistics \nMachine learning and statistics are closely related fields in terms of methods, but distinct in their principal goal: statistics draws population inferences from a sample, while machine learning finds generalizable predictive patterns.[27] According to Michael I. Jordan, the ideas of machine learning, from methodological principles to theoretical tools, have had a long pre-history in statistics.[28] He also suggested the term data science as a placeholder to call the overall field.[28]\nConventional statistical analyses require the a priori selection of a model most suitable for the study data set. In addition, only significant or theoretically relevant variables based on previous experience are included for analysis. In contrast, machine learning is not built on a pre-structured model; rather, the data shape the model by detecting underlying patterns. The more variables (input) used to train the model, the more accurate the ultimate model will be.[29]\nLeo Breiman distinguished two statistical modeling paradigms: data model and algorithmic model,[30] wherein \"algorithmic model\" means more or less the machine learning algorithms like Random Forest.\nSome statisticians have adopted methods from machine learning, leading to a combined field that they call statistical learning.[31]\n\nStatistical Physics \nAnalytical and computational techniques derived from deep-rooted physics of disordered systems can be extended to large-scale problems, including machine learning, e.g., to analyze the weight space of deep neural networks.[32] Statistical physics is thus finding applications in the area of medical diagnostics.[33]\n\n Theory \nMain articles: Computational learning theory and Statistical learning theory\nA core objective of a learner is to generalize from its experience.[6][34] Generalization in this context is the ability of a learning machine to perform accurately on new, unseen examples\/tasks after having experienced a learning data set. The training examples come from some generally unknown probability distribution (considered representative of the space of occurrences) and the learner has to build a general model about this space that enables it to produce sufficiently accurate predictions in new cases.\nThe computational analysis of machine learning algorithms and their performance is a branch of theoretical computer science known as computational learning theory via the Probably Approximately Correct Learning (PAC) model. Because training sets are finite and the future is uncertain, learning theory usually does not yield guarantees of the performance of algorithms. Instead, probabilistic bounds on the performance are quite common. The bias\u2013variance decomposition is one way to quantify generalization error.\nFor the best performance in the context of generalization, the complexity of the hypothesis should match the complexity of the function underlying the data. If the hypothesis is less complex than the function, then the model has under fitted the data. If the complexity of the model is increased in response, then the training error decreases. But if the hypothesis is too complex, then the model is subject to overfitting and generalization will be poorer.[35]\nIn addition to performance bounds, learning theorists study the time complexity and feasibility of learning. In computational learning theory, a computation is considered feasible if it can be done in polynomial time. There are two kinds of time complexity results: Positive results show that a certain class of functions can be learned in polynomial time. Negative results show that certain classes cannot be learned in polynomial time.\n\nApproaches \n \nMachine learning approaches are traditionally divided into three broad categories, which correspond to learning paradigms, depending on the nature of the \"signal\" or \"feedback\" available to the learning system:\n\nSupervised learning: The computer is presented with example inputs and their desired outputs, given by a \"teacher\", and the goal is to learn a general rule that maps inputs to outputs.\nUnsupervised learning: No labels are given to the learning algorithm, leaving it on its own to find structure in its input. Unsupervised learning can be a goal in itself (discovering hidden patterns in data) or a means towards an end (feature learning).\nReinforcement learning: A computer program interacts with a dynamic environment in which it must perform a certain goal (such as driving a vehicle or playing a game against an opponent). As it navigates its problem space, the program is provided feedback that's analogous to rewards, which it tries to maximize.[6]\nAlthough each algorithm has advantages and limitations, no single algorithm works for all problems.[36][37][38]\n\nSupervised learning \nMain article: Supervised learning\nA support-vector machine is a supervised learning model that divides the data into regions separated by a linear boundary. Here, the linear boundary divides the black circles from the white.\n\nSupervised learning algorithms build a mathematical model of a set of data that contains both the inputs and the desired outputs.[39] The data is known as training data, and consists of a set of training examples. Each training example has one or more inputs and the desired output, also known as a supervisory signal. In the mathematical model, each training example is represented by an array or vector, sometimes called a feature vector, and the training data is represented by a matrix. Through iterative optimization of an objective function, supervised learning algorithms learn a function that can be used to predict the output associated with new inputs.[40] An optimal function allows the algorithm to correctly determine the output for inputs that were not a part of the training data. An algorithm that improves the accuracy of its outputs or predictions over time is said to have learned to perform that task.[19]\nTypes of supervised-learning algorithms include active learning, classification and regression.[41] Classification algorithms are used when the outputs are restricted to a limited set of values, and regression algorithms are used when the outputs may have any numerical value within a range. As an example, for a classification algorithm that filters emails, the input would be an incoming email, and the output would be the name of the folder in which to file the email.\nSimilarity learning is an area of supervised machine learning closely related to regression and classification, but the goal is to learn from examples using a similarity function that measures how similar or related two objects are. It has applications in ranking, recommendation systems, visual identity tracking, face verification, and speaker verification.\n\nUnsupervised learning \nMain article: Unsupervised learningSee also: Cluster analysis\nUnsupervised learning algorithms find structures in data that has not been labeled, classified or categorized. Instead of responding to feedback, unsupervised learning algorithms identify commonalities in the data and react based on the presence or absence of such commonalities in each new piece of data. Central applications of unsupervised machine learning include clustering, dimensionality reduction,[8] and density estimation.[42] Unsupervised learning algorithms also streamlined the process of identifying large indel based haplotypes of a gene of interest from pan-genome.[43] \n\nClustering via Large Indel Permuted Slopes, CLIPS, turns the alignment image into a learning regression problem. The varied slope (b) estimates between each pair of DNA segments enables to identify segments sharing the same set of indels.\n\nCluster analysis is the assignment of a set of observations into subsets (called clusters) so that observations within the same cluster are similar according to one or more predesignated criteria, while observations drawn from different clusters are dissimilar. Different clustering techniques make different assumptions on the structure of the data, often defined by some similarity metric and evaluated, for example, by internal compactness, or the similarity between members of the same cluster, and separation, the difference between clusters. Other methods are based on estimated density and graph connectivity.\n\nSemi-supervised learning \nMain article: Semi-supervised learning\nSemi-supervised learning falls between unsupervised learning (without any labeled training data) and supervised learning (with completely labeled training data). Some of the training examples are missing training labels, yet many machine-learning researchers have found that unlabeled data, when used in conjunction with a small amount of labeled data, can produce a considerable improvement in learning accuracy.\nIn weakly supervised learning, the training labels are noisy, limited, or imprecise; however, these labels are often cheaper to obtain, resulting in larger effective training sets.[44]\n\nReinforcement learning \nMain article: Reinforcement learning\nReinforcement learning is an area of machine learning concerned with how software agents ought to take actions in an environment so as to maximize some notion of cumulative reward. Due to its generality, the field is studied in many other disciplines, such as game theory, control theory, operations research, information theory, simulation-based optimization, multi-agent systems, swarm intelligence, statistics and genetic algorithms. In reinforcement learning, the environment is typically represented as a Markov decision process (MDP). Many reinforcements learning algorithms use dynamic programming techniques.[45] Reinforcement learning algorithms do not assume knowledge of an exact mathematical model of the MDP and are used when exact models are infeasible. Reinforcement learning algorithms are used in autonomous vehicles or in learning to play a game against a human opponent.\n\nDimensionality reduction \nDimensionality reduction is a process of reducing the number of random variables under consideration by obtaining a set of principal variables.[46] In other words, it is a process of reducing the dimension of the feature set, also called the \"number of features\". Most of the dimensionality reduction techniques can be considered as either feature elimination or extraction. One of the popular methods of dimensionality reduction is principal component analysis (PCA). PCA involves changing higher-dimensional data (e.g., 3D) to a smaller space (e.g., 2D). This results in a smaller dimension of data (2D instead of 3D), while keeping all original variables in the model without changing the data.[47]\nThe manifold hypothesis proposes that high-dimensional data sets lie along low-dimensional manifolds, and many dimensionality reduction techniques make this assumption, leading to the area of manifold learning and manifold regularization.\n\nOther types \nOther approaches have been developed which do not fit neatly into this three-fold categorization, and sometimes more than one is used by the same machine learning system. For example, topic modeling, meta-learning.[48]\n\nSelf-learning \nSelf-learning, as a machine learning paradigm was introduced in 1982 along with a neural network capable of self-learning, named crossbar adaptive array (CAA).[49] It is learning with no external rewards and no external teacher advice. The CAA self-learning algorithm computes, in a crossbar fashion, both decisions about actions and emotions (feelings) about consequence situations. The system is driven by the interaction between cognition and emotion.[50]\nThe self-learning algorithm updates a memory matrix W =||w(a,s)|| such that in each iteration executes the following machine learning routine: \n\nin situation s perform action a\nreceive consequence situation s\ncompute emotion of being in consequence situation v(s')\nupdate crossbar memory w'(a,s) = w(a,s) + v(s')\nIt is a system with only one input, situation, and only one output, action (or behavior) a. There is neither a separate reinforcement input nor an advice input from the environment. The backpropagated value (secondary reinforcement) is the emotion toward the consequence situation. The CAA exists in two environments, one is the behavioral environment where it behaves, and the other is the genetic environment, wherefrom it initially and only once receives initial emotions about situations to be encountered in the behavioral environment. After receiving the genome (species) vector from the genetic environment, the CAA learns a goal-seeking behavior, in an environment that contains both desirable and undesirable situations.[51]\n\nFeature learning \nMain article: Feature learning\nSeveral learning algorithms aim at discovering better representations of the inputs provided during training.[52] Classic examples include principal component analysis and cluster analysis. Feature learning algorithms, also called representation learning algorithms, often attempt to preserve the information in their input but also transform it in a way that makes it useful, often as a pre-processing step before performing classification or predictions. This technique allows reconstruction of the inputs coming from the unknown data-generating distribution, while not being necessarily faithful to configurations that are implausible under that distribution. This replaces manual feature engineering, and allows a machine to both learn the features and use them to perform a specific task.\nFeature learning can be either supervised or unsupervised. In supervised feature learning, features are learned using labeled input data. Examples include artificial neural networks, multilayer perceptrons, and supervised dictionary learning. In unsupervised feature learning, features are learned with unlabeled input data. Examples include dictionary learning, independent component analysis, autoencoders, matrix factorization[53] and various forms of clustering.[54][55][56]\nManifold learning algorithms attempt to do so under the constraint that the learned representation is low-dimensional. Sparse coding algorithms attempt to do so under the constraint that the learned representation is sparse, meaning that the mathematical model has many zeros. Multilinear subspace learning algorithms aim to learn low-dimensional representations directly from tensor representations for multidimensional data, without reshaping them into higher-dimensional vectors.[57] Deep learning algorithms discover multiple levels of representation, or a hierarchy of features, with higher-level, more abstract features defined in terms of (or generating) lower-level features. It has been argued that an intelligent machine is one that learns a representation that disentangles the underlying factors of variation that explain the observed data.[58]\nFeature learning is motivated by the fact that machine learning tasks such as classification often require input that is mathematically and computationally convenient to process. However, real-world data such as images, video, and sensory data has not yielded attempts to algorithmically define specific features. An alternative is to discover such features or representations through examination, without relying on explicit algorithms.\n\nSparse dictionary learning \nMain article: Sparse dictionary learning\nSparse dictionary learning is a feature learning method where a training example is represented as a linear combination of basis functions, and is assumed to be a sparse matrix. The method is strongly NP-hard and difficult to solve approximately.[59] A popular heuristic method for sparse dictionary learning is the K-SVD algorithm. Sparse dictionary learning has been applied in several contexts. In classification, the problem is to determine the class to which a previously unseen training example belongs. For a dictionary where each class has already been built, a new training example is associated with the class that is best sparsely represented by the corresponding dictionary. Sparse dictionary learning has also been applied in image de-noising. The key idea is that a clean image patch can be sparsely represented by an image dictionary, but the noise cannot.[60]\n\nAnomaly detection \nMain article: Anomaly detection\nIn data mining, anomaly detection, also known as outlier detection, is the identification of rare items, events or observations which raise suspicions by differing significantly from the majority of the data.[61] Typically, the anomalous items represent an issue such as bank fraud, a structural defect, medical problems or errors in a text. Anomalies are referred to as outliers, novelties, noise, deviations and exceptions.[62]\nIn particular, in the context of abuse and network intrusion detection, the interesting objects are often not rare objects, but unexpected bursts of inactivity. This pattern does not adhere to the common statistical definition of an outlier as a rare object. Many outlier detection methods (in particular, unsupervised algorithms) will fail on such data unless aggregated appropriately. Instead, a cluster analysis algorithm may be able to detect the micro-clusters formed by these patterns.[63]\nThree broad categories of anomaly detection techniques exist.[64] Unsupervised anomaly detection techniques detect anomalies in an unlabeled test data set under the assumption that the majority of the instances in the data set are normal, by looking for instances that seem to fit the least to the remainder of the data set. Supervised anomaly detection techniques require a data set that has been labeled as \"normal\" and \"abnormal\" and involves training a classifier (the key difference to many other statistical classification problems is the inherently unbalanced nature of outlier detection). Semi-supervised anomaly detection techniques construct a model representing normal behavior from a given normal training data set and then test the likelihood of a test instance to be generated by the model.\n\nRobot learning \nRobot learning is inspired by a multitude of machine learning methods, starting from supervised learning, reinforcement learning,[65][66] and finally meta-learning (e.g. MAML).\n\nAssociation rules \nMain article: Association rule learningSee also: Inductive logic programming\nAssociation rule learning is a rule-based machine learning method for discovering relationships between variables in large databases. It is intended to identify strong rules discovered in databases using some measure of \"interestingness\".[67]\nRule-based machine learning is a general term for any machine learning method that identifies, learns, or evolves \"rules\" to store, manipulate or apply knowledge. The defining characteristic of a rule-based machine learning algorithm is the identification and utilization of a set of relational rules that collectively represent the knowledge captured by the system. This is in contrast to other machine learning algorithms that commonly identify a singular model that can be universally applied to any instance in order to make a prediction.[68] Rule-based machine learning approaches include learning classifier systems, association rule learning, and artificial immune systems.\nBased on the concept of strong rules, Rakesh Agrawal, Tomasz Imieli\u0144ski and Arun Swami introduced association rules for discovering regularities between products in large-scale transaction data recorded by point-of-sale (POS) systems in supermarkets.[69] For example, the rule \n \n \n \n {\n \n o\n n\n i\n o\n n\n s\n ,\n p\n o\n t\n a\n t\n o\n e\n s\n \n }\n \u21d2\n {\n \n b\n u\n r\n g\n e\n r\n \n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\{\\mathrm {onions,potatoes} \\}\\Rightarrow \\{\\mathrm {burger} \\}}\n \n\n found in the sales data of a supermarket would indicate that if a customer buys onions and potatoes together, they are likely to also buy hamburger meat. Such information can be used as the basis for decisions about marketing activities such as promotional pricing or product placements. In addition to market basket analysis, association rules are employed today in application areas including Web usage mining, intrusion detection, continuous production, and bioinformatics. In contrast with sequence mining, association rule learning typically does not consider the order of items either within a transaction or across transactions.\n\nLearning classifier systems (LCS) are a family of rule-based machine learning algorithms that combine a discovery component, typically a genetic algorithm, with a learning component, performing either supervised learning, reinforcement learning, or unsupervised learning. They seek to identify a set of context-dependent rules that collectively store and apply knowledge in a piecewise manner in order to make predictions.[70]\nInductive logic programming (ILP) is an approach to rule learning using logic programming as a uniform representation for input examples, background knowledge, and hypotheses. Given an encoding of the known background knowledge and a set of examples represented as a logical database of facts, an ILP system will derive a hypothesized logic program that entails all positive and no negative examples. Inductive programming is a related field that considers any kind of programming language for representing hypotheses (and not only logic programming), such as functional programs.\nInductive logic programming is particularly useful in bioinformatics and natural language processing. Gordon Plotkin and Ehud Shapiro laid the initial theoretical foundation for inductive machine learning in a logical setting.[71][72][73] Shapiro built their first implementation (Model Inference System) in 1981: a Prolog program that inductively inferred logic programs from positive and negative examples.[74] The term inductive here refers to philosophical induction, suggesting a theory to explain observed facts, rather than mathematical induction, proving a property for all members of a well-ordered set.\n\nModels \nPerforming machine learning can involve creating a model, which is trained on some training data and then can process additional data to make predictions. Various types of models have been used and researched for machine learning systems.\n\nArtificial neural networks \nMain article: Artificial neural networkSee also: Deep learning\nAn artificial neural network is an interconnected group of nodes, akin to the vast network of neurons in a brain. Here, each circular node represents an artificial neuron and an arrow represents a connection from the output of one artificial neuron to the input of another.\n\nArtificial neural networks (ANNs), or connectionist systems, are computing systems vaguely inspired by the biological neural networks that constitute animal brains. Such systems \"learn\" to perform tasks by considering examples, generally without being programmed with any task-specific rules.\nAn ANN is a model based on a collection of connected units or nodes called \"artificial neurons\", which loosely model the neurons in a biological brain. Each connection, like the synapses in a biological brain, can transmit information, a \"signal\", from one artificial neuron to another. An artificial neuron that receives a signal can process it and then signal additional artificial neurons connected to it. In common ANN implementations, the signal at a connection between artificial neurons is a real number, and the output of each artificial neuron is computed by some non-linear function of the sum of its inputs. The connections between artificial neurons are called \"edges\". Artificial neurons and edges typically have a weight that adjusts as learning proceeds. The weight increases or decreases the strength of the signal at a connection. Artificial neurons may have a threshold such that the signal is only sent if the aggregate signal crosses that threshold. Typically, artificial neurons are aggregated into layers. Different layers may perform different kinds of transformations on their inputs. Signals travel from the first layer (the input layer) to the last layer (the output layer), possibly after traversing the layers multiple times.\nThe original goal of the ANN approach was to solve problems in the same way that a human brain would. However, over time, attention moved to performing specific tasks, leading to deviations from biology. Artificial neural networks have been used on a variety of tasks, including computer vision, speech recognition, machine translation, social network filtering, playing board and video games and medical diagnosis.\nDeep learning consists of multiple hidden layers in an artificial neural network. This approach tries to model the way the human brain processes light and sound into vision and hearing. Some successful applications of deep learning are computer vision and speech recognition.[75]\n\nDecision trees \nMain article: Decision tree learning\nA decision tree showing survival probability of passengers on the Titanic\n\nDecision tree learning uses a decision tree as a predictive model to go from observations about an item (represented in the branches) to conclusions about the item's target value (represented in the leaves). It is one of the predictive modeling approaches used in statistics, data mining, and machine learning. Tree models where the target variable can take a discrete set of values are called classification trees; in these tree structures, leaves represent class labels, and branches represent conjunctions of features that lead to those class labels. Decision trees where the target variable can take continuous values (typically real numbers) are called regression trees. In decision analysis, a decision tree can be used to visually and explicitly represent decisions and decision making. In data mining, a decision tree describes data, but the resulting classification tree can be an input for decision-making.\n\nSupport-vector machines \nMain article: Support-vector machine\nSupport-vector machines (SVMs), also known as support-vector networks, are a set of related supervised learning methods used for classification and regression. Given a set of training examples, each marked as belonging to one of two categories, an SVM training algorithm builds a model that predicts whether a new example falls into one category.[76] An SVM training algorithm is a non-probabilistic, binary, linear classifier, although methods such as Platt scaling exist to use SVM in a probabilistic classification setting. In addition to performing linear classification, SVMs can efficiently perform a non-linear classification using what is called the kernel trick, implicitly mapping their inputs into high-dimensional feature spaces.\n\nRegression analysis \nMain article: Regression analysis\nIllustration of linear regression on a data set\n\nRegression analysis encompasses a large variety of statistical methods to estimate the relationship between input variables and their associated features. Its most common form is linear regression, where a single line is drawn to best fit the given data according to a mathematical criterion such as ordinary least squares. The latter is often extended by regularization methods to mitigate overfitting and bias, as in ridge regression. When dealing with non-linear problems, go-to models include polynomial regression (for example, used for trendline fitting in Microsoft Excel[77]), logistic regression (often used in statistical classification) or even kernel regression, which introduces non-linearity by taking advantage of the kernel trick to implicitly map input variables to higher-dimensional space.\n\nBayesian networks \nMain article: Bayesian network\nA simple Bayesian network. Rain influences whether the sprinkler is activated, and both rain and the sprinkler influence whether the grass is wet.\n\nA Bayesian network, belief network, or directed acyclic graphical model is a probabilistic graphical model that represents a set of random variables and their conditional independence with a directed acyclic graph (DAG). For example, a Bayesian network could represent the probabilistic relationships between diseases and symptoms. Given symptoms, the network can be used to compute the probabilities of the presence of various diseases. Efficient algorithms exist that perform inference and learning. Bayesian networks that model sequences of variables, like speech signals or protein sequences, are called dynamic Bayesian networks. Generalizations of Bayesian networks that can represent and solve decision problems under uncertainty are called influence diagrams.\n\nGaussian processes \nMain article: Gaussian processes\nAn example of Gaussian Process Regression (prediction) compared with other regression models[78]\n\nA Gaussian process is a stochastic process in which every finite collection of the random variables in the process has a multivariate normal distribution, and it relies on a pre-defined covariance function, or kernel, that models how pairs of points relate to each other depending on their locations.\nGiven a set of observed points, or input\u2013output examples, the distribution of the (unobserved) output of a new point as function of its input data can be directly computed by looking like the observed points and the covariances between those points and the new, unobserved point.\nGaussian processes are popular surrogate models in Bayesian optimization used to do hyperparameter optimization.\n\nGenetic algorithms \nMain article: Genetic algorithm\nA genetic algorithm (GA) is a search algorithm and heuristic technique that mimics the process of natural selection, using methods such as mutation and crossover to generate new genotypes in the hope of finding good solutions to a given problem. In machine learning, genetic algorithms were used in the 1980s and 1990s.[79][80] Conversely, machine learning techniques have been used to improve the performance of genetic and evolutionary algorithms.[81]\n\nBelief functions \nMain article: Dempster\u2013Shafer theory\nThe theory of belief functions, also referred to as evidence theory or Dempster\u2013Shafer theory, is a general framework for reasoning with uncertainty, with understood connections to other frameworks such as probability, possibility and imprecise probability theories. These theoretical frameworks can be thought of as a kind of learner and have some analogous properties of how evidence is combined (e.g., Dempster's rule of combination), just like how in a pmf-based Bayesian approach would combine probabilities. However, there are many caveats to these beliefs functions when compared to Bayesian approaches in order to incorporate ignorance and Uncertainty quantification. These belief function approaches that are implemented within the machine learning domain typically leverage a fusion approach of various ensemble methods to better handle the learner's decision boundary, low samples, and ambiguous class issues that standard machine learning approach tend to have difficulty resolving.[3][5][10] However, the computational complexity of these algorithms are dependent on the number of propositions (classes), and can lead a much higher computation time when compared to other machine learning approaches.\n\nTraining models \nTypically, machine learning models require a high quantity of reliable data in order for the models to perform accurate predictions. When training a machine learning model, machine learning engineers need to target and collect a large and representative sample of data. Data from the training set can be as varied as a corpus of text, a collection of images, sensor data, and data collected from individual users of a service. Overfitting is something to watch out for when training a machine learning model. Trained models derived from biased or non-evaluated data can result in skewed or undesired predictions. Bias models may result in detrimental outcomes thereby furthering the negative impacts on society or objectives. Algorithmic bias is a potential result of data not being fully prepared for training. Machine learning ethics is becoming a field of study and notably be integrated within machine learning engineering teams.\n\nFederated learning \nMain article: Federated learning\nFederated learning is an adapted form of distributed artificial intelligence to training machine learning models that decentralizes the training process, allowing for users' privacy to be maintained by not needing to send their data to a centralized server. This also increases efficiency by decentralizing the training process to many devices. For example, Gboard uses federated machine learning to train search query prediction models on users' mobile phones without having to send individual searches back to Google.[82]\n\nApplications \nThere are many applications for machine learning, including:\n\n\nAgriculture\nAnatomy\nAdaptive website\nAffective computing\nAstronomy\nAutomated decision-making\nBanking\nBehaviorism\nBioinformatics\nBrain\u2013machine interfaces\nCheminformatics\nCitizen Science\nClimate Science\nComputer networks\nComputer vision\nCredit-card fraud detection\nData quality\nDNA sequence classification\nEconomics\nFinancial market analysis[83]\nGeneral game playing\nHandwriting recognition\nHealthcare\nInformation retrieval\nInsurance\nInternet fraud detection\nKnowledge graph embedding\nLinguistics\nMachine learning control\nMachine perception\nMachine translation\nMarketing\nMedical diagnosis\nNatural language processing\nNatural language understanding\nOnline advertising\nOptimization\nRecommender systems\nRobot locomotion\nSearch engines\nSentiment analysis\nSequence mining\nSoftware engineering\nSpeech recognition\nStructural health monitoring\nSyntactic pattern recognition\nTelecommunication\nTheorem proving\nTime-series forecasting\nTomographic reconstruction[84]\nUser behavior analytics\n\nIn 2006, the media-services provider Netflix held the first \"Netflix Prize\" competition to find a program to better predict user preferences and improve the accuracy of its existing Cinematch movie recommendation algorithm by at least 10%. A joint team made up of researchers from AT&amp;T Labs-Research in collaboration with the teams Big Chaos and Pragmatic Theory built an ensemble model to win the Grand Prize in 2009 for $1 million.[85] Shortly after the prize was awarded, Netflix realized that viewers' ratings were not the best indicators of their viewing patterns (\"everything is a recommendation\") and they changed their recommendation engine accordingly.[86] In 2010 The Wall Street Journal wrote about the firm Rebellion Research and their use of machine learning to predict the financial crisis.[87] In 2012, co-founder of Sun Microsystems, Vinod Khosla, predicted that 80% of medical doctors jobs would be lost in the next two decades to automated machine learning medical diagnostic software.[88] In 2014, it was reported that a machine learning algorithm had been applied in the field of art history to study fine art paintings and that it may have revealed previously unrecognized influences among artists.[89] In 2019 Springer Nature published the first research book created using machine learning.[90] In 2020, machine learning technology was used to help make diagnoses and aid researchers in developing a cure for COVID-19.[91] Machine learning was recently applied to predict the pro-environmental behavior of travelers.[92] Recently, machine learning technology was also applied to optimize smartphone's performance and thermal behavior based on the user's interaction with the phone.[93][94][95] When applied correctly, machine learning algorithms (MLAs) can utilize a wide range of company characteristics to predict stock returns without overfitting. By employing effective feature engineering and combining forecasts, MLAs can generate results that far surpass those obtained from basic linear techniques like OLS.[96]\n\nLimitations \nAlthough machine learning has been transformative in some fields, machine-learning programs often fail to deliver expected results.[97][98][99] Reasons for this are numerous: lack of (suitable) data, lack of access to the data, data bias, privacy problems, badly chosen tasks and algorithms, wrong tools and people, lack of resources, and evaluation problems.[100]\nThe \"black box theory\" poses another yet significant challenge. Black box refers to a situation where the algorithm or the process of producing an output is entirely opaque, meaning that even the coders of the algorithm cannot audit the pattern that the machine extracted out of the data.[101] The House of Lords Select Committee, which claimed that such an \u201cintelligence system\u201d that could have a \u201csubstantial impact on an individual\u2019s life\u201d would not be considered acceptable unless it provided \u201ca full and satisfactory explanation for the decisions\u201d it makes.[101]\nIn 2018, a self-driving car from Uber failed to detect a pedestrian, who was killed after a collision.[102] Attempts to use machine learning in healthcare with the IBM Watson system failed to deliver even after years of time and billions of dollars invested.[103][104] Microsoft's chatbot has been reported to produce hostile and offensive response against its users.[105]\nMachine learning has been used as a strategy to update the evidence related to a systematic review and increased reviewer burden related to the growth of biomedical literature. While it has improved with training sets, it has not yet developed sufficiently to reduce the workload burden without limiting the necessary sensitivity for the findings research themselves.[106]\n\nBias \nMain article: Algorithmic biasMachine learning approaches in particular can suffer from different data biases. A machine learning system trained specifically on current customers may not be able to predict the needs of new customer groups that are not represented in the training data. When trained on human-made data, machine learning is likely to pick up the constitutional and unconscious biases already present in society.[107]\nLanguage models learned from data have been shown to contain human-like biases.[108][109] An experiment carried out by ProPublica, a predictive policing company, regarding machine learning algorithm\u2019s insight towards the recidivism rates among prisoners falsely flagged \u201cblack defendants high risk twice as often as white defendants.\u201d[110] In 2015, Google photos would often tag black people as gorillas,[110] and in 2018 this still was not well resolved, but Google reportedly was still using the workaround to remove all gorillas from the training data, and thus was not able to recognize real gorillas at all.[111] Similar issues with recognizing non-white people have been found in many other systems.[112] In 2016, Microsoft tested a chatbot that learned from Twitter, and it quickly picked up racist and sexist language.[113]\nBecause of such challenges, the effective use of machine learning may take longer to be adopted in other domains.[114] Concern for fairness in machine learning, that is, reducing bias in machine learning and propelling its use for human good is increasingly expressed by artificial intelligence scientists, including Fei-Fei Li, who reminds engineers that \"There's nothing artificial about AI...It's inspired by people, it's created by people, and\u2014most importantly\u2014it impacts people. It is a powerful tool we are only just beginning to understand, and that is a profound responsibility.\"[115]\n\nExplainability \nMain article: Explainable artificial intelligence\nExplainable AI (XAI), or Interpretable AI, or Explainable Machine Learning (XML), is artificial intelligence (AI) in which humans can understand the decisions or predictions made by the AI.[116] It contrasts with the \"black box\" concept in machine learning where even its designers cannot explain why an AI arrived at a specific decision.[117] By refining the mental models of users of AI-powered systems and dismantling their misconceptions, XAI promises to help users perform more effectively. XAI may be an implementation of the social right to explanation.\n\nOverfitting \nMain article: Overfitting\nThe blue line could be an example of overfitting a linear function due to random noise.\n\nSettling on a bad, overly complex theory gerrymandered to fit all the past training data is known as overfitting. Many systems attempt to reduce overfitting by rewarding a theory in accordance with how well it fits the data but penalizing the theory in accordance with how complex the theory is.[118]\n\nOther limitations and vulnerabilities \nLearners can also disappoint by \"learning the wrong lesson\". A toy example is that an image classifier trained only on pictures of brown horses and black cats might conclude that all brown patches are likely to be horses.[119] A real-world example is that, unlike humans, current image classifiers often do not primarily make judgments from the spatial relationship between components of the picture, and they learn relationships between pixels that humans are oblivious to, but that still correlate with images of certain types of real objects. Modifying these patterns on a legitimate image can result in \"adversarial\" images that the system misclassifies.[120][121]\nAdversarial vulnerabilities can also result in nonlinear systems, or from non-pattern perturbations. For some systems, it is possible to change the output by only changing a single adversarially chosen pixel.[122] Machine learning models are often vulnerable to manipulation and\/or evasion via adversarial machine learning.[123]\nResearchers have demonstrated how backdoors can be placed undetectably into classifying (e.g., for categories \"spam\" and well-visible \"not spam\" of posts) machine learning models which are often developed and\/or trained by third parties. Parties can change the classification of any input, including in cases for which a type of data\/software transparency is provided, possibly including white-box access.[124][125][126]\n\nModel assessments \nClassification of machine learning models can be validated by accuracy estimation techniques like the holdout method, which splits the data in a training and test set (conventionally 2\/3 training set and 1\/3 test set designation) and evaluates the performance of the training model on the test set. In comparison, the K-fold-cross-validation method randomly partitions the data into K subsets and then K experiments are performed each respectively considering 1 subset for evaluation and the remaining K-1 subsets for training the model. In addition to the holdout and cross-validation methods, bootstrap, which samples n instances with replacement from the dataset, can be used to assess model accuracy.[127]\nIn addition to overall accuracy, investigators frequently report sensitivity and specificity meaning True Positive Rate (TPR) and True Negative Rate (TNR) respectively. Similarly, investigators sometimes report the false positive rate (FPR) as well as the false negative rate (FNR). However, these rates are ratios that fail to reveal their numerators and denominators. The total operating characteristic (TOC) is an effective method to express a model's diagnostic ability. TOC shows the numerators and denominators of the previously mentioned rates, thus TOC provides more information than the commonly used receiver operating characteristic (ROC) and ROC's associated area under the curve (AUC).[128]\n\nEthics \nSee also: AI control problem, Toronto Declaration, and Ethics of artificial intelligence\nMachine learning poses a host of ethical questions. Systems that are trained on datasets collected with biases may exhibit these biases upon use (algorithmic bias), thus digitizing cultural prejudices.[129] For example, in 1988, the UK's Commission for Racial Equality found that St. George's Medical School had been using a computer program trained from data of previous admissions staff and this program had denied nearly 60 candidates who were found to be either women or had non-European sounding names.[130] Using job hiring data from a firm with racist hiring policies may lead to a machine learning system duplicating the bias by scoring job applicants by similarity to previous successful applicants.[131][132] Another example includes predictive policing company Geolitica's predictive algorithm that resulted in \u201cdisproportionately high levels of over-policing in low-income and minority communities\u201d after being trained with historical crime data.[133]\nWhile responsible collection of data and documentation of algorithmic rules used by a system is considered a critical part of machine learning, some researchers blame lack of participation and representation of minority population in the field of AI for machine learning's vulnerability to biases.[134] In fact, according to research carried out by the Computing Research Association (CRA) in 2021, \u201cfemale faculty merely make up 16.1%\u201d of all faculty members who focus on AI among several universities around the world.[135] Furthermore, among the group of \u201cnew U.S. resident AI PhD graduates,\u201d 45% identified as white, 22.4% as Asian, 3.2% as Hispanic, and 2.4% as African American, which further demonstrates a lack of diversity in the field of AI.[135]\nAI can be well-equipped to make decisions in technical fields, which rely heavily on data and historical information. These decisions rely on objectivity and logical reasoning.[136] Because human languages contain biases, machines trained on language corpora will necessarily also learn these biases.[137][138]\nOther forms of ethical challenges, not related to personal biases, are seen in health care. There are concerns among health care professionals that these systems might not be designed in the public's interest but as income-generating machines.[139] This is especially true in the United States where there is a long-standing ethical dilemma of improving health care, but also increasing profits. For example, the algorithms could be designed to provide patients with unnecessary tests or medication in which the algorithm's proprietary owners hold stakes. There is potential for machine learning in health care to provide professionals an additional tool to diagnose, medicate, and plan recovery paths for patients, but this requires these biases to be mitigated.[140]\n\nHardware \nSince the 2010s, advances in both machine learning algorithms and computer hardware have led to more efficient methods for training deep neural networks (a particular narrow subdomain of machine learning) that contain many layers of non-linear hidden units.[141] By 2019, graphic processing units (GPUs), often with AI-specific enhancements, had displaced CPUs as the dominant method of training large-scale commercial cloud AI.[142] OpenAI estimated the hardware computing used in the largest deep learning projects from AlexNet (2012) to AlphaZero (2017), and found a 300,000-fold increase in the amount of compute required, with a doubling-time trendline of 3.4 months.[143][144]\n\n Neuromorphic\/Physical Neural Networks \nA physical neural network or Neuromorphic computer is a type of artificial neural network in which an electrically adjustable material is used to emulate the function of a neural synapse. \"Physical\" neural network is used to emphasize the reliance on physical hardware used to emulate neurons as opposed to software-based approaches. More generally the term is applicable to other artificial neural networks in which a memristor or other electrically adjustable resistance material is used to emulate a neural synapse.[145][146]\n\nEmbedded Machine Learning \nEmbedded Machine Learning is a sub-field of machine learning, where the machine learning model is run on embedded systems with limited computing resources such as wearable computers, edge devices and microcontrollers.[147][148][149] Running machine learning model in embedded devices removes the need for transferring and storing data on cloud servers for further processing, henceforth, reducing data breaches and privacy leaks happening because of transferring data, and also minimizes theft of intellectual properties, personal data and business secrets. Embedded Machine Learning could be applied through several techniques including hardware acceleration,[150][151] using approximate computing,[152] optimization of machine learning models and many more.[153][154]\n\nSoftware \nSoftware suites containing a variety of machine learning algorithms include the following:\n\nFree and open-source software \n\nCaffe\nDeeplearning4j\nDeepSpeed\nELKI\nGoogle JAX\nInfer.NET\nKeras\nKubeflow\nLightGBM\nMahout\nMallet\nMicrosoft Cognitive Toolkit\nML.NET\nmlpack\nMXNet\nOpenNN\nOrange\npandas (software)\nROOT (TMVA with ROOT)\nscikit-learn\nShogun\nSpark MLlib\nSystemML\nTensorFlow\nTorch \/ PyTorch\nWeka \/ MOA\nXGBoost\nYooreeka\n\nProprietary software with free and open-source editions \nKNIME\nRapidMiner\nProprietary software \n\nAmazon Machine Learning\nAngoss KnowledgeSTUDIO\nAzure Machine Learning\nIBM Watson Studio\nGoogle Cloud Vertex AI\nGoogle Prediction API\nIBM SPSS Modeler\nKXEN Modeler\nLIONsolver\nMathematica\nMATLAB\nNeural Designer\nNeuroSolutions\nOracle Data Mining\nOracle AI Platform Cloud Service\nPolyAnalyst\nRCASE\nSAS Enterprise Miner\nSequenceL\nSplunk\nSTATISTICA Data Miner\n\nJournals \nJournal of Machine Learning Research\nMachine Learning\nNature Machine Intelligence\nNeural Computation\nIEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence\nConferences \nAAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence\nAssociation for Computational Linguistics (ACL)\nEuropean Conference on Machine Learning and Principles and Practice of Knowledge Discovery in Databases (ECML PKDD)\nInternational Conference on Computational Intelligence Methods for Bioinformatics and Biostatistics (CIBB)\nInternational Conference on Machine Learning (ICML)\nInternational Conference on Learning Representations (ICLR)\nInternational Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS)\nConference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (KDD)\nConference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NeurIPS)\nSee also \nAutomated machine learning&#160;\u2013 Process of automating the application of machine learning\nBig data&#160;\u2013 Extremely large or complex datasets\nDifferentiable programming&#160;\u2013 Programming paradigm\nForce control\nList of important publications in machine learning\nList of datasets for machine-learning research\nReferences \n\n\n^ The definition \"without being explicitly programmed\" is often attributed to Arthur Samuel, who coined the term \"machine learning\" in 1959, but the phrase is not found verbatim in this publication, and may be a paraphrase that appeared later. 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Retrieved 2022-01-17 . \n\n^ Branco, S\u00e9rgio; Ferreira, Andr\u00e9 G.; Cabral, Jorge (2019-11-05). \"Machine Learning in Resource-Scarce Embedded Systems, FPGAs, and End-Devices: A Survey\". Electronics. 8 (11): 1289. doi:10.3390\/electronics8111289 . hdl:1822\/62521 . ISSN&#160;2079-9292. \n\n\nSources \nDomingos, Pedro (September 22, 2015). The Master Algorithm: How the Quest for the Ultimate Learning Machine Will Remake Our World. Basic Books. ISBN&#160;978-0465065707. \nNilsson, Nils (1998). Artificial Intelligence: A New Synthesis . Morgan Kaufmann. ISBN&#160;978-1-55860-467-4. Archived from the original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved 18 November 2019 . \nRussell, Stuart J.; Norvig, Peter (2003), Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (2nd&#160;ed.), Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, ISBN&#160;0-13-790395-2 .\nPoole, David; Mackworth, Alan; Goebel, Randy (1998). Computational Intelligence: A Logical Approach. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN&#160;978-0-19-510270-3. Archived from the original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved 22 August 2020 . \nFurther reading \n\nNils J. Nilsson, Introduction to Machine Learning Archived 2019-08-16 at the Wayback Machine.\nTrevor Hastie, Robert Tibshirani and Jerome H. Friedman (2001). The Elements of Statistical Learning Archived 2013-10-27 at the Wayback Machine, Springer. ISBN&#160;0-387-95284-5.\nPedro Domingos (September 2015), The Master Algorithm, Basic Books, ISBN&#160;978-0-465-06570-7\nIan H. Witten and Eibe Frank (2011). Data Mining: Practical machine learning tools and techniques Morgan Kaufmann, 664pp., ISBN&#160;978-0-12-374856-0.\nEthem Alpaydin (2004). Introduction to Machine Learning, MIT Press, ISBN&#160;978-0-262-01243-0.\nDavid J. C. MacKay. Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms Archived 2016-02-17 at the Wayback Machine Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN&#160;0-521-64298-1\nRichard O. Duda, Peter E. Hart, David G. Stork (2001) Pattern classification (2nd edition), Wiley, New York, ISBN&#160;0-471-05669-3.\nChristopher Bishop (1995). Neural Networks for Pattern Recognition, Oxford University Press. ISBN&#160;0-19-853864-2.\nStuart Russell &amp; Peter Norvig, (2009). Artificial Intelligence \u2013 A Modern Approach Archived 2011-02-28 at the Wayback Machine. Pearson, ISBN&#160;9789332543515.\nRay Solomonoff, An Inductive Inference Machine, IRE Convention Record, Section on Information Theory, Part 2, pp., 56\u201362, 1957.\nRay Solomonoff, An Inductive Inference Machine Archived 2011-04-26 at the Wayback Machine A privately circulated report from the 1956 Dartmouth Summer Research Conference on AI.\nKevin P. Murphy (2021). Probabilistic Machine Learning: An Introduction Archived 2021-04-11 at the Wayback Machine, MIT Press.\n\nExternal links \n\n\n \nWikimedia Commons has media related to Machine learning .\n\n Quotations related to Machine learning at Wikiquote\nInternational Machine Learning Society\nmloss is an academic database of open-source machine learning software.\nvteDifferentiable computingGeneral\nDifferentiable programming\nInformation geometry\nStatistical manifold\nAutomatic differentiation\nNeuromorphic engineering\nPattern recognition\nTensor calculus\nComputational learning theory\nInductive bias\nConcepts\nGradient descent\nSGD\nClustering\nRegression\nOverfitting\nHallucination\nAdversary\nAttention\nConvolution\nLoss functions\nBackpropagation\nBatchnorm\nActivation\nSoftmax\nSigmoid\nRectifier\nRegularization\nDatasets\nAugmentation\nDiffusion\nAutoregression\nApplications\nMachine learning\nIn-context learning\nArtificial neural network\nDeep learning\nScientific 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edited on 12 June 2022, at 14:34.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 3,817 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","79aab39cfa124c958cd1dbcab3dde122_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Machine_learning rootpage-Machine_learning skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Machine learning<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Study of algorithms that improve automatically through experience<\/div>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">For the journal, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_Learning_(journal)\" title=\"Machine Learning (journal)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27721329792e0278fe13787f13d45840\"><i>Machine Learning<\/i> (journal)<\/a>.<\/div>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">\"Statistical learning\" redirects here. For statistical learning in linguistics, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_learning_in_language_acquisition\" title=\"Statistical learning in language acquisition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7ea9b0b913603f86e2794e7eeece0303\">statistical learning in language acquisition<\/a>.<\/div>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488\" \/><table class=\"sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks\" style=\"\"><tbody><tr><td class=\"sidebar-pretitle\">Part of a series on<\/td><\/tr><tr><th class=\"sidebar-title-with-pretitle\"><a class=\"mw-selflink selflink\">Machine learning<\/a><br \/>and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mining\" title=\"Data mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0476196065f64ef9067933bc43b6634\">data mining<\/a><\/th><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center; background:#ddd;\">Paradigms<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supervised_learning\" title=\"Supervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5adaeeb5da1f2d0b8ac1f6d9bab6967c\">Supervised learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unsupervised_learning\" title=\"Unsupervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c9e858df53fef2503acd60c11560020\">Unsupervised learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Online_machine_learning\" title=\"Online machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cf4f63de02016e9d7b34c2eaac028a75\">Online learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Batch_learning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Batch learning\" data-key=\"f5998dd4249a95bc5eacc1d7e8554eb5\">Batch learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Meta-learning_(computer_science)\" title=\"Meta-learning (computer science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5a3a01546e52c1eb5a0b8fc418ef3abc\">Meta-learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semi-supervised_learning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Semi-supervised learning\" data-key=\"6504615e972451663dc33142bb427ca9\">Semi-supervised learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Self-supervised_learning\" title=\"Self-supervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"367335bb2f2c8c4776bf3cf382517eef\">Self-supervised learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reinforcement_learning\" title=\"Reinforcement learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cecfb51a025421a8d22a6fa8a7094e15\">Reinforcement learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rule-based_machine_learning\" title=\"Rule-based machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca715d4e9f51e83cd221693385d0913d\">Rule-based learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quantum_machine_learning\" title=\"Quantum machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fb97bba2e382b0972008affd6b53e47f\">Quantum machine learning<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center; background:#ddd;\">Problems<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_classification\" title=\"Statistical classification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1bd89e7f87ae911d07b473e7f48d260\">Classification<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Generative_model\" title=\"Generative model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fddcfbbd35440d0c463f3998acec0b91\">Generative model<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regression_analysis\" title=\"Regression analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afc84bb0b3e2e76d4909d879fcbb2ae0\">Regression<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cluster_analysis\" title=\"Cluster analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e234109dffe357b6cea27dc291f680fa\">Clustering<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dimensionality_reduction\" title=\"Dimensionality reduction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4556ade3b4a0a6a8d8704fce11a66d19\">dimension reduction<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Density_estimation\" title=\"Density estimation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e154818923edfb8396c2ef66f332a17a\">density estimation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anomaly_detection\" title=\"Anomaly detection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3bba5c970d8f41b6bd4492e1d32f9118\">Anomaly detection<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Cleaning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data Cleaning\" data-key=\"72579c48322e60bc8c218cf1db1a32b7\">Data Cleaning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_machine_learning\" title=\"Automated machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cf546d54bcba69734c4ae557eb27bc71\">AutoML<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Association_rule_learning\" title=\"Association rule learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"69b9d54917f42d0ac09a6ce55397d096\">Association rules<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantic_analysis_(machine_learning)\" title=\"Semantic analysis (machine learning)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07d2d9e35cf8b36c4a66f76296ffaadf\">Semantic analysis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Structured_prediction\" title=\"Structured prediction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96fa6b1ab19d2f507953872390773638\">Structured prediction<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Feature_engineering\" title=\"Feature engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b35c2f718d44cad181d706f87c70fb2c\">Feature engineering<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Feature_learning\" title=\"Feature learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"25c4bbbe4c545e982310e26d720cd6dc\">Feature learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Learning_to_rank\" title=\"Learning to rank\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"433a9e4bbcc41dd2548e7f4f5ea60644\">Learning to rank<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Grammar_induction\" title=\"Grammar induction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6fb5e80e6a303475bd2e0128a7e2a1e2\">Grammar induction<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ontology_learning\" title=\"Ontology learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ad2ac8e01fccc11c9fa8c734f5af2603\">Ontology learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multimodal_learning\" title=\"Multimodal learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f1549eb9b9fceb1a0d6f149d0b5eb465\">Multimodal learning<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center; background:#ddd;\"><div style=\"display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supervised_learning\" title=\"Supervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5adaeeb5da1f2d0b8ac1f6d9bab6967c\">Supervised learning<\/a><br \/><span class=\"nobold\"><span style=\"font-size:85%;\">(<b><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_classification\" title=\"Statistical classification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1bd89e7f87ae911d07b473e7f48d260\">classification<\/a><\/b>&#160;\u2022 <b><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regression_analysis\" title=\"Regression analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afc84bb0b3e2e76d4909d879fcbb2ae0\">regression<\/a><\/b>)<\/span><\/span> <\/div><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apprenticeship_learning\" title=\"Apprenticeship learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e5381080b16a98cb6b5c3d406b975e3a\">Apprenticeship learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_tree_learning\" title=\"Decision tree learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4164d60d7492f2ce658e44b26d1d2702\">Decision trees<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ensemble_learning\" title=\"Ensemble learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"524404854c31f52f1cd58cbcef1d138c\">Ensembles<\/a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bootstrap_aggregating\" title=\"Bootstrap aggregating\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5261681908097de9a4e8b8bf9ad126b5\">Bagging<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Boosting_(machine_learning)\" title=\"Boosting (machine learning)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"909f334776c56e47fb1256cee49fba01\">Boosting<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Random_forest\" title=\"Random forest\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7498be71bed6e2fdcf84fe40492498aa\">Random forest<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/K-nearest_neighbors_algorithm\" title=\"K-nearest neighbors algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"882596b8e90875ed88eb496081b75859\"><i>k<\/i>-NN<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linear_regression\" title=\"Linear regression\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"85453f53b8a2cdb252a2e05dbd419405\">Linear regression<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Naive_Bayes_classifier\" title=\"Naive Bayes classifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"18dd737ec81f328d3d6681e1620445c7\">Naive Bayes<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_neural_network\" title=\"Artificial neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73964ffff0d6be12acd68eded7e41d19\">Artificial neural networks<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logistic_regression\" title=\"Logistic regression\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"02aceaf0d8cb200b9c48cd2f097bb1dc\">Logistic regression<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Perceptron\" title=\"Perceptron\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"04a4d1565003f718e5659ee6ae90061f\">Perceptron<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relevance_vector_machine\" title=\"Relevance vector machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9c91a60503fccf10e5f8423171d913ac\">Relevance vector machine (RVM)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Support_vector_machine\" title=\"Support vector machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01aa5bcb5f310503db0370be4d7dde0c\">Support vector machine (SVM)<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center; background:#ddd;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cluster_analysis\" title=\"Cluster analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e234109dffe357b6cea27dc291f680fa\">Clustering<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/BIRCH\" title=\"BIRCH\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7689e68d7dffd37f2821e529c3e030e6\">BIRCH<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CURE_algorithm\" title=\"CURE algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"835654863f259e6de722c7ccf1b776d2\">CURE<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hierarchical_clustering\" title=\"Hierarchical clustering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"547a17412316cf0e1ea04bb672ff86ac\">Hierarchical<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/K-means_clustering\" title=\"K-means clustering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"44e3a95f949e983a6e176a24f136ad45\"><i>k<\/i>-means<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fuzzy_clustering\" title=\"Fuzzy clustering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2fecca6ad7507d198f5f8019f3460eb3\">Fuzzy<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Expectation%E2%80%93maximization_algorithm\" title=\"Expectation\u2013maximization algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"689bbd078640f916981d7d2600b07b2e\">Expectation\u2013maximization (EM)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><br \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DBSCAN\" title=\"DBSCAN\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2760bf753e3db58dbe2fed6a3a87a802\">DBSCAN<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OPTICS_algorithm\" title=\"OPTICS algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"33fc50aae72f90574c4ccaedd09e0820\">OPTICS<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mean_shift\" title=\"Mean shift\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b87236483b7834a4e1e3b5b9f76117b\">Mean shift<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center; background:#ddd;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dimensionality_reduction\" title=\"Dimensionality reduction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4556ade3b4a0a6a8d8704fce11a66d19\">Dimensionality reduction<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Factor_analysis\" title=\"Factor analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0d66e2d82807d9f3a5a7996838965383\">Factor analysis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Canonical_correlation\" title=\"Canonical correlation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7fcaabc2af766d16dace5a3a4a88fd61\">CCA<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Independent_component_analysis\" title=\"Independent component analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b5b1c2fc57ef5fc1ebbf3c72febc842\">ICA<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linear_discriminant_analysis\" title=\"Linear discriminant analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96ca1fa19f6aba55688fa0ce041ddf64\">LDA<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Non-negative_matrix_factorization\" title=\"Non-negative matrix factorization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f58be386e2f54ba09fa7366bc0336f9\">NMF<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Principal_component_analysis\" title=\"Principal component analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"acf4c2c0901a58dc84cd686341a415e4\">PCA<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Proper_generalized_decomposition\" title=\"Proper generalized decomposition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4298167950075c81c7bd092cb9201c99\">PGD<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/T-distributed_stochastic_neighbor_embedding\" title=\"T-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fb196d4435ec52cb0f1751379ab1323c\">t-SNE<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sparse_dictionary_learning\" title=\"Sparse dictionary learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cee0aeb97faa0419cad2da2097b9cf25\">SDL<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center; background:#ddd;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Structured_prediction\" title=\"Structured prediction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96fa6b1ab19d2f507953872390773638\">Structured prediction<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Graphical_model\" title=\"Graphical model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96879083bb03e34a53730fbb180daea8\">Graphical models<\/a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bayesian_network\" title=\"Bayesian network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebc823a40ca85fe6368464bee686f254\">Bayes net<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conditional_random_field\" title=\"Conditional random field\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7fd5c822b366a6c9733e51e5ba452609\">Conditional random field<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hidden_Markov_model\" title=\"Hidden Markov model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b2584878cd5e770c2f74616bed61710\">Hidden Markov<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center; background:#ddd;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anomaly_detection\" title=\"Anomaly detection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3bba5c970d8f41b6bd4492e1d32f9118\">Anomaly detection<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Random_sample_consensus\" title=\"Random sample consensus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5c5288d2ffe4bb55cd9b7e5d90dbf2e5\">RANSAC<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/K-nearest_neighbors_algorithm\" title=\"K-nearest neighbors algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"882596b8e90875ed88eb496081b75859\"><i>k<\/i>-NN<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Local_outlier_factor\" title=\"Local outlier factor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b0820a37b7c49d65d997290eb75cb0a\">Local outlier factor<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Isolation_forest\" title=\"Isolation forest\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"539f37ab0abdff9793a5ef8335926de0\">Isolation forest<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center; background:#ddd;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_neural_network\" title=\"Artificial neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73964ffff0d6be12acd68eded7e41d19\">Artificial neural network<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Autoencoder\" title=\"Autoencoder\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d0b18c427d5281fd5736ceb757f8273d\">Autoencoder<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cognitive_computing\" title=\"Cognitive computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6ff813a13893f8b76e01a9b1eaf8d0ae\">Cognitive computing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_learning\" title=\"Deep learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60a402792d36ac6697fa1e78697b47ee\">Deep learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DeepDream\" title=\"DeepDream\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bc4e7813e83bab30b5c645d37ca6e78\">DeepDream<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Feedforward_neural_network\" title=\"Feedforward neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bcbc04f3ee4edcf5215ba9705be493de\">Feedforward neural network<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Recurrent_neural_network\" title=\"Recurrent neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9947826e865b6f1481a9350c2d215826\">Recurrent neural network<\/a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Long_short-term_memory\" title=\"Long short-term memory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fde1fe57c2336160b7bba531bdd8675a\">LSTM<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gated_recurrent_unit\" title=\"Gated recurrent unit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"32947a42ca8c8f3dc46cf5736d819dc3\">GRU<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Echo_state_network\" title=\"Echo state network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e8f36c7417c4829fbb5707556f5ed518\">ESN<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reservoir_computing\" title=\"Reservoir computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0cfb4bb0f64d99b1058cbbed8f3f9c49\">reservoir computing<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Restricted_Boltzmann_machine\" title=\"Restricted Boltzmann machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c06f419839303ec3e77dce9051551aef\">Restricted Boltzmann machine<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Generative_adversarial_network\" title=\"Generative adversarial network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c0f3cd22442f9a398cea8f3d55d3885\">GAN<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Diffusion_model\" title=\"Diffusion model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bc1f2d504739b3b8082af1648a14645c\">Diffusion model<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Self-organizing_map\" title=\"Self-organizing map\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2af2c804752c8f0a556b1d30744f0cf4\">SOM<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Convolutional_neural_network\" title=\"Convolutional neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2d66c11cdf5b17fc49358ff9fb8e68dc\">Convolutional neural network<\/a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/U-Net\" title=\"U-Net\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2841fc8c63969d37d0cc46526a67cdc5\">U-Net<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transformer_(machine_learning_model)\" title=\"Transformer (machine learning model)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b03043859b7f60436170330be1fdecf1\">Transformer<\/a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vision_transformer\" title=\"Vision transformer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"69cd636bcc4128596a40db47319bd7ce\">Vision<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spiking_neural_network\" title=\"Spiking neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f0537f150cbd3c57123eb2c13c34c32\">Spiking neural network<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Memtransistor\" title=\"Memtransistor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"21dca5ca767ca6afa2ba44a901c2d7a8\">Memtransistor<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electrochemical_RAM\" title=\"Electrochemical RAM\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c54ad92b0e3296595c372184e6f840ee\">Electrochemical RAM<\/a> (ECRAM)<\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center; background:#ddd;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reinforcement_learning\" title=\"Reinforcement learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cecfb51a025421a8d22a6fa8a7094e15\">Reinforcement learning<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Q-learning\" title=\"Q-learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d47074efd2198e8c36e7cad0b9353c2a\">Q-learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/State%E2%80%93action%E2%80%93reward%E2%80%93state%E2%80%93action\" title=\"State\u2013action\u2013reward\u2013state\u2013action\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5ca41ef508d02dc06cb7dac22bf5cdb3\">SARSA<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Temporal_difference_learning\" title=\"Temporal difference learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"249d80fd8f185ca3c02bc9d6a2b80d08\">Temporal difference (TD)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multi-agent_reinforcement_learning\" title=\"Multi-agent reinforcement learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"39f2562fbfa1cec9ee38322abaf4af97\">Multi-agent<\/a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Self-play_(reinforcement_learning_technique)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Self-play (reinforcement learning technique)\" data-key=\"33cd0570ef317f0daa9c9942a4667f82\">Self-play<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center; background:#ddd;\">Learning with humans<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Active_learning_(machine_learning)\" title=\"Active learning (machine learning)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bab4ca0aa13e7521045ce95189f09d5f\">Active learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Crowdsourcing\" title=\"Crowdsourcing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48733729f7e2ec744b3fa4dd8a984584\">Crowdsourcing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human-in-the-loop\" title=\"Human-in-the-loop\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff97bd48fe1c02b12d660b1c91c9396a\">Human-in-the-loop<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center; background:#ddd;\">Model diagnostics<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Learning_curve_(machine_learning)\" title=\"Learning curve (machine learning)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8c0823d88fb6574839db7652281497ca\">Learning curve<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center; background:#ddd;\">Mathematical foundations<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kernel_machines\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Kernel machines\" data-key=\"0ec1e14339ab950e16d1bc01d7d0eec2\">Kernel machines<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bias%E2%80%93variance_tradeoff\" title=\"Bias\u2013variance tradeoff\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2eb21152461822865df7c634f4bed332\">Bias\u2013variance tradeoff<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_learning_theory\" title=\"Computational learning theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9cc562e86774b252f65ad147577243ae\">Computational learning theory<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Empirical_risk_minimization\" title=\"Empirical risk minimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1693fe72fb56ba1fca2e2c52c90242b3\">Empirical risk minimization<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Occam_learning\" title=\"Occam learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c67d954fef550d8477af6ccaa0a4b823\">Occam learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Probably_approximately_correct_learning\" title=\"Probably approximately correct learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bb4dec6a8fd2c280be4b68d192ee83c\">PAC learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_learning_theory\" title=\"Statistical learning theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"118d062c73567ce7bbdf1b29548bbd5b\">Statistical learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vapnik%E2%80%93Chervonenkis_theory\" title=\"Vapnik\u2013Chervonenkis theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d8188098de6988ed2b53aeb703aa27c\">VC theory<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center; background:#ddd;\">Machine-learning venues<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ECML_PKDD\" title=\"ECML PKDD\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"89ee6a633668dcf9c5fac64e80f276ac\">ECML PKDD<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conference_on_Neural_Information_Processing_Systems\" title=\"Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0730e0e4164eeb30eb2d903a1979b3ec\">NeurIPS<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Conference_on_Machine_Learning\" title=\"International Conference on Machine Learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afdcffd4f79def1da21bef6ece0e65ec\">ICML<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Conference_on_Learning_Representations\" title=\"International Conference on Learning Representations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d0a25d10322360cd22711cb94bd7a2f7\">ICLR<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Joint_Conference_on_Artificial_Intelligence\" title=\"International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6c03cbeeaef0a1f69a328f9fa1ecc6bb\">IJCAI<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_Learning_(journal)\" title=\"Machine Learning (journal)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27721329792e0278fe13787f13d45840\">ML<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Journal_of_Machine_Learning_Research\" title=\"Journal of Machine Learning Research\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0986ff6f540bccf40ef2dfe3f7e45775\">JMLR<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center; background:#ddd;\">Related articles<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Glossary of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"441c02aab14ebdf235a3e39d66538693\">Glossary of artificial intelligence<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_datasets_for_machine-learning_research\" title=\"List of datasets for machine-learning research\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9429ca0cecce3817e6ad4b4da64a0438\">List of datasets for machine-learning research<\/a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_datasets_in_computer_vision_and_image_processing\" title=\"List of datasets in computer vision and image processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"388a91e5034df7e62442c10bce02151f\">List of datasets in computer vision and image processing<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Outline_of_machine_learning\" title=\"Outline of machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd36faa631da3638db3c4324329ee17b\">Outline of machine learning<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-navbar\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1045330069\" \/><table class=\"sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist\" style=\"\"><tbody><tr><td class=\"sidebar-pretitle\">Part of a series on<\/td><\/tr><tr><th class=\"sidebar-title-with-pretitle\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Outline_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Outline of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c37a26aa0fabe57fce6dc9d3efc57f0\">Artificial intelligence<\/a><\/th><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-image\"><figure class=\"mw-halign-center\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Anatomy-1751201_1280.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"c3af2ed3786d80b830eea607a8344e75\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/7a\/Anatomy-1751201_1280.png\/100px-Anatomy-1751201_1280.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"100\" height=\"85\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption><\/figcaption><\/figure><\/td><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence#Goals\" title=\"Artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bb9c1836d3769054e30ba50b411472bf\">Major goals<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_general_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial general intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8f53649097e783e63ebea1909d4045f\">Artificial general intelligence<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_planning_and_scheduling\" title=\"Automated planning and scheduling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd62254769426508b9de418255a3e6f9\">Planning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_vision\" title=\"Computer vision\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"082554c667906c00efbfe0986943ab7f\">Computer vision<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/General_game_playing\" title=\"General game playing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43b659f2ed91c7a28bca494393765fd1\">General game playing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning\" title=\"Knowledge representation and reasoning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1f39a572a7265863b802980dc3015f78\">Knowledge reasoning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a class=\"mw-selflink selflink\">Machine learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_language_processing\" title=\"Natural language processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"258d1d348c952c69c2cf806f12baac0d\">Natural language processing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robotics\" title=\"Robotics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d51e34f62697c054ccec4bfed01d9051\">Robotics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_safety\" title=\"AI safety\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fb7e6c3b6e6290bdd2aab3d5c2210b1c\">AI safety<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\">Approaches<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Symbolic_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Symbolic artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"90f04195cac03010b9702e7b8db7ad93\">Symbolic<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_learning\" title=\"Deep learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60a402792d36ac6697fa1e78697b47ee\">Deep learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bayesian_network\" title=\"Bayesian network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebc823a40ca85fe6368464bee686f254\">Bayesian networks<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Evolutionary_algorithm\" title=\"Evolutionary algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2be5565f46780928629b4705cf141f08\">Evolutionary algorithms<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Situated_approach_(artificial_intelligence)\" title=\"Situated approach (artificial intelligence)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d371530e69c0c92a2f6c8ddfec6102dc\">Situated approach<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hybrid_intelligent_system\" title=\"Hybrid intelligent system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"134de857fb48c47e99864f5b0a8a0887\">Hybrid intelligent systems<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_systems_integration\" title=\"Artificial intelligence systems integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"03e8fe4cbdde2b0dfe6d6cf013a21d2c\">Systems integration<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Applications_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Applications of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d70560409a044fef08a6f24b39d11d72\">Applications<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_artificial_intelligence_projects\" title=\"List of artificial intelligence projects\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b22c368db35a66355e3bbe9abefb0276\">Projects<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deepfake\" title=\"Deepfake\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7165f1f34948befd7dc51d4f1941b98f\">Deepfake<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_translation\" title=\"Machine translation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14267942afd7a6873d7e227d71ba74d2\">Machine translation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_art\" title=\"Artificial intelligence art\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e7a322db732edd374428a32ee9b588e4\">Art<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_in_healthcare\" title=\"Artificial intelligence in healthcare\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a83c45f6d758fe57b1fe4cb086a660dd\">Healthcare<\/a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_in_mental_health\" title=\"Artificial intelligence in mental health\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"de7daf7fdd8ae3f7b3c22b6c78b505aa\">Mental health<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_in_government\" title=\"Artificial intelligence in government\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9448e3d83145520174134747105bd90e\">Government<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Music_and_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Music and artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"716b81931e24b5bb1fe02b1e4e6942ea\">Music<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_in_industry\" title=\"Artificial intelligence in industry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"36d21770ca3861059b0f98b63319134e\">Industry<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning_in_earth_sciences\" title=\"Machine learning in earth sciences\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c36894eb9ff1755893995191a5ab3b70\">Earth sciences<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning_in_bioinformatics\" title=\"Machine learning in bioinformatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d5ec4af63e9b8dc58cfeea658e348087\">Bioinformatics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning_in_physics\" title=\"Machine learning in physics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb87665b89561b156f33e004c9e9e3e4\">Physics<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Philosophy of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"72fe09222fe7606d43e990764f3076b4\">Philosophy<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chinese_room\" title=\"Chinese room\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"40e4f68def9042fbadc20dbe8654fdca\">Chinese room<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Friendly_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Friendly artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1d558aa453b40936ba47deaaf4ac9a5b\">Friendly AI<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_control_problem\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"AI control problem\" data-key=\"3a4b505ea3c272cedd95e33aec03d295\">Control problem<\/a>\/<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_takeover\" title=\"AI takeover\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dd96aa0bbc21e9e558b5130997c9dd87\">Takeover<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Ethics of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"608ca5c55237a263936a26d2500d09a6\">Ethics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Existential_risk_from_artificial_general_intelligence\" title=\"Existential risk from artificial general intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2417fff2c86867851343cad51bd9bfb9\">Existential risk<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Turing_test\" title=\"Turing test\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f309ecb31df135db989e843377fb9d\">Turing test<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regulation_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Regulation of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8bbabae0e8e2c822aa2ced8fec6ac219\">Regulation<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"History of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1bb00251245fc858edc9c12e32694439\">History<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Timeline of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e9d017e0ebfd460857b2be655c57964\">Timeline<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Progress_in_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Progress in artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0d8510838c2ea7a333c8e1efa7a70fea\">Progress<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_winter\" title=\"AI winter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0128870650338adbb7c06bbe1dadc305\">AI winter<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_boom\" title=\"AI boom\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb752fa087789f1afcf9c7b8c3e70e85\">AI boom<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\">Technology<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_programming_languages_for_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"List of programming languages for artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d3911d7eb588c4af3da6d6e2d106be4b\">Programming languages<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\">Glossary<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Glossary of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"441c02aab14ebdf235a3e39d66538693\">Glossary<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-navbar\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349\" \/><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p><b>Machine learning<\/b> (<b>ML<\/b>) is a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Field_of_study\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Field of study\" data-key=\"fd2881a45ec3a3bba2c8ca2cd6206810\">field of study<\/a> in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f69d9e0954165931d1f7176b378dc39f\">artificial intelligence<\/a> concerned with the development and study of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_statistics\" title=\"Computational statistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bb9a0ab7eb3a14aa731182dfe7fe1e47\">statistical algorithms<\/a> that can learn from data and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Generalize\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Generalize\" data-key=\"468d60d46b2bee76f7d0bda1b9feae79\">generalize<\/a> to unseen data, and thus perform tasks without explicit instructions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> Recently, generative <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_neural_network\" title=\"Artificial neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73964ffff0d6be12acd68eded7e41d19\">artificial neural networks<\/a> have been able to surpass many previous approaches in performance.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ibm_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ibm-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:6_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:6-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Machine learning approaches have been applied to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Large_language_model\" title=\"Large language model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2bd2447b28e43c8c06b665882b498979\">large language models<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_vision\" title=\"Computer vision\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"082554c667906c00efbfe0986943ab7f\">computer vision<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Speech_recognition\" title=\"Speech recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"067c5c5cfe1e2d0e23c8b0dd8809446d\">speech recognition<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Email_filtering\" title=\"Email filtering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f3dbc0e33131b8b83b0ff53e6510f2bc\">email filtering<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Agriculture\" title=\"Agriculture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fef121fbc56151a550b52c14fee8000c\">agriculture<\/a>, and medicine, where it is too costly to develop algorithms to perform the needed tasks.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-tvt_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-tvt-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:7_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:7-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> ML is known in its application across business problems under the name <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Predictive_analytics\" title=\"Predictive analytics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"34f7137f13e40b2fa7b28c33330ba3ab\">predictive analytics<\/a>. Although not all machine learning is statistically based, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_statistics\" title=\"Computational statistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bb9a0ab7eb3a14aa731182dfe7fe1e47\">computational statistics<\/a> is an important source of the field's methods.\n<\/p><p>The mathematical foundations of ML are provided by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mathematical_optimization\" title=\"Mathematical optimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3971a7d176811cdbfe476e66dedd7be2\">mathematical optimization<\/a> (mathematical programming) methods. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mining\" title=\"Data mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0476196065f64ef9067933bc43b6634\">Data mining<\/a> is a related (parallel) field of study, focusing on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Exploratory_data_analysis\" title=\"Exploratory data analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81c528c5090304a5d47c36b6c6451163\">exploratory data analysis<\/a> through <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unsupervised_learning\" title=\"Unsupervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c9e858df53fef2503acd60c11560020\">unsupervised learning<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:9_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:9-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> From a theoretical point of view <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Probably_approximately_correct_learning\" title=\"Probably approximately correct learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bb4dec6a8fd2c280be4b68d192ee83c\">Probably approximately correct learning<\/a> provides a framework for describing machine learning.\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"toclimit-3\"><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History_and_relationships_to_other_fields\">History and relationships to other fields<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Timeline_of_machine_learning\" title=\"Timeline of machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0904586bab3a70791c2bec98552c9386\">Timeline of machine learning<\/a><\/div>\n<p>The term <i>machine learning<\/i> was coined in 1959 by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Arthur_Samuel_(computer_scientist)\" title=\"Arthur Samuel (computer scientist)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07ca64ab9edc7c8977958d425055d049\">Arthur Samuel<\/a>, an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IBM\" title=\"IBM\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"517a128ab6331cda10bbf2ea31e64d86\">IBM<\/a> employee and pioneer in the field of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_gaming\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Computer gaming\" data-key=\"4abae18c75ae45e52bbd00d1d1c6c06b\">computer gaming<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f69d9e0954165931d1f7176b378dc39f\">artificial intelligence<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Samuel_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Samuel-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:8_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:8-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> The synonym <i>self-teaching computers<\/i> was also used in this time period.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-cyberthreat_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-cyberthreat-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Although the earliest machine learning model was introduced in the 1950s when <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Arthur_Samuel_(computer_scientist)\" title=\"Arthur Samuel (computer scientist)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07ca64ab9edc7c8977958d425055d049\">Arthur Samuel<\/a> invented a program that calculated the winning chance in checkers for each side, the history of machine learning roots back to decades of human desire and effort to study human cognitive processes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:02_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:02-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> In 1949, Canadian psychologist <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Donald_O._Hebb\" title=\"Donald O. Hebb\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"02fff59fe7ada22de80b8d291bc4abe7\">Donald Hebb<\/a> published the book <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Organization_of_Behavior\" title=\"Organization of Behavior\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"566afda5acd529912c3fffbbbe821c4c\">The Organization of Behavior<\/a><\/i>, in which he introduced a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hebbian_theory\" title=\"Hebbian theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"49b7525484ed35e6edb867f711f27f41\">theoretical neural structure<\/a> formed by certain interactions among <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nerve_cells\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Nerve cells\" data-key=\"3c323a9be8edf6955134896efb239d95\">nerve cells<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> Hebb's model of neurons interacting with one another set a groundwork for how AIs and machine learning algorithms work under nodes, or artificial neurons used by computers to communicate data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:02_13-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:02-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> Other researchers who have studied human cognitive systems contributed to the modern machine learning technologies as well, including logician <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Walter_Pitts\" title=\"Walter Pitts\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"79ea2ec505dd09126d2b191748c40bf3\">Walter Pitts<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Warren_Sturgis_McCulloch\" title=\"Warren Sturgis McCulloch\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7254e55770b00f7637f8b90881809836\">Warren McCulloch<\/a>, who proposed the early mathematical models of neural networks to come up with algorithms that mirror human thought processes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:02_13-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:02-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>By the early 1960s an experimental \"learning machine\" with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Punched_tape\" title=\"Punched tape\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bb05634bb528e8a9222333e9239c77ef\">punched tape<\/a> memory, called Cybertron, had been developed by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Raytheon_Company\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Raytheon Company\" data-key=\"4e3d7c81f926604998632cc37c645082\">Raytheon Company<\/a> to analyze <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sonar\" title=\"Sonar\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"45abf0d0e41ce61d075643a6ca81f605\">sonar<\/a> signals, electrocardiograms, and speech patterns using rudimentary <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reinforcement_learning\" title=\"Reinforcement learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cecfb51a025421a8d22a6fa8a7094e15\">reinforcement learning<\/a>. It was repetitively \"trained\" by a human operator\/teacher to recognize patterns and equipped with a \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Goof\" title=\"Goof\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4475481420fd5e274dc91c5a7483620f\">goof<\/a>\" button to cause it to re-evaluate incorrect decisions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> A representative book on research into machine learning during the 1960s was Nilsson's book on Learning Machines, dealing mostly with machine learning for pattern classification.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> Interest related to pattern recognition continued into the 1970s, as described by Duda and Hart in 1973.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup> In 1981 a report was given on using teaching strategies so that a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neural_network\" title=\"Neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c67e639c390fb2296fc58f06d3f3982\">neural network<\/a> learns to recognize 40 characters (26 letters, 10 digits, and 4 special symbols) from a computer terminal.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tom_M._Mitchell\" title=\"Tom M. Mitchell\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"76f25a619760da0f98fb78df5993986c\">Tom M. Mitchell<\/a> provided a widely quoted, more formal definition of the algorithms studied in the machine learning field: \"A computer program is said to learn from experience <i>E<\/i> with respect to some class of tasks <i>T<\/i> and performance measure <i>P<\/i> if its performance at tasks in <i>T<\/i>, as measured by <i>P<\/i>, improves with experience <i>E<\/i>.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Mitchell-1997_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Mitchell-1997-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> This definition of the tasks in which machine learning is concerned offers a fundamentally <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operational_definition\" title=\"Operational definition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"76875458195604543b0ca5ea75ff2e23\">operational definition<\/a> rather than defining the field in cognitive terms. This follows <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alan_Turing\" title=\"Alan Turing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48468f77ba0cf295402108f0dd72c040\">Alan Turing<\/a>'s proposal in his paper \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computing_Machinery_and_Intelligence\" title=\"Computing Machinery and Intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"22cb407e5fe68247851a69a0646c3f7e\">Computing Machinery and Intelligence<\/a>\", in which the question \"Can machines think?\" is replaced with the question \"Can machines do what we (as thinking entities) can do?\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Modern-day machine learning has two objectives, one is to classify data based on models which have been developed, the other purpose is to make predictions for future outcomes based on these models. A hypothetical algorithm specific to classifying data may use computer vision of moles coupled with supervised learning in order to train it to classify the cancerous moles. A machine learning algorithm for stock trading may inform the trader of future potential predictions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Artificial_intelligence\">Artificial intelligence<\/span><\/h3>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:AI_hierarchy.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"09fe05ad0888c5f1016b9cb0634b3b82\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/1\/1b\/AI_hierarchy.svg\/220px-AI_hierarchy.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"220\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Machine learning as subfield of AI<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-journalimcms.org_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-journalimcms.org-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>As a scientific endeavor, machine learning grew out of the quest for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f69d9e0954165931d1f7176b378dc39f\">artificial intelligence<\/a> (AI). In the early days of AI as an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Discipline_(academia)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Discipline (academia)\" data-key=\"a625015086f9f01c8359f28a51400548\">academic discipline<\/a>, some researchers were interested in having machines learn from data. They attempted to approach the problem with various symbolic methods, as well as what were then termed \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neural_network\" title=\"Neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c67e639c390fb2296fc58f06d3f3982\">neural networks<\/a>\"; these were mostly <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Perceptron\" title=\"Perceptron\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"04a4d1565003f718e5659ee6ae90061f\">perceptrons<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ADALINE\" title=\"ADALINE\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c3f396e879750a631ad9d48247291085\">other models<\/a> that were later found to be reinventions of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Generalized_linear_model\" title=\"Generalized linear model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3099b72e74fddf71af4ad1bbf8eb20e\">generalized linear models<\/a> of statistics.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Probabilistic_reasoning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Probabilistic reasoning\" data-key=\"321ce99047d96b01179adffa7e3f651d\">Probabilistic reasoning<\/a> was also employed, especially in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_medical_diagnosis\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Automated medical diagnosis\" data-key=\"b3ea211a3e3189cf5474fbc4abb020e4\">automated medical diagnosis<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-aima_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-aima-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"reference nowrap\"><span title=\"Page \/ location: 488\">:\u200a488\u200a<\/span><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>However, an increasing emphasis on the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Symbolic_AI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Symbolic AI\" data-key=\"f49579f042b3c5582c3951aac3a561ed\">logical, knowledge-based approach<\/a> caused a rift between AI and machine learning. Probabilistic systems were plagued by theoretical and practical problems of data acquisition and representation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-aima_24-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-aima-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"reference nowrap\"><span title=\"Page \/ location: 488\">:\u200a488\u200a<\/span><\/sup> By 1980, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Expert_system\" title=\"Expert system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6a738b57cf1f26d8d60f3adb61e3384\">expert systems<\/a> had come to dominate AI, and statistics was out of favor.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-changing_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-changing-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup> Work on symbolic\/knowledge-based learning did continue within AI, leading to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inductive_logic_programming\" title=\"Inductive logic programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"93a737196e39fde2d25f8168760d20ff\">inductive logic programming<\/a>, but the more statistical line of research was now outside the field of AI proper, in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pattern_recognition\" title=\"Pattern recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a507cb5f9432073674e1795cfa5dbd97\">pattern recognition<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_retrieval\" title=\"Information retrieval\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0faaa582e57a2d62bc65c5c191a810c0\">information retrieval<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-aima_24-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-aima-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"reference nowrap\"><span title=\"Page \/ location: 708\u2013710, 755\">:\u200a708\u2013710,\u200a755\u200a<\/span><\/sup> Neural networks research had been abandoned by AI and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_science\" title=\"Computer science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eadd1655e27d8395813752ae5bd4fd0e\">computer science<\/a> around the same time. This line, too, was continued outside the AI\/CS field, as \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Connectionism\" title=\"Connectionism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b94d106a53858fb714ed83605033a37\">connectionism<\/a>\", by researchers from other disciplines including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_Hopfield\" title=\"John Hopfield\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8b5a1208dbcc24d868b7d70c3a6dc6f5\">Hopfield<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/David_Rumelhart\" title=\"David Rumelhart\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3bab17bb3b9eed4256e3c7c6e9dc03b6\">Rumelhart<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geoff_Hinton\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Geoff Hinton\" data-key=\"495e324b6352fad91b252568cda196ba\">Hinton<\/a>. Their main success came in the mid-1980s with the reinvention of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backpropagation\" title=\"Backpropagation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7681d69c3acc425256855e31afdd0bf4\">backpropagation<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-aima_24-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-aima-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"reference nowrap\"><span title=\"Page \/ location: 25\">:\u200a25\u200a<\/span><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Machine learning (ML), reorganized and recognized as its own field, started to flourish in the 1990s. The field changed its goal from achieving artificial intelligence to tackling solvable problems of a practical nature. It shifted focus away from the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Symbolic_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Symbolic artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"90f04195cac03010b9702e7b8db7ad93\">symbolic approaches<\/a> it had inherited from AI, and toward methods and models borrowed from statistics, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fuzzy_logic\" title=\"Fuzzy logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b5089e9114f91c54ad40c5615094874\">fuzzy logic<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Probability_theory\" title=\"Probability theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"40d8d0006465647b50b2b67ceab953aa\">probability theory<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-changing_25-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-changing-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_mining\">Data mining<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Machine learning and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mining\" title=\"Data mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0476196065f64ef9067933bc43b6634\">data mining<\/a> often employ the same methods and overlap significantly, but while machine learning focuses on prediction, based on <i>known<\/i> properties learned from the training data, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mining\" title=\"Data mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0476196065f64ef9067933bc43b6634\">data mining<\/a> focuses on the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Discovery_(observation)\" title=\"Discovery (observation)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b280343d54b6ae968e3f6515e6c24f3f\">discovery<\/a> of (previously) <i>unknown<\/i> properties in the data (this is the analysis step of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_discovery\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Knowledge discovery\" data-key=\"f2082ca1f1b7658a4524ad9dd8fddd97\">knowledge discovery<\/a> in databases). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mining\" title=\"Data mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0476196065f64ef9067933bc43b6634\">Data mining<\/a> uses many machine learning methods, but with different goals; on the other hand, machine learning also employs data mining methods as \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unsupervised_learning\" title=\"Unsupervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c9e858df53fef2503acd60c11560020\">unsupervised learning<\/a>\" or as a preprocessing step to improve learner accuracy. Much of the confusion between these two research communities (which do often have separate conferences and separate journals, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ECML_PKDD\" title=\"ECML PKDD\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"89ee6a633668dcf9c5fac64e80f276ac\">ECML PKDD<\/a> being a major exception) comes from the basic assumptions they work with: in machine learning, performance is usually evaluated with respect to the ability to <i>reproduce known<\/i> knowledge, while in knowledge discovery and data mining (KDD) the key task is the discovery of previously <i>unknown<\/i> knowledge. Evaluated with respect to known knowledge, an uninformed (unsupervised) method will easily be outperformed by other supervised methods, while in a typical KDD task, supervised methods cannot be used due to the unavailability of training data.\n<\/p><p>Machine learning also has intimate ties to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mathematical_optimization\" title=\"Mathematical optimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3971a7d176811cdbfe476e66dedd7be2\">optimization<\/a>: many learning problems are formulated as minimization of some <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Loss_function\" title=\"Loss function\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"125dea4dead6fff733011b9c4725ddfc\">loss function<\/a> on a training set of examples. Loss functions express the discrepancy between the predictions of the model being trained and the actual problem instances (for example, in classification, one wants to assign a label to instances, and models are trained to correctly predict the pre-assigned labels of a set of examples).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-26\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Generalization\">Generalization<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The difference between optimization and machine learning arises from the goal of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Generalization_(learning)\" title=\"Generalization (learning)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"308b513c43f03abaa3838b588e13b8d7\">generalization<\/a>: while optimization algorithms can minimize the loss on a training set, machine learning is concerned with minimizing the loss on unseen samples. Characterizing the generalization of various learning algorithms is an active topic of current research, especially for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_learning\" title=\"Deep learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60a402792d36ac6697fa1e78697b47ee\">deep learning<\/a> algorithms.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Statistics\">Statistics<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Machine learning and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistics\" title=\"Statistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b33a2c126f998dcb96c31a065f1cf984\">statistics<\/a> are closely related fields in terms of methods, but distinct in their principal goal: statistics draws population <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_inference\" title=\"Statistical inference\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"531cc2121dc07b12e1541c66cca17129\">inferences<\/a> from a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sample_(statistics)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Sample (statistics)\" data-key=\"5f27441544b1c58e696b79a19556d105\">sample<\/a>, while machine learning finds generalizable predictive patterns.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup> According to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Michael_I._Jordan\" title=\"Michael I. Jordan\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"85a970be35318eab19c293827bd3c5c9\">Michael I. Jordan<\/a>, the ideas of machine learning, from methodological principles to theoretical tools, have had a long pre-history in statistics.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-mi_jordan_ama_28-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-mi_jordan_ama-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup> He also suggested the term <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_science\" title=\"Data science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7ca3033a747d64b89d986a08df1bf310\">data science<\/a> as a placeholder to call the overall field.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-mi_jordan_ama_28-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-mi_jordan_ama-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Conventional statistical analyses require the a priori selection of a model most suitable for the study data set. In addition, only significant or theoretically relevant variables based on previous experience are included for analysis. In contrast, machine learning is not built on a pre-structured model; rather, the data shape the model by detecting underlying patterns. The more variables (input) used to train the model, the more accurate the ultimate model will be.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-29\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Leo_Breiman\" title=\"Leo Breiman\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"04ef6f1bdf2ad36c2dca21c55c31b007\">Leo Breiman<\/a> distinguished two statistical modeling paradigms: data model and algorithmic model,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:4_30-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:4-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup> wherein \"algorithmic model\" means more or less the machine learning algorithms like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Random_forest\" title=\"Random forest\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7498be71bed6e2fdcf84fe40492498aa\">Random Forest<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>Some statisticians have adopted methods from machine learning, leading to a combined field that they call <i>statistical learning<\/i>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-islr_31-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-islr-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Statistical_Physics\">Statistical Physics<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Analytical and computational techniques derived from deep-rooted physics of disordered systems can be extended to large-scale problems, including machine learning, e.g., to analyze the weight space of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_neural_network\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Deep neural network\" data-key=\"a9ed700c42e118a181e5612b1dbfbd9a\">deep neural networks<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SP_1_32-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SP_1-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup> Statistical physics is thus finding applications in the area of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Medical_diagnostics\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Medical diagnostics\" data-key=\"c5dd82939b5ad040f8919b02cba4592d\">medical diagnostics<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SP_2_33-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SP_2-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Theory\"><span class=\"anchor\" id=\"rdp-ebb-Generalization\"><\/span> Theory<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main articles: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_learning_theory\" title=\"Computational learning theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9cc562e86774b252f65ad147577243ae\">Computational learning theory<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_learning_theory\" title=\"Statistical learning theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"118d062c73567ce7bbdf1b29548bbd5b\">Statistical learning theory<\/a><\/div>\n<p>A core objective of a learner is to generalize from its experience.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-bishop2006_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-bishop2006-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:5_34-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:5-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup> Generalization in this context is the ability of a learning machine to perform accurately on new, unseen examples\/tasks after having experienced a learning data set. The training examples come from some generally unknown probability distribution (considered representative of the space of occurrences) and the learner has to build a general model about this space that enables it to produce sufficiently accurate predictions in new cases.\n<\/p><p>The computational analysis of machine learning algorithms and their performance is a branch of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Theoretical_computer_science\" title=\"Theoretical computer science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0b67bbd4f963ef9e86712a9f01271cdc\">theoretical computer science<\/a> known as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_learning_theory\" title=\"Computational learning theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9cc562e86774b252f65ad147577243ae\">computational learning theory<\/a> via the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Probably_approximately_correct_learning\" title=\"Probably approximately correct learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bb4dec6a8fd2c280be4b68d192ee83c\">Probably Approximately Correct Learning<\/a> (PAC) model. Because training sets are finite and the future is uncertain, learning theory usually does not yield guarantees of the performance of algorithms. Instead, probabilistic bounds on the performance are quite common. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bias%E2%80%93variance_decomposition\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bias\u2013variance decomposition\" data-key=\"4a599a11868f2400e349734b5aa21ecd\">bias\u2013variance decomposition<\/a> is one way to quantify generalization <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Errors_and_residuals\" title=\"Errors and residuals\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1ed9ddc48bfe43645fcea49dfbc2b227\">error<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>For the best performance in the context of generalization, the complexity of the hypothesis should match the complexity of the function underlying the data. If the hypothesis is less complex than the function, then the model has under fitted the data. If the complexity of the model is increased in response, then the training error decreases. But if the hypothesis is too complex, then the model is subject to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Overfitting\" title=\"Overfitting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"59d1e3e9cfe8881363e47824ef11c4bc\">overfitting<\/a> and generalization will be poorer.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-alpaydin_35-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-alpaydin-35\">[35]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In addition to performance bounds, learning theorists study the time complexity and feasibility of learning. In computational learning theory, a computation is considered feasible if it can be done in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Time_complexity#Polynomial_time\" title=\"Time complexity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e90580e8633725b11bc8e96cea668ce9\">polynomial time<\/a>. There are two kinds of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Time_complexity\" title=\"Time complexity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d6e4332aa6b8e12bf5927dd82821ba7\">time complexity<\/a> results: Positive results show that a certain class of functions can be learned in polynomial time. Negative results show that certain classes cannot be learned in polynomial time.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Approaches\">Approaches<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><span class=\"anchor\" id=\"rdp-ebb-Algorithm_types\"><\/span>\nMachine learning approaches are traditionally divided into three broad categories, which correspond to learning paradigms, depending on the nature of the \"signal\" or \"feedback\" available to the learning system:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supervised_learning\" title=\"Supervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5adaeeb5da1f2d0b8ac1f6d9bab6967c\">Supervised learning<\/a>: The computer is presented with example inputs and their desired outputs, given by a \"teacher\", and the goal is to learn a general rule that <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Map_(mathematics)\" title=\"Map (mathematics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4497c83a6f214b0e0f663c38bf53cf40\">maps<\/a> inputs to outputs.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unsupervised_learning\" title=\"Unsupervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c9e858df53fef2503acd60c11560020\">Unsupervised learning<\/a>: No labels are given to the learning algorithm, leaving it on its own to find structure in its input. Unsupervised learning can be a goal in itself (discovering hidden patterns in data) or a means towards an end (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Feature_learning\" title=\"Feature learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"25c4bbbe4c545e982310e26d720cd6dc\">feature learning<\/a>).<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reinforcement_learning\" title=\"Reinforcement learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cecfb51a025421a8d22a6fa8a7094e15\">Reinforcement learning<\/a>: A computer program interacts with a dynamic environment in which it must perform a certain goal (such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Autonomous_car\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Autonomous car\" data-key=\"00b6c736eed7654f1b22efeb8789baa9\">driving a vehicle<\/a> or playing a game against an opponent). As it navigates its problem space, the program is provided feedback that's analogous to rewards, which it tries to maximize.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-bishop2006_6-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-bishop2006-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Although each algorithm has advantages and limitations, no single algorithm works for all problems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-36\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-37\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-38\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-38\">[38]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Supervised_learning\">Supervised learning<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supervised_learning\" title=\"Supervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5adaeeb5da1f2d0b8ac1f6d9bab6967c\">Supervised learning<\/a><\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Svm_max_sep_hyperplane_with_margin.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"67e9597344d97949859ececa51eab39c\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/2a\/Svm_max_sep_hyperplane_with_margin.png\/220px-Svm_max_sep_hyperplane_with_margin.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"237\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Support-vector_machine\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Support-vector machine\" data-key=\"5cff0f9816d2f29d795d51844d687b93\">support-vector machine<\/a> is a supervised learning model that divides the data into regions separated by a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linear_classifier\" title=\"Linear classifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"71c3a51e0caeeaf4e12b4ad6c9967337\">linear boundary<\/a>. Here, the linear boundary divides the black circles from the white.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>Supervised learning algorithms build a mathematical model of a set of data that contains both the inputs and the desired outputs.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-39\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup> The data is known as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Training_data\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Training data\" data-key=\"0db8c5b44d4ec00e41c269cc5a0b73b8\">training data<\/a>, and consists of a set of training examples. Each training example has one or more inputs and the desired output, also known as a supervisory signal. In the mathematical model, each training example is represented by an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Array_data_structure\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Array data structure\" data-key=\"4ad2f615dad89fb376f4fb0d92a91771\">array<\/a> or vector, sometimes called a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Feature_vector\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Feature vector\" data-key=\"dd23106c538575c2ea758751567dfb28\">feature vector<\/a>, and the training data is represented by a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Matrix_(mathematics)\" title=\"Matrix (mathematics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"239e329ec460a3750b22271a50cbf8c7\">matrix<\/a>. Through <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mathematical_optimization#Computational_optimization_techniques\" title=\"Mathematical optimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b519caa98a5b6acdc232445dfcd78048\">iterative optimization<\/a> of an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Loss_function\" title=\"Loss function\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"125dea4dead6fff733011b9c4725ddfc\">objective function<\/a>, supervised learning algorithms learn a function that can be used to predict the output associated with new inputs.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-40\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup> An optimal function allows the algorithm to correctly determine the output for inputs that were not a part of the training data. An algorithm that improves the accuracy of its outputs or predictions over time is said to have learned to perform that task.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Mitchell-1997_19-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Mitchell-1997-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Types of supervised-learning algorithms include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Active_learning_(machine_learning)\" title=\"Active learning (machine learning)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bab4ca0aa13e7521045ce95189f09d5f\">active learning<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_classification\" title=\"Statistical classification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1bd89e7f87ae911d07b473e7f48d260\">classification<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regression_analysis\" title=\"Regression analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afc84bb0b3e2e76d4909d879fcbb2ae0\">regression<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:3_41-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:3-41\">[41]<\/a><\/sup> Classification algorithms are used when the outputs are restricted to a limited set of values, and regression algorithms are used when the outputs may have any numerical value within a range. As an example, for a classification algorithm that filters emails, the input would be an incoming email, and the output would be the name of the folder in which to file the email.\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Similarity_learning\" title=\"Similarity learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8d1aec38d071f232eb5e89c956a873c\">Similarity learning<\/a> is an area of supervised machine learning closely related to regression and classification, but the goal is to learn from examples using a similarity function that measures how similar or related two objects are. It has applications in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ranking\" title=\"Ranking\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"28eccb2b18982cbb95fc783f7f67cc83\">ranking<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Recommender_system\" title=\"Recommender system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dd8c39f11ec163e4c363222f532670c0\">recommendation systems<\/a>, visual identity tracking, face verification, and speaker verification.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Unsupervised_learning\">Unsupervised learning<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unsupervised_learning\" title=\"Unsupervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c9e858df53fef2503acd60c11560020\">Unsupervised learning<\/a><\/div><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cluster_analysis\" title=\"Cluster analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e234109dffe357b6cea27dc291f680fa\">Cluster analysis<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Unsupervised learning algorithms find structures in data that has not been labeled, classified or categorized. Instead of responding to feedback, unsupervised learning algorithms identify commonalities in the data and react based on the presence or absence of such commonalities in each new piece of data. Central applications of unsupervised machine learning include clustering, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dimensionality_reduction\" title=\"Dimensionality reduction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4556ade3b4a0a6a8d8704fce11a66d19\">dimensionality reduction<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:9_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:9-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Density_estimation\" title=\"Density estimation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e154818923edfb8396c2ef66f332a17a\">density estimation<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-JordanBishop2004_42-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-JordanBishop2004-42\">[42]<\/a><\/sup> Unsupervised learning algorithms also streamlined the process of identifying large <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Indel\" title=\"Indel\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9aa0d3f060519306a054540516272b62\">indel<\/a> based <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Haplotype\" title=\"Haplotype\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c8b58b23af25691c910233976deb555\">haplotypes<\/a> of a gene of interest from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pan-genome\" title=\"Pan-genome\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"308dc9d6b7ee4d936451681def348427\">pan-genome<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-43\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-43\">[43]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:CLIPS.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"25e7e9d0a556c3b0b47731f230e4f1d2\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/0\/02\/CLIPS.jpg\/542px-CLIPS.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"mw-file-element\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Clustering via Large Indel Permuted Slopes, <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1101\/2023.02.11.527743\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"doi:10.1101\/2023.02.11.527743\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\">CLIPS<\/a>, turns the alignment image into a learning regression problem. The varied slope (<i>b<\/i>) estimates between each pair of DNA segments enables to identify segments sharing the same set of indels.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>Cluster analysis is the assignment of a set of observations into subsets (called <i>clusters<\/i>) so that observations within the same cluster are similar according to one or more predesignated criteria, while observations drawn from different clusters are dissimilar. Different clustering techniques make different assumptions on the structure of the data, often defined by some <i>similarity metric<\/i> and evaluated, for example, by <i>internal compactness<\/i>, or the similarity between members of the same cluster, and <i>separation<\/i>, the difference between clusters. Other methods are based on <i>estimated density<\/i> and <i>graph connectivity<\/i>.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Semi-supervised_learning\">Semi-supervised learning<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semi-supervised_learning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Semi-supervised learning\" data-key=\"6504615e972451663dc33142bb427ca9\">Semi-supervised learning<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Semi-supervised learning falls between <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unsupervised_learning\" title=\"Unsupervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c9e858df53fef2503acd60c11560020\">unsupervised learning<\/a> (without any labeled training data) and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supervised_learning\" title=\"Supervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5adaeeb5da1f2d0b8ac1f6d9bab6967c\">supervised learning<\/a> (with completely labeled training data). Some of the training examples are missing training labels, yet many machine-learning researchers have found that unlabeled data, when used in conjunction with a small amount of labeled data, can produce a considerable improvement in learning accuracy.\n<\/p><p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Weak_supervision\" title=\"Weak supervision\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cfe8d63e1ff772c98608a729f491cf98\">weakly supervised learning<\/a>, the training labels are noisy, limited, or imprecise; however, these labels are often cheaper to obtain, resulting in larger effective training sets.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-44\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Reinforcement_learning\">Reinforcement learning<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reinforcement_learning\" title=\"Reinforcement learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cecfb51a025421a8d22a6fa8a7094e15\">Reinforcement learning<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Reinforcement learning is an area of machine learning concerned with how <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_agent\" title=\"Software agent\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"785aa35fbeaa15ae7c0f6ce719ec4091\">software agents<\/a> ought to take <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Action_selection\" title=\"Action selection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"13c0b375370d9e11f0eaec6090823b10\">actions<\/a> in an environment so as to maximize some notion of cumulative reward. Due to its generality, the field is studied in many other disciplines, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Game_theory\" title=\"Game theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5498b159fb87dc60c8ad0a722348a50a\">game theory<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Control_theory\" title=\"Control theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca62140e6aa311d719e89134c349c4ce\">control theory<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operations_research\" title=\"Operations research\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea13bd10effe5b252bd593334c52b8a8\">operations research<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_theory\" title=\"Information theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37a5a861361287193f336544da55e690\">information theory<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Simulation-based_optimization\" title=\"Simulation-based optimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bf8feff43e7e3f4bf632a73918091348\">simulation-based optimization<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multi-agent_system\" title=\"Multi-agent system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"09eb2405abcfe406399c2857ad282249\">multi-agent systems<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Swarm_intelligence\" title=\"Swarm intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f37742882c10162325fa45a9fbebf82e\">swarm intelligence<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistics\" title=\"Statistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b33a2c126f998dcb96c31a065f1cf984\">statistics<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genetic_algorithm\" title=\"Genetic algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f15c0d036941031692b8f72bc60e8262\">genetic algorithms<\/a>. In reinforcement learning, the environment is typically represented as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Markov_decision_process\" title=\"Markov decision process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a165b52a9ae8569c3987f865361587a4\">Markov decision process<\/a> (MDP). Many reinforcements learning algorithms use <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dynamic_programming\" title=\"Dynamic programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"af2eaba8611f641af24c8f128aed3cd0\">dynamic programming<\/a> techniques.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-45\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-45\">[45]<\/a><\/sup> Reinforcement learning algorithms do not assume knowledge of an exact mathematical model of the MDP and are used when exact models are infeasible. Reinforcement learning algorithms are used in autonomous vehicles or in learning to play a game against a human opponent.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Dimensionality_reduction\">Dimensionality reduction<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dimensionality_reduction\" title=\"Dimensionality reduction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4556ade3b4a0a6a8d8704fce11a66d19\">Dimensionality reduction<\/a> is a process of reducing the number of random variables under consideration by obtaining a set of principal variables.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-46\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-46\">[46]<\/a><\/sup> In other words, it is a process of reducing the dimension of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Feature_(machine_learning)\" title=\"Feature (machine learning)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c5c6ed542fb04745a61515c3c6e9a103\">feature<\/a> set, also called the \"number of features\". Most of the dimensionality reduction techniques can be considered as either feature elimination or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Feature_extraction\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Feature extraction\" data-key=\"8cf100c75a104d6927b2183187f144c3\">extraction<\/a>. One of the popular methods of dimensionality reduction is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Principal_component_analysis\" title=\"Principal component analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"acf4c2c0901a58dc84cd686341a415e4\">principal component analysis<\/a> (PCA). PCA involves changing higher-dimensional data (e.g., 3D) to a smaller space (e.g., 2D). This results in a smaller dimension of data (2D instead of 3D), while keeping all original variables in the model without changing the data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-47\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-47\">[47]<\/a><\/sup>\nThe <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Manifold_hypothesis\" title=\"Manifold hypothesis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"faf246f484bed352065e2bb5afdffc1a\">manifold hypothesis<\/a> proposes that high-dimensional data sets lie along low-dimensional <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Manifold\" title=\"Manifold\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a675ffebdaca098e7cb39e20b7faba0\">manifolds<\/a>, and many dimensionality reduction techniques make this assumption, leading to the area of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Manifold_learning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Manifold learning\" data-key=\"3fd4fd82c256ed0cea0f6e741c2eaf42\">manifold learning<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Manifold_regularization\" title=\"Manifold regularization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6282de557ea7a66fb24bf81859374706\">manifold regularization<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Other_types\">Other types<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Other approaches have been developed which do not fit neatly into this three-fold categorization, and sometimes more than one is used by the same machine learning system. For example, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Topic_modeling\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Topic modeling\" data-key=\"c2ee5bd544950f74084e7f499b9fd52c\">topic modeling<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Meta-learning_(computer_science)\" title=\"Meta-learning (computer science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5a3a01546e52c1eb5a0b8fc418ef3abc\">meta-learning<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-48\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-48\">[48]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Self-learning\">Self-learning<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Self-learning, as a machine learning paradigm was introduced in 1982 along with a neural network capable of self-learning, named <i>crossbar adaptive array<\/i> (CAA).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-49\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-49\">[49]<\/a><\/sup> It is learning with no external rewards and no external teacher advice. The CAA self-learning algorithm computes, in a crossbar fashion, both decisions about actions and emotions (feelings) about consequence situations. The system is driven by the interaction between cognition and emotion.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-50\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-50\">[50]<\/a><\/sup>\nThe self-learning algorithm updates a memory matrix W =||w(a,s)|| such that in each iteration executes the following machine learning routine: \n<\/p>\n<ol><li>in situation <i>s<\/i> perform action <i>a<\/i><\/li>\n<li>receive consequence situation <i>s<\/i><\/li>\n<li>compute emotion of being in consequence situation <i>v(s')<\/i><\/li>\n<li>update crossbar memory <i>w'(a,s) = w(a,s) + v(s')<\/i><\/li><\/ol>\n<p>It is a system with only one input, situation, and only one output, action (or behavior) a. There is neither a separate reinforcement input nor an advice input from the environment. The backpropagated value (secondary reinforcement) is the emotion toward the consequence situation. The CAA exists in two environments, one is the behavioral environment where it behaves, and the other is the genetic environment, wherefrom it initially and only once receives initial emotions about situations to be encountered in the behavioral environment. After receiving the genome (species) vector from the genetic environment, the CAA learns a goal-seeking behavior, in an environment that contains both desirable and undesirable situations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-51\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-51\">[51]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Feature_learning\">Feature learning<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Feature_learning\" title=\"Feature learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"25c4bbbe4c545e982310e26d720cd6dc\">Feature learning<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Several learning algorithms aim at discovering better representations of the inputs provided during training.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-pami_52-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pami-52\">[52]<\/a><\/sup> Classic examples include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Principal_component_analysis\" title=\"Principal component analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"acf4c2c0901a58dc84cd686341a415e4\">principal component analysis<\/a> and cluster analysis. Feature learning algorithms, also called representation learning algorithms, often attempt to preserve the information in their input but also transform it in a way that makes it useful, often as a pre-processing step before performing classification or predictions. This technique allows reconstruction of the inputs coming from the unknown data-generating distribution, while not being necessarily faithful to configurations that are implausible under that distribution. This replaces manual <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Feature_engineering\" title=\"Feature engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b35c2f718d44cad181d706f87c70fb2c\">feature engineering<\/a>, and allows a machine to both learn the features and use them to perform a specific task.\n<\/p><p>Feature learning can be either supervised or unsupervised. In supervised feature learning, features are learned using labeled input data. Examples include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_neural_network\" title=\"Artificial neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73964ffff0d6be12acd68eded7e41d19\">artificial neural networks<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multilayer_perceptron\" title=\"Multilayer perceptron\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fb59d89291d6d19591bbaebb959cf3b9\">multilayer perceptrons<\/a>, and supervised <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dictionary_learning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Dictionary learning\" data-key=\"6d03ab4a7aeb34272615f6d678d0feda\">dictionary learning<\/a>. In unsupervised feature learning, features are learned with unlabeled input data. Examples include dictionary learning, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Independent_component_analysis\" title=\"Independent component analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b5b1c2fc57ef5fc1ebbf3c72febc842\">independent component analysis<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Autoencoder\" title=\"Autoencoder\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d0b18c427d5281fd5736ceb757f8273d\">autoencoders<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Matrix_decomposition\" title=\"Matrix decomposition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba3af3658e04f388e5c5ce96b30b0e71\">matrix factorization<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-53\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-53\">[53]<\/a><\/sup> and various forms of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cluster_analysis\" title=\"Cluster analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e234109dffe357b6cea27dc291f680fa\">clustering<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-coates2011_54-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-coates2011-54\">[54]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-55\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-55\">[55]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-jurafsky_56-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-jurafsky-56\">[56]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Manifold_learning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Manifold learning\" data-key=\"3fd4fd82c256ed0cea0f6e741c2eaf42\">Manifold learning<\/a> algorithms attempt to do so under the constraint that the learned representation is low-dimensional. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sparse_coding\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Sparse coding\" data-key=\"f5871ed1066ff51449a7ae5181b0fa7c\">Sparse coding<\/a> algorithms attempt to do so under the constraint that the learned representation is sparse, meaning that the mathematical model has many zeros. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multilinear_subspace_learning\" title=\"Multilinear subspace learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8f8d1fbfb2b57f6f056c13d55f2a12d\">Multilinear subspace learning<\/a> algorithms aim to learn low-dimensional representations directly from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tensor\" title=\"Tensor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0732e7c5fb4650a003569c3844616621\">tensor<\/a> representations for multidimensional data, without reshaping them into higher-dimensional vectors.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-57\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-57\">[57]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_learning\" title=\"Deep learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60a402792d36ac6697fa1e78697b47ee\">Deep learning<\/a> algorithms discover multiple levels of representation, or a hierarchy of features, with higher-level, more abstract features defined in terms of (or generating) lower-level features. It has been argued that an intelligent machine is one that learns a representation that disentangles the underlying factors of variation that explain the observed data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-58\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-58\">[58]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Feature learning is motivated by the fact that machine learning tasks such as classification often require input that is mathematically and computationally convenient to process. However, real-world data such as images, video, and sensory data has not yielded attempts to algorithmically define specific features. An alternative is to discover such features or representations through examination, without relying on explicit algorithms.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Sparse_dictionary_learning\">Sparse dictionary learning<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sparse_dictionary_learning\" title=\"Sparse dictionary learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cee0aeb97faa0419cad2da2097b9cf25\">Sparse dictionary learning<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Sparse dictionary learning is a feature learning method where a training example is represented as a linear combination of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Basis_function\" title=\"Basis function\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d3e380b81bb914cd57983e3ffde70f2f\">basis functions<\/a>, and is assumed to be a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sparse_matrix\" title=\"Sparse matrix\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e868f94bd93090305c1cec98065e8194\">sparse matrix<\/a>. The method is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Strongly_NP-hard\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Strongly NP-hard\" data-key=\"34a6d509bb3299aa991cf145cd16bf47\">strongly NP-hard<\/a> and difficult to solve approximately.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-59\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-59\">[59]<\/a><\/sup> A popular <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heuristic\" title=\"Heuristic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43bdbf6d64573ad3685511cbc07502fd\">heuristic<\/a> method for sparse dictionary learning is the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/K-SVD\" title=\"K-SVD\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"03b0136c9d0cf472c5230fe56e63520a\">K-SVD<\/a> algorithm. Sparse dictionary learning has been applied in several contexts. In classification, the problem is to determine the class to which a previously unseen training example belongs. For a dictionary where each class has already been built, a new training example is associated with the class that is best sparsely represented by the corresponding dictionary. Sparse dictionary learning has also been applied in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Image_de-noising\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Image de-noising\" data-key=\"b67802e11d81f968fa3bddf0050d8421\">image de-noising<\/a>. The key idea is that a clean image patch can be sparsely represented by an image dictionary, but the noise cannot.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-60\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-60\">[60]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Anomaly_detection\">Anomaly detection<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anomaly_detection\" title=\"Anomaly detection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3bba5c970d8f41b6bd4492e1d32f9118\">Anomaly detection<\/a><\/div>\n<p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mining\" title=\"Data mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0476196065f64ef9067933bc43b6634\">data mining<\/a>, anomaly detection, also known as outlier detection, is the identification of rare items, events or observations which raise suspicions by differing significantly from the majority of the data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_61-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-61\">[61]<\/a><\/sup> Typically, the anomalous items represent an issue such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bank_fraud\" title=\"Bank fraud\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8722895f2c9d4554cb83ce1fdd586a4c\">bank fraud<\/a>, a structural defect, medical problems or errors in a text. Anomalies are referred to as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Outlier\" title=\"Outlier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7c6e5dd183434c0110fdb6173a7ce742\">outliers<\/a>, novelties, noise, deviations and exceptions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-62\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-62\">[62]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In particular, in the context of abuse and network intrusion detection, the interesting objects are often not rare objects, but unexpected bursts of inactivity. This pattern does not adhere to the common statistical definition of an outlier as a rare object. Many outlier detection methods (in particular, unsupervised algorithms) will fail on such data unless aggregated appropriately. Instead, a cluster analysis algorithm may be able to detect the micro-clusters formed by these patterns.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-63\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-63\">[63]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Three broad categories of anomaly detection techniques exist.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ChandolaSurvey_64-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ChandolaSurvey-64\">[64]<\/a><\/sup> Unsupervised anomaly detection techniques detect anomalies in an unlabeled test data set under the assumption that the majority of the instances in the data set are normal, by looking for instances that seem to fit the least to the remainder of the data set. Supervised anomaly detection techniques require a data set that has been labeled as \"normal\" and \"abnormal\" and involves training a classifier (the key difference to many other statistical classification problems is the inherently unbalanced nature of outlier detection). Semi-supervised anomaly detection techniques construct a model representing normal behavior from a given normal training data set and then test the likelihood of a test instance to be generated by the model.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Robot_learning\">Robot learning<\/span><\/h4>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robot_learning\" title=\"Robot learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"af1bdabd499a5d686065e49d6ca6aeff\">Robot learning<\/a> is inspired by a multitude of machine learning methods, starting from supervised learning, reinforcement learning,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-65\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-65\">[65]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-66\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-66\">[66]<\/a><\/sup> and finally <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Meta-learning_(computer_science)\" title=\"Meta-learning (computer science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5a3a01546e52c1eb5a0b8fc418ef3abc\">meta-learning<\/a> (e.g. MAML).\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Association_rules\">Association rules<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Association_rule_learning\" title=\"Association rule learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"69b9d54917f42d0ac09a6ce55397d096\">Association rule learning<\/a><\/div><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inductive_logic_programming\" title=\"Inductive logic programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"93a737196e39fde2d25f8168760d20ff\">Inductive logic programming<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Association rule learning is a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rule-based_machine_learning\" title=\"Rule-based machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca715d4e9f51e83cd221693385d0913d\">rule-based machine learning<\/a> method for discovering relationships between variables in large databases. It is intended to identify strong rules discovered in databases using some measure of \"interestingness\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-piatetsky_67-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-piatetsky-67\">[67]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Rule-based machine learning is a general term for any machine learning method that identifies, learns, or evolves \"rules\" to store, manipulate or apply knowledge. The defining characteristic of a rule-based machine learning algorithm is the identification and utilization of a set of relational rules that collectively represent the knowledge captured by the system. This is in contrast to other machine learning algorithms that commonly identify a singular model that can be universally applied to any instance in order to make a prediction.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-68\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-68\">[68]<\/a><\/sup> Rule-based machine learning approaches include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Learning_classifier_system\" title=\"Learning classifier system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"698aaad8ca3fae74ea1c18a98e11314d\">learning classifier systems<\/a>, association rule learning, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_immune_system\" title=\"Artificial immune system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"70d7126debf08ffea09fc55abac6609e\">artificial immune systems<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>Based on the concept of strong rules, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rakesh_Agrawal_(computer_scientist)\" title=\"Rakesh Agrawal (computer scientist)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"369afaab48f12944cacd199c66c4ffc3\">Rakesh Agrawal<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tomasz_Imieli%C5%84ski\" title=\"Tomasz Imieli\u0144ski\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"602aa5b3067b75e0f49cd1438487b061\">Tomasz Imieli\u0144ski<\/a> and Arun Swami introduced association rules for discovering regularities between products in large-scale transaction data recorded by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Point-of-sale\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Point-of-sale\" data-key=\"1bb2dd931794c246629de8a4c300b3ba\">point-of-sale<\/a> (POS) systems in supermarkets.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-mining_69-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-mining-69\">[69]<\/a><\/sup> For example, the rule <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/2e6daa2c8e553e87e411d6e0ec66ae596c3c9381\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:30.912ex; height:2.843ex;\" alt=\"\\{{\\mathrm {onions,potatoes}}\\}\\Rightarrow \\{{\\mathrm {burger}}\\}\" \/><\/span> found in the sales data of a supermarket would indicate that if a customer buys onions and potatoes together, they are likely to also buy hamburger meat. Such information can be used as the basis for decisions about marketing activities such as promotional <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pricing\" title=\"Pricing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f9772fa0af8925d1385bda5c0c84f5a\">pricing<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Product_placement\" title=\"Product placement\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c6e4d8ca329c14d882dfc355694aa5d1\">product placements<\/a>. In addition to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Market_basket_analysis\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Market basket analysis\" data-key=\"d023fbb0a5ceba6a72cbb8642fa79b01\">market basket analysis<\/a>, association rules are employed today in application areas including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_usage_mining\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Web usage mining\" data-key=\"e82b2d043edec6f318cae66425e8bafa\">Web usage mining<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intrusion_detection\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Intrusion detection\" data-key=\"1bc8a7889354f177551215bcbb759cc1\">intrusion detection<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Continuous_production\" title=\"Continuous production\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"372caa1c1f73f3847fc5bc6b0abaa54a\">continuous production<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bioinformatics\" title=\"Bioinformatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01737c6289ef7671d2c932a51babe26b\">bioinformatics<\/a>. In contrast with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sequence_mining\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Sequence mining\" data-key=\"1a30e9cfab48374ced380b93858f24ef\">sequence mining<\/a>, association rule learning typically does not consider the order of items either within a transaction or across transactions.\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><p>Learning classifier systems (LCS) are a family of rule-based machine learning algorithms that combine a discovery component, typically a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genetic_algorithm\" title=\"Genetic algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f15c0d036941031692b8f72bc60e8262\">genetic algorithm<\/a>, with a learning component, performing either <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supervised_learning\" title=\"Supervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5adaeeb5da1f2d0b8ac1f6d9bab6967c\">supervised learning<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reinforcement_learning\" title=\"Reinforcement learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cecfb51a025421a8d22a6fa8a7094e15\">reinforcement learning<\/a>, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unsupervised_learning\" title=\"Unsupervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c9e858df53fef2503acd60c11560020\">unsupervised learning<\/a>. They seek to identify a set of context-dependent rules that collectively store and apply knowledge in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Piecewise\" title=\"Piecewise\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"da0d7ac74cb08716d5b9783f3f83f5cc\">piecewise<\/a> manner in order to make predictions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-70\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-70\">[70]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inductive_logic_programming\" title=\"Inductive logic programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"93a737196e39fde2d25f8168760d20ff\">Inductive logic programming<\/a> (ILP) is an approach to rule learning using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logic_programming\" title=\"Logic programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e6c0943d2bbff45f5ba0d111f9a594b7\">logic programming<\/a> as a uniform representation for input examples, background knowledge, and hypotheses. Given an encoding of the known background knowledge and a set of examples represented as a logical database of facts, an ILP system will derive a hypothesized logic program that <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Entailment\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Entailment\" data-key=\"a4592c33fb06a23d9fc9536e4fdffdca\">entails<\/a> all positive and no negative examples. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inductive_programming\" title=\"Inductive programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"69d5262a06126ec1a0a045ff4a9f8e3e\">Inductive programming<\/a> is a related field that considers any kind of programming language for representing hypotheses (and not only logic programming), such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Functional_programming\" title=\"Functional programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86692f4d835f0c297483717a66ba067f\">functional programs<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>Inductive logic programming is particularly useful in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bioinformatics\" title=\"Bioinformatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01737c6289ef7671d2c932a51babe26b\">bioinformatics<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_language_processing\" title=\"Natural language processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"258d1d348c952c69c2cf806f12baac0d\">natural language processing<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gordon_Plotkin\" title=\"Gordon Plotkin\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"57d07b9355ea892d527e5a32932fd133\">Gordon Plotkin<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ehud_Shapiro\" title=\"Ehud Shapiro\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4234dd688b6927b7e16074b90a3ac857\">Ehud Shapiro<\/a> laid the initial theoretical foundation for inductive machine learning in a logical setting.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-71\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-71\">[71]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-72\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-72\">[72]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-73\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-73\">[73]<\/a><\/sup> Shapiro built their first implementation (Model Inference System) in 1981: a Prolog program that inductively inferred logic programs from positive and negative examples.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-74\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-74\">[74]<\/a><\/sup> The term <i>inductive<\/i> here refers to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inductive_reasoning\" title=\"Inductive reasoning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a3abdea09fcc6b3b94276f6f00c70460\">philosophical<\/a> induction, suggesting a theory to explain observed facts, rather than <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mathematical_induction\" title=\"Mathematical induction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd44a079605b12d46ebf6dc1c7ced911\">mathematical induction<\/a>, proving a property for all members of a well-ordered set.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Models\">Models<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Performing machine learning can involve creating a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_model\" title=\"Statistical model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"471ef69d6cb5a7420b7742ce0844575d\">model<\/a>, which is trained on some training data and then can process additional data to make predictions. Various types of models have been used and researched for machine learning systems.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Artificial_neural_networks\">Artificial neural networks<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_neural_network\" title=\"Artificial neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73964ffff0d6be12acd68eded7e41d19\">Artificial neural network<\/a><\/div><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_learning\" title=\"Deep learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60a402792d36ac6697fa1e78697b47ee\">Deep learning<\/a><\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Colored_neural_network.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"337045b136c1c78311818d970942386b\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/4\/46\/Colored_neural_network.svg\/300px-Colored_neural_network.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"300\" height=\"361\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>An artificial neural network is an interconnected group of nodes, akin to the vast network of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neuron\" title=\"Neuron\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"05a82b92028de241144df7d8e40c0874\">neurons<\/a> in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Brain\" title=\"Brain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"082ad629c00df0dab8bbb250e180d036\">brain<\/a>. Here, each circular node represents an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_neuron\" title=\"Artificial neuron\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"668d1d9d3deaa7608bdfafd938e6fed7\">artificial neuron<\/a> and an arrow represents a connection from the output of one artificial neuron to the input of another.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>Artificial neural networks (ANNs), or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Connectionism\" title=\"Connectionism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b94d106a53858fb714ed83605033a37\">connectionist<\/a> systems, are computing systems vaguely inspired by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biological_neural_network\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Biological neural network\" data-key=\"175705890c69b4d3af5db8ad125fc82a\">biological neural networks<\/a> that constitute animal <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Brain\" title=\"Brain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"082ad629c00df0dab8bbb250e180d036\">brains<\/a>. Such systems \"learn\" to perform tasks by considering examples, generally without being programmed with any task-specific rules.\n<\/p><p>An ANN is a model based on a collection of connected units or nodes called \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_neuron\" title=\"Artificial neuron\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"668d1d9d3deaa7608bdfafd938e6fed7\">artificial neurons<\/a>\", which loosely model the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neuron\" title=\"Neuron\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"05a82b92028de241144df7d8e40c0874\">neurons<\/a> in a biological <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Brain\" title=\"Brain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"082ad629c00df0dab8bbb250e180d036\">brain<\/a>. Each connection, like the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Synapse\" title=\"Synapse\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1958d647475c9555458b4dd995ea29\">synapses<\/a> in a biological <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Brain\" title=\"Brain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"082ad629c00df0dab8bbb250e180d036\">brain<\/a>, can transmit information, a \"signal\", from one artificial neuron to another. An artificial neuron that receives a signal can process it and then signal additional artificial neurons connected to it. In common ANN implementations, the signal at a connection between artificial neurons is a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Real_number\" title=\"Real number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"073f2651c133e30ec9563386a1e1273c\">real number<\/a>, and the output of each artificial neuron is computed by some non-linear function of the sum of its inputs. The connections between artificial neurons are called \"edges\". Artificial neurons and edges typically have a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Weight_(mathematics)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Weight (mathematics)\" data-key=\"f3555724ea835fd67e8bed4b40295a73\">weight<\/a> that adjusts as learning proceeds. The weight increases or decreases the strength of the signal at a connection. Artificial neurons may have a threshold such that the signal is only sent if the aggregate signal crosses that threshold. Typically, artificial neurons are aggregated into layers. Different layers may perform different kinds of transformations on their inputs. Signals travel from the first layer (the input layer) to the last layer (the output layer), possibly after traversing the layers multiple times.\n<\/p><p>The original goal of the ANN approach was to solve problems in the same way that a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_brain\" title=\"Human brain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff33b42bebe76bd7734491bdb8768fa1\">human brain<\/a> would. However, over time, attention moved to performing specific tasks, leading to deviations from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biology\" title=\"Biology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81772f42e96739a4294322e11168b1f8\">biology<\/a>. Artificial neural networks have been used on a variety of tasks, including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_vision\" title=\"Computer vision\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"082554c667906c00efbfe0986943ab7f\">computer vision<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Speech_recognition\" title=\"Speech recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"067c5c5cfe1e2d0e23c8b0dd8809446d\">speech recognition<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_translation\" title=\"Machine translation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14267942afd7a6873d7e227d71ba74d2\">machine translation<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Social_network\" title=\"Social network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bb8cd53dfbe2a36158d9abd6d4b86cdb\">social network<\/a> filtering, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/General_game_playing\" title=\"General game playing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43b659f2ed91c7a28bca494393765fd1\">playing board and video games<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Medical_diagnosis\" title=\"Medical diagnosis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3271571a31d7a690a4694c12932a148\">medical diagnosis<\/a>.\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_learning\" title=\"Deep learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60a402792d36ac6697fa1e78697b47ee\">Deep learning<\/a> consists of multiple hidden layers in an artificial neural network. This approach tries to model the way the human brain processes light and sound into vision and hearing. Some successful applications of deep learning are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_vision\" title=\"Computer vision\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"082554c667906c00efbfe0986943ab7f\">computer vision<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Speech_recognition\" title=\"Speech recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"067c5c5cfe1e2d0e23c8b0dd8809446d\">speech recognition<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-75\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-75\">[75]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Decision_trees\">Decision trees<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_tree_learning\" title=\"Decision tree learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4164d60d7492f2ce658e44b26d1d2702\">Decision tree learning<\/a><\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Decision_Tree.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"f4e60cdc9bbf18246abdc39040991659\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/e\/eb\/Decision_Tree.jpg\/220px-Decision_Tree.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"228\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>A decision tree showing survival probability of passengers on the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Titanic\" title=\"Titanic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"65b9aff6a5296d1783ca80eaecc6a104\">Titanic<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>Decision tree learning uses a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_tree\" title=\"Decision tree\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2e8d0b5084951f9afa32e59b5a237e30\">decision tree<\/a> as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Predictive_modeling\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Predictive modeling\" data-key=\"7b5a8612567538244b872ef348528e1b\">predictive model<\/a> to go from observations about an item (represented in the branches) to conclusions about the item's target value (represented in the leaves). It is one of the predictive modeling approaches used in statistics, data mining, and machine learning. Tree models where the target variable can take a discrete set of values are called classification trees; in these tree structures, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Leaf_node\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Leaf node\" data-key=\"2ee645ea433c1fd4dbbb9734bc5722b6\">leaves<\/a> represent class labels, and branches represent <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logical_conjunction\" title=\"Logical conjunction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b05026ed121fd0ca870726965b50256\">conjunctions<\/a> of features that lead to those class labels. Decision trees where the target variable can take continuous values (typically <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Real_numbers\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Real numbers\" data-key=\"357cbc5a5680a7069d25a01c0bfbc691\">real numbers<\/a>) are called regression trees. In decision analysis, a decision tree can be used to visually and explicitly represent decisions and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_making\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Decision making\" data-key=\"f7ca18573163d657813ebb8dfb5bff55\">decision making<\/a>. In data mining, a decision tree describes data, but the resulting classification tree can be an input for decision-making.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Support-vector_machines\">Support-vector machines<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Support-vector_machine\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Support-vector machine\" data-key=\"5cff0f9816d2f29d795d51844d687b93\">Support-vector machine<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Support-vector machines (SVMs), also known as support-vector networks, are a set of related <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supervised_learning\" title=\"Supervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5adaeeb5da1f2d0b8ac1f6d9bab6967c\">supervised learning<\/a> methods used for classification and regression. Given a set of training examples, each marked as belonging to one of two categories, an SVM training algorithm builds a model that predicts whether a new example falls into one category.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CorinnaCortes_76-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CorinnaCortes-76\">[76]<\/a><\/sup> An SVM training algorithm is a non-<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Probabilistic_classification\" title=\"Probabilistic classification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"19872390b6d9c232ac78d35df9415f1f\">probabilistic<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Binary_classifier\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Binary classifier\" data-key=\"9fa2289dd525d165369dcab2f50f13e6\">binary<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linear_classifier\" title=\"Linear classifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"71c3a51e0caeeaf4e12b4ad6c9967337\">linear classifier<\/a>, although methods such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Platt_scaling\" title=\"Platt scaling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d54b7f827a077340a9e049d85025cec8\">Platt scaling<\/a> exist to use SVM in a probabilistic classification setting. In addition to performing linear classification, SVMs can efficiently perform a non-linear classification using what is called the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kernel_trick\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Kernel trick\" data-key=\"03f10e6f703047b9e5d944e38a1d94f3\">kernel trick<\/a>, implicitly mapping their inputs into high-dimensional feature spaces.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Regression_analysis\">Regression analysis<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regression_analysis\" title=\"Regression analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afc84bb0b3e2e76d4909d879fcbb2ae0\">Regression analysis<\/a><\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Linear_regression.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"33458f3a5de620779d38504f4ac06ee4\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/3\/3a\/Linear_regression.svg\/290px-Linear_regression.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"290\" height=\"191\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Illustration of linear regression on a data set<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>Regression analysis encompasses a large variety of statistical methods to estimate the relationship between input variables and their associated features. Its most common form is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linear_regression\" title=\"Linear regression\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"85453f53b8a2cdb252a2e05dbd419405\">linear regression<\/a>, where a single line is drawn to best fit the given data according to a mathematical criterion such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ordinary_least_squares\" title=\"Ordinary least squares\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"57e6db8c9e78478f6d11c30f9d620409\">ordinary least squares<\/a>. The latter is often extended by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regularization_(mathematics)\" title=\"Regularization (mathematics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"09e8bc8d29e5ebbe05052b0d0262c201\">regularization<\/a> methods to mitigate overfitting and bias, as in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ridge_regression\" title=\"Ridge regression\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"627918e4e451397a0a601986286678f4\">ridge regression<\/a>. When dealing with non-linear problems, go-to models include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polynomial_regression\" title=\"Polynomial regression\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c619d2f0ea24a8e2aed736d6b494a339\">polynomial regression<\/a> (for example, used for trendline fitting in Microsoft Excel<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-77\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-77\">[77]<\/a><\/sup>), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logistic_regression\" title=\"Logistic regression\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"02aceaf0d8cb200b9c48cd2f097bb1dc\">logistic regression<\/a> (often used in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_classification\" title=\"Statistical classification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1bd89e7f87ae911d07b473e7f48d260\">statistical classification<\/a>) or even <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kernel_regression\" title=\"Kernel regression\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7a6172f9bede45000502070cab7ce4a\">kernel regression<\/a>, which introduces non-linearity by taking advantage of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kernel_trick\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Kernel trick\" data-key=\"03f10e6f703047b9e5d944e38a1d94f3\">kernel trick<\/a> to implicitly map input variables to higher-dimensional space.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Bayesian_networks\">Bayesian networks<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bayesian_network\" title=\"Bayesian network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebc823a40ca85fe6368464bee686f254\">Bayesian network<\/a><\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size mw-halign-right\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:SimpleBayesNetNodes.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"3f8d0c2c1d18191aa7726806a2f116e0\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/fd\/SimpleBayesNetNodes.svg\/220px-SimpleBayesNetNodes.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"114\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>A simple Bayesian network. Rain influences whether the sprinkler is activated, and both rain and the sprinkler influence whether the grass is wet.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>A Bayesian network, belief network, or directed acyclic graphical model is a probabilistic <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Graphical_model\" title=\"Graphical model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96879083bb03e34a53730fbb180daea8\">graphical model<\/a> that represents a set of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Random_variables\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Random variables\" data-key=\"6d50837904f9a05673b58c21d5a80697\">random variables<\/a> and their <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conditional_independence\" title=\"Conditional independence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48b804100af58c7ba14169a689650c6d\">conditional independence<\/a> with a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Directed_acyclic_graph\" title=\"Directed acyclic graph\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ffc54b1becafa75ddce26d12f6300ea0\">directed acyclic graph<\/a> (DAG). For example, a Bayesian network could represent the probabilistic relationships between diseases and symptoms. Given symptoms, the network can be used to compute the probabilities of the presence of various diseases. Efficient algorithms exist that perform <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inference\" title=\"Inference\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a83751a82d1ce852f34d85b5ebb0eba\">inference<\/a> and learning. Bayesian networks that model sequences of variables, like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Speech_recognition\" title=\"Speech recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"067c5c5cfe1e2d0e23c8b0dd8809446d\">speech signals<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peptide_sequence\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Peptide sequence\" data-key=\"8f009f5522b07699995eb04a1a66728f\">protein sequences<\/a>, are called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dynamic_Bayesian_network\" title=\"Dynamic Bayesian network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c77f6b75feb8e5df8f5bea6a137d340c\">dynamic Bayesian networks<\/a>. Generalizations of Bayesian networks that can represent and solve decision problems under uncertainty are called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Influence_diagram\" title=\"Influence diagram\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"24c61a851a8262b0a3186b220d7710aa\">influence diagrams<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Gaussian_processes\">Gaussian processes<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gaussian_processes\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Gaussian processes\" data-key=\"0b14506bbef0b7457bf9b4bd2f55406a\">Gaussian processes<\/a><\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size mw-halign-right\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Regressions_sine_demo.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"a40a70929eeb2c70ede100ed233c2d48\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/a\/a7\/Regressions_sine_demo.svg\/220px-Regressions_sine_demo.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"110\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>An example of Gaussian Process Regression (prediction) compared with other regression models<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-78\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-78\">[78]<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>A Gaussian process is a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stochastic_process\" title=\"Stochastic process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"44f7c46211dfad95272887282940ad69\">stochastic process<\/a> in which every finite collection of the random variables in the process has a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multivariate_normal_distribution\" title=\"Multivariate normal distribution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6613f320fd69c461b42e3549bcfceef6\">multivariate normal distribution<\/a>, and it relies on a pre-defined <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Covariance_function\" title=\"Covariance function\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b1f177b2850dd7108c5f3a8d6f64ca03\">covariance function<\/a>, or kernel, that models how pairs of points relate to each other depending on their locations.\n<\/p><p>Given a set of observed points, or input\u2013output examples, the distribution of the (unobserved) output of a new point as function of its input data can be directly computed by looking like the observed points and the covariances between those points and the new, unobserved point.\n<\/p><p>Gaussian processes are popular surrogate models in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bayesian_optimization\" title=\"Bayesian optimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1ac354a0f984a882dcec284e272fb038\">Bayesian optimization<\/a> used to do <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hyperparameter_optimization\" title=\"Hyperparameter optimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"23f73873a73a296727b75e4f32b45884\">hyperparameter optimization<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Genetic_algorithms\">Genetic algorithms<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genetic_algorithm\" title=\"Genetic algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f15c0d036941031692b8f72bc60e8262\">Genetic algorithm<\/a><\/div>\n<p>A genetic algorithm (GA) is a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Search_algorithm\" title=\"Search algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c8e2192ba143c7f57418b352fefb05f1\">search algorithm<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heuristic_(computer_science)\" title=\"Heuristic (computer science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed4166fcb2ae0a69da5ac93b79f41785\">heuristic<\/a> technique that mimics the process of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_selection\" title=\"Natural selection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9cae9a9a763c86d44cc6c6b5cd83b94f\">natural selection<\/a>, using methods such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mutation_(genetic_algorithm)\" title=\"Mutation (genetic algorithm)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86e7ab0d9a060275eb8ab1f594dc9d07\">mutation<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Crossover_(genetic_algorithm)\" title=\"Crossover (genetic algorithm)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7d8286420f591c0d2e2abd68fc03fe2e\">crossover<\/a> to generate new <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chromosome_(genetic_algorithm)\" title=\"Chromosome (genetic algorithm)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3b37927b5c03e81662bc24cd5db9008e\">genotypes<\/a> in the hope of finding good solutions to a given problem. In machine learning, genetic algorithms were used in the 1980s and 1990s.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-79\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-79\">[79]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-80\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-80\">[80]<\/a><\/sup> Conversely, machine learning techniques have been used to improve the performance of genetic and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Evolutionary_algorithm\" title=\"Evolutionary algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2be5565f46780928629b4705cf141f08\">evolutionary algorithms<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-81\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-81\">[81]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Belief_functions\">Belief functions<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dempster%E2%80%93Shafer_theory\" title=\"Dempster\u2013Shafer theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fc92e256fd7b80e55c6f4802b50a541c\">Dempster\u2013Shafer theory<\/a><\/div>\n<p>The theory of belief functions, also referred to as evidence theory or Dempster\u2013Shafer theory, is a general framework for reasoning with uncertainty, with understood connections to other frameworks such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Probability\" title=\"Probability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"44ea3f63d04643beddabc48ace7e9515\">probability<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Possibility_theory\" title=\"Possibility theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1182b1a345c8cb75f7bf96b9000ba90a\">possibility<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Imprecise_probability\" title=\"Imprecise probability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"56dff6e33220d13215bd850ee3bab144\">imprecise probability theories<\/a>. These theoretical frameworks can be thought of as a kind of learner and have some analogous properties of how evidence is combined (e.g., Dempster's rule of combination), just like how in a pmf-based Bayesian approach would combine probabilities. However, there are many caveats to these beliefs functions when compared to Bayesian approaches in order to incorporate ignorance and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Uncertainty_quantification\" title=\"Uncertainty quantification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"920ca556b13eb83d1031df6d59160852\">Uncertainty quantification<\/a>. These belief function approaches that are implemented within the machine learning domain typically leverage a fusion approach of various ensemble methods to better handle the learner's decision boundary, low samples, and ambiguous class issues that standard machine learning approach tend to have difficulty resolving.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:6_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:6-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:7_5-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:7-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:8_10-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:8-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> However, the computational complexity of these algorithms are dependent on the number of propositions (classes), and can lead a much higher computation time when compared to other machine learning approaches.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Training_models\">Training models<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Typically, machine learning models require a high quantity of reliable data in order for the models to perform accurate predictions. When training a machine learning model, machine learning engineers need to target and collect a large and representative <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sample_(statistics)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Sample (statistics)\" data-key=\"5f27441544b1c58e696b79a19556d105\">sample<\/a> of data. Data from the training set can be as varied as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Corpus_of_text\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Corpus of text\" data-key=\"bdc349221b6d9924875a2cf5db9a0028\">corpus of text<\/a>, a collection of images, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sensor\" title=\"Sensor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f309353c1f8a54286958707160bba6d\">sensor<\/a> data, and data collected from individual users of a service. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Overfitting\" title=\"Overfitting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"59d1e3e9cfe8881363e47824ef11c4bc\">Overfitting<\/a> is something to watch out for when training a machine learning model. Trained models derived from biased or non-evaluated data can result in skewed or undesired predictions. Bias models may result in detrimental outcomes thereby furthering the negative impacts on society or objectives. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Algorithmic_bias\" title=\"Algorithmic bias\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"03a3ae18f9e582251dac4193d8945a43\">Algorithmic bias<\/a> is a potential result of data not being fully prepared for training. Machine learning ethics is becoming a field of study and notably be integrated within machine learning engineering teams.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Federated_learning\">Federated learning<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Federated_learning\" title=\"Federated learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7e39f963bf5f73502fdcd4f1530d532\">Federated learning<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Federated learning is an adapted form of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Distributed artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"10fb6ab5ee4ba93a62a8232d3038067e\">distributed artificial intelligence<\/a> to training machine learning models that decentralizes the training process, allowing for users' privacy to be maintained by not needing to send their data to a centralized server. This also increases efficiency by decentralizing the training process to many devices. For example, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gboard\" title=\"Gboard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"79c89f74d5857cbf5ce93ae79a913296\">Gboard<\/a> uses federated machine learning to train search query prediction models on users' mobile phones without having to send individual searches back to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Google\" title=\"Google\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b915ee8daf11a90fecc2d0bd0513feb\">Google<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-82\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-82\">[82]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Applications\">Applications<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>There are many applications for machine learning, including:\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"div-col\" style=\"column-width: 21em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Precision_agriculture\" title=\"Precision agriculture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8a270130803dbb6797d83c859bb52e33\">Agriculture<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_anatomy\" title=\"Computational anatomy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4597420d73d23642bfcd3a36c9883cf0\">Anatomy<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Adaptive_website\" title=\"Adaptive website\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51dc1050fa2f48d1e9a81332f976e227\">Adaptive website<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Affective_computing\" title=\"Affective computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2d2895ad8508fe3d7e92180ab59a670\">Affective computing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Astroinformatics\" title=\"Astroinformatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00df4f7e78654b83b20128eefe439e57\">Astronomy<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_decision-making\" title=\"Automated decision-making\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0dc856796d1c733810ab35120d21b090\">Automated decision-making<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Banking\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Banking\" data-key=\"130d6ac80c8cbb2debee0d8e2b601b67\">Banking<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Behaviorism\" title=\"Behaviorism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8cb50f4611218cfe66b3842f348ce6c0\">Behaviorism<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bioinformatics\" title=\"Bioinformatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01737c6289ef7671d2c932a51babe26b\">Bioinformatics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface\" title=\"Brain\u2013computer interface\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e57672df0847d4c3682202101a199a0e\">Brain\u2013machine interfaces<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cheminformatics\" title=\"Cheminformatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2c23d43efab9d8b91d88fac55cfcad92\">Cheminformatics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Citizen_Science\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Citizen Science\" data-key=\"f8ece46b76d478b9af4129f0a4fdbf37\">Citizen Science<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Climate_Science\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Climate Science\" data-key=\"7a3c44ea3adfbb7fe728b548ecd85cb0\">Climate Science<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Network_simulation\" title=\"Network simulation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"893b65707a026a3baf68c9eea352f2ac\">Computer networks<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_vision\" title=\"Computer vision\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"082554c667906c00efbfe0986943ab7f\">Computer vision<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Credit-card_fraud\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Credit-card fraud\" data-key=\"1e6ee329f463c0022a2e79fb7a17044e\">Credit-card fraud<\/a> detection<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_quality\" title=\"Data quality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8771428f8ff5b31246abf8b197186672\">Data quality<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DNA_sequence\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"DNA sequence\" data-key=\"0b1846e4c4cc314377d8abfe5c748233\">DNA sequence<\/a> classification<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_economics\" title=\"Computational economics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5d8fed1215b4760401d67c1c0c3c99b0\">Economics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Financial_market\" title=\"Financial market\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ee19b062f5467042e8f1bfd84c3bcf2\">Financial market<\/a> analysis<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-83\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-83\">[83]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/General_game_playing\" title=\"General game playing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43b659f2ed91c7a28bca494393765fd1\">General game playing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Handwriting_recognition\" title=\"Handwriting recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5bb29c981e9020cf84826712e97ecd3\">Handwriting recognition<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_in_healthcare\" title=\"Artificial intelligence in healthcare\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a83c45f6d758fe57b1fe4cb086a660dd\">Healthcare<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_retrieval\" title=\"Information retrieval\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0faaa582e57a2d62bc65c5c191a810c0\">Information retrieval<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Insurance\" title=\"Insurance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d77f0f5d6a8807cf42570e516d2f5319\">Insurance<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_fraud\" title=\"Internet fraud\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5f5db62d5e30a813343db439fa21a34b\">Internet fraud<\/a> detection<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_graph_embedding\" title=\"Knowledge graph embedding\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a03128a68ed6b1bdfa7bac154e4fca27\">Knowledge graph embedding<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_linguistics\" title=\"Computational linguistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"25a4d0ed13e4c3a04f8b9f007301a182\">Linguistics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning_control\" title=\"Machine learning control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"762caf8acf2669bb0b74ea6e4ee7d71c\">Machine learning control<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_perception\" title=\"Machine perception\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cfffd3cba5956ce2d78ebcd3f401115a\">Machine perception<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_translation\" title=\"Machine translation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14267942afd7a6873d7e227d71ba74d2\">Machine translation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Marketing\" title=\"Marketing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8fc25da4af284af2b3cae5726440415e\">Marketing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_medical_diagnosis\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Automated medical diagnosis\" data-key=\"b3ea211a3e3189cf5474fbc4abb020e4\">Medical diagnosis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_language_processing\" title=\"Natural language processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"258d1d348c952c69c2cf806f12baac0d\">Natural language processing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural-language_understanding\" title=\"Natural-language understanding\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dc275c68d99ba7b2527d92dccdd80b8a\">Natural language understanding<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Online_advertising\" title=\"Online advertising\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c104040ed5298d8e7f9e5bc8eab89d33\">Online advertising<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mathematical_optimization\" title=\"Mathematical optimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3971a7d176811cdbfe476e66dedd7be2\">Optimization<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Recommender_system\" title=\"Recommender system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dd8c39f11ec163e4c363222f532670c0\">Recommender systems<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robot_locomotion\" title=\"Robot locomotion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"406480a0fd10d06c8f55b75c2aebe443\">Robot locomotion<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Search_engines\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Search engines\" data-key=\"3a2bcd029c77c401e1f23457fa8cc80a\">Search engines<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sentiment_analysis\" title=\"Sentiment analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"65a8d6b4bb74d78435b7c0e113f93692\">Sentiment analysis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sequence_mining\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Sequence mining\" data-key=\"1a30e9cfab48374ced380b93858f24ef\">Sequence mining<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_engineering\" title=\"Software engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe0adbaec2a85b6f2d492710b645f017\">Software engineering<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Speech_recognition\" title=\"Speech recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"067c5c5cfe1e2d0e23c8b0dd8809446d\">Speech recognition<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Structural_health_monitoring\" title=\"Structural health monitoring\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bc740a37a05a52fef78278212931b98a\">Structural health monitoring<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Syntactic_pattern_recognition\" title=\"Syntactic pattern recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"44d2d2708cafe7de19cda496e1689a55\">Syntactic pattern recognition<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Telecommunication\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Telecommunication\" data-key=\"4e6c5b88185933f9f03eb88df6b15551\">Telecommunication<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_theorem_proving\" title=\"Automated theorem proving\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"70283ba307cba4927c2ddd74c3e82e5c\">Theorem proving<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Time_series\" title=\"Time series\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"22f08af55c3f78b806aba1078bca7b65\">Time-series forecasting<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tomographic_reconstruction\" title=\"Tomographic reconstruction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7c0f9e72ada9c6bdc3c3e2b3ae5e6b38\">Tomographic reconstruction<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-84\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-84\">[84]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/User_behavior_analytics\" title=\"User behavior analytics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2cf4e88d03cb5cf8fb04cd2275eeb7f\">User behavior analytics<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p>In 2006, the media-services provider <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Netflix\" title=\"Netflix\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"159d2de18846270b7627fe92c6a3a64f\">Netflix<\/a> held the first \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Netflix_Prize\" title=\"Netflix Prize\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afd5ebf854037fa00b6211a16ffe1ae3\">Netflix Prize<\/a>\" competition to find a program to better predict user preferences and improve the accuracy of its existing Cinematch movie recommendation algorithm by at least 10%. A joint team made up of researchers from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AT%26T_Labs\" title=\"AT&amp;T Labs\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3fbba6341f0946d57570159b4775c5c4\">AT&amp;T Labs<\/a>-Research in collaboration with the teams Big Chaos and Pragmatic Theory built an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ensemble_Averaging\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Ensemble Averaging\" data-key=\"4c7362658be404840f1cd42b51b40da3\">ensemble model<\/a> to win the Grand Prize in 2009 for $1 million.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-85\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-85\">[85]<\/a><\/sup> Shortly after the prize was awarded, Netflix realized that viewers' ratings were not the best indicators of their viewing patterns (\"everything is a recommendation\") and they changed their recommendation engine accordingly.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-86\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-86\">[86]<\/a><\/sup> In 2010 The Wall Street Journal wrote about the firm Rebellion Research and their use of machine learning to predict the financial crisis.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-87\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-87\">[87]<\/a><\/sup> In 2012, co-founder of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sun_Microsystems\" title=\"Sun Microsystems\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8cb42aeb8819d4b7b30d0d668f5642ee\">Sun Microsystems<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vinod_Khosla\" title=\"Vinod Khosla\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a4b7359d233c05513483f5cd2dd1eb6\">Vinod Khosla<\/a>, predicted that 80% of medical doctors jobs would be lost in the next two decades to automated machine learning medical diagnostic software.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-88\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-88\">[88]<\/a><\/sup> In 2014, it was reported that a machine learning algorithm had been applied in the field of art history to study fine art paintings and that it may have revealed previously unrecognized influences among artists.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-89\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-89\">[89]<\/a><\/sup> In 2019 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Springer_Nature\" title=\"Springer Nature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"06decdde2594c7a3eeb6605ac6e933be\">Springer Nature<\/a> published the first research book created using machine learning.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-90\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-90\">[90]<\/a><\/sup> In 2020, machine learning technology was used to help make diagnoses and aid researchers in developing a cure for COVID-19.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-91\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-91\">[91]<\/a><\/sup> Machine learning was recently applied to predict the pro-environmental behavior of travelers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-92\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-92\">[92]<\/a><\/sup> Recently, machine learning technology was also applied to optimize smartphone's performance and thermal behavior based on the user's interaction with the phone.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-93\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-93\">[93]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-94\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-94\">[94]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-95\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-95\">[95]<\/a><\/sup> When applied correctly, machine learning algorithms (MLAs) can utilize a wide range of company characteristics to predict stock returns without overfitting. By employing effective feature engineering and combining forecasts, MLAs can generate results that far surpass those obtained from basic linear techniques like OLS.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-96\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-96\">[96]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Limitations\">Limitations<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Although machine learning has been transformative in some fields, machine-learning programs often fail to deliver expected results.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-97\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-97\">[97]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-98\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-98\">[98]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-99\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-99\">[99]<\/a><\/sup> Reasons for this are numerous: lack of (suitable) data, lack of access to the data, data bias, privacy problems, badly chosen tasks and algorithms, wrong tools and people, lack of resources, and evaluation problems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-100\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-100\">[100]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Black_box\" title=\"Black box\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"817a7de7c3ee6454d45768f6f806dc78\">black box theory<\/a>\" poses another yet significant challenge. Black box refers to a situation where the algorithm or the process of producing an output is entirely opaque, meaning that even the coders of the algorithm cannot audit the pattern that the machine extracted out of the data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:12_101-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:12-101\">[101]<\/a><\/sup> The House of Lords Select Committee, which claimed that such an \u201cintelligence system\u201d that could have a \u201csubstantial impact on an individual\u2019s life\u201d would not be considered acceptable unless it provided \u201ca full and satisfactory explanation for the decisions\u201d it makes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:12_101-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:12-101\">[101]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In 2018, a self-driving car from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Uber\" title=\"Uber\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6eb0bccbaa389a07e4a72d81113dad78\">Uber<\/a> failed to detect a pedestrian, who was killed after a collision.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-102\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-102\">[102]<\/a><\/sup> Attempts to use machine learning in healthcare with the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Watson_(computer)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Watson (computer)\" data-key=\"0df5ae01410cdbe57cfcc8c38c5ae97d\">IBM Watson<\/a> system failed to deliver even after years of time and billions of dollars invested.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-103\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-103\">[103]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-104\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-104\">[104]<\/a><\/sup> Microsoft's chatbot has been reported to produce hostile and offensive response against its users.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-105\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-105\">[105]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Machine learning has been used as a strategy to update the evidence related to a systematic review and increased reviewer burden related to the growth of biomedical literature. While it has improved with training sets, it has not yet developed sufficiently to reduce the workload burden without limiting the necessary sensitivity for the findings research themselves.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-106\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-106\">[106]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Bias\">Bias<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Algorithmic_bias\" title=\"Algorithmic bias\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"03a3ae18f9e582251dac4193d8945a43\">Algorithmic bias<\/a><\/div><p>Machine learning approaches in particular can suffer from different data biases. A machine learning system trained specifically on current customers may not be able to predict the needs of new customer groups that are not represented in the training data. When trained on human-made data, machine learning is likely to pick up the constitutional and unconscious biases already present in society.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:15_107-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:15-107\">[107]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Language models learned from data have been shown to contain human-like biases.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-108\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-108\">[108]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-109\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-109\">[109]<\/a><\/sup> An experiment carried out by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ProPublica\" title=\"ProPublica\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"68bdaf85b437ea30d7bcf3eb48115b53\">ProPublica<\/a>, a predictive policing company, regarding machine learning algorithm\u2019s insight towards the recidivism rates among prisoners falsely flagged \u201cblack defendants high risk twice as often as white defendants.\u201d<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:22_110-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:22-110\">[110]<\/a><\/sup> In 2015, Google photos would often tag black people as gorillas,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:22_110-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:22-110\">[110]<\/a><\/sup> and in 2018 this still was not well resolved, but Google reportedly was still using the workaround to remove all gorillas from the training data, and thus was not able to recognize real gorillas at all.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-111\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-111\">[111]<\/a><\/sup> Similar issues with recognizing non-white people have been found in many other systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-112\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-112\">[112]<\/a><\/sup> In 2016, Microsoft tested a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chatbot\" title=\"Chatbot\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5c17657a30241a7e24a12eb6a70fd475\">chatbot<\/a> that learned from Twitter, and it quickly picked up racist and sexist language.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-113\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-113\">[113]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Because of such challenges, the effective use of machine learning may take longer to be adopted in other domains.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-114\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-114\">[114]<\/a><\/sup> Concern for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fairness_(machine_learning)\" title=\"Fairness (machine learning)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c4297acb6d19a768bdd031d21cf24c0\">fairness<\/a> in machine learning, that is, reducing bias in machine learning and propelling its use for human good is increasingly expressed by artificial intelligence scientists, including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fei-Fei_Li\" title=\"Fei-Fei Li\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c80fa97875a7fa6ea11ad0fdb799e402\">Fei-Fei Li<\/a>, who reminds engineers that \"There's nothing artificial about AI...It's inspired by people, it's created by people, and\u2014most importantly\u2014it impacts people. It is a powerful tool we are only just beginning to understand, and that is a profound responsibility.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-115\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-115\">[115]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Explainability\">Explainability<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Explainable_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Explainable artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"24398fe237ee37c8d3fe21fa7272c05c\">Explainable artificial intelligence<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Explainable AI (XAI), or Interpretable AI, or Explainable Machine Learning (XML), is artificial intelligence (AI) in which humans can understand the decisions or predictions made by the AI.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-116\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-116\">[116]<\/a><\/sup> It contrasts with the \"black box\" concept in machine learning where even its designers cannot explain why an AI arrived at a specific decision.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-117\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-117\">[117]<\/a><\/sup> By refining the mental models of users of AI-powered systems and dismantling their misconceptions, XAI promises to help users perform more effectively. XAI may be an implementation of the social right to explanation.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Overfitting\">Overfitting<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Overfitting\" title=\"Overfitting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"59d1e3e9cfe8881363e47824ef11c4bc\">Overfitting<\/a><\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Overfitted_Data.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"810a6a6c3be413bf8eb2dc2e541fb2dd\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/6\/68\/Overfitted_Data.png\/220px-Overfitted_Data.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"149\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>The blue line could be an example of overfitting a linear function due to random noise.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>Settling on a bad, overly complex theory gerrymandered to fit all the past training data is known as overfitting. Many systems attempt to reduce overfitting by rewarding a theory in accordance with how well it fits the data but penalizing the theory in accordance with how complex the theory is.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015Chapter_6,_Chapter_7_118-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015Chapter_6,_Chapter_7-118\">[118]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Other_limitations_and_vulnerabilities\">Other limitations and vulnerabilities<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Learners can also disappoint by \"learning the wrong lesson\". A toy example is that an image classifier trained only on pictures of brown horses and black cats might conclude that all brown patches are likely to be horses.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015286_119-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015286-119\">[119]<\/a><\/sup> A real-world example is that, unlike humans, current image classifiers often do not primarily make judgments from the spatial relationship between components of the picture, and they learn relationships between pixels that humans are oblivious to, but that still correlate with images of certain types of real objects. Modifying these patterns on a legitimate image can result in \"adversarial\" images that the system misclassifies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-120\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-120\">[120]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-121\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-121\">[121]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Adversarial vulnerabilities can also result in nonlinear systems, or from non-pattern perturbations. For some systems, it is possible to change the output by only changing a single adversarially chosen pixel.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TD_1_122-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TD_1-122\">[122]<\/a><\/sup> Machine learning models are often vulnerable to manipulation and\/or evasion via <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Adversarial_machine_learning\" title=\"Adversarial machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9cd3a5fff3d71a70b9cf0ff530a73296\">adversarial machine learning<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-123\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-123\">[123]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Researchers have demonstrated how <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backdoor_(computing)\" title=\"Backdoor (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a1d88a200650aff5c48f98c7ee2360cd\">backdoors<\/a> can be placed undetectably into classifying (e.g., for categories \"spam\" and well-visible \"not spam\" of posts) machine learning models which are often developed and\/or trained by third parties. Parties can change the classification of any input, including in cases for which a type of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Algorithmic_transparency\" title=\"Algorithmic transparency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae203c60f659ace92cee58893001beba\">data\/software transparency<\/a> is provided, possibly including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/White-box_testing\" title=\"White-box testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86458edb2c0cf54347b9f06aa6501df6\">white-box access<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-124\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-124\">[124]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-125\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-125\">[125]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-126\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-126\">[126]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Model_assessments\">Model assessments<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Classification of machine learning models can be validated by accuracy estimation techniques like the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Test_set\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Test set\" data-key=\"2460161930eafcaabbd99b80650cb9cb\">holdout<\/a> method, which splits the data in a training and test set (conventionally 2\/3 training set and 1\/3 test set designation) and evaluates the performance of the training model on the test set. In comparison, the K-fold-<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cross-validation_(statistics)\" title=\"Cross-validation (statistics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2f02ed4ea32a43eebb80fe23486adaa6\">cross-validation<\/a> method randomly partitions the data into K subsets and then K experiments are performed each respectively considering 1 subset for evaluation and the remaining K-1 subsets for training the model. In addition to the holdout and cross-validation methods, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bootstrapping_(statistics)\" title=\"Bootstrapping (statistics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5adeadfbbb4812f855896d499b8810c0\">bootstrap<\/a>, which samples n instances with replacement from the dataset, can be used to assess model accuracy.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-127\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-127\">[127]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In addition to overall accuracy, investigators frequently report <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sensitivity_and_specificity\" title=\"Sensitivity and specificity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0896ae4364a22374174157b02f755cf\">sensitivity and specificity<\/a> meaning True Positive Rate (TPR) and True Negative Rate (TNR) respectively. Similarly, investigators sometimes report the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/False_positive_rate\" title=\"False positive rate\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"773bf5c8f936d0f8d0ea2cd12609a0ac\">false positive rate<\/a> (FPR) as well as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/False_negative_rate\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"False negative rate\" data-key=\"24f8698ae3a7b9d7999069a35bc17799\">false negative rate<\/a> (FNR). However, these rates are ratios that fail to reveal their numerators and denominators. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Total_operating_characteristic\" title=\"Total operating characteristic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a22c63ed4f897773a63a069ebe81a842\">total operating characteristic<\/a> (TOC) is an effective method to express a model's diagnostic ability. TOC shows the numerators and denominators of the previously mentioned rates, thus TOC provides more information than the commonly used <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Receiver_operating_characteristic\" title=\"Receiver operating characteristic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8254d481444efffa04c623c06fe7070\">receiver operating characteristic<\/a> (ROC) and ROC's associated area under the curve (AUC).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-128\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-128\">[128]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Ethics\">Ethics<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_control_problem\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"AI control problem\" data-key=\"3a4b505ea3c272cedd95e33aec03d295\">AI control problem<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Toronto_Declaration\" title=\"Toronto Declaration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cb2f988fbaa9e6dde1164dc09f953c9a\">Toronto Declaration<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Ethics of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"608ca5c55237a263936a26d2500d09a6\">Ethics of artificial intelligence<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Machine learning poses a host of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_ethics\" title=\"Machine ethics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3a0c55ae3309465a1780ba9c3038f57\">ethical questions<\/a>. Systems that are trained on datasets collected with biases may exhibit these biases upon use (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Algorithmic_bias\" title=\"Algorithmic bias\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"03a3ae18f9e582251dac4193d8945a43\">algorithmic bias<\/a>), thus digitizing cultural prejudices.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-129\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-129\">[129]<\/a><\/sup> For example, in 1988, the UK's Commission for Racial Equality found that St. George's Medical School had been using a computer program trained from data of previous admissions staff and this program had denied nearly 60 candidates who were found to be either women or had non-European sounding names.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:1_130-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:1-130\">[130]<\/a><\/sup> Using job hiring data from a firm with racist hiring policies may lead to a machine learning system duplicating the bias by scoring job applicants by similarity to previous successful applicants.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Edionwe_Outline_131-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Edionwe_Outline-131\">[131]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Jeffries_Outline_132-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Jeffries_Outline-132\">[132]<\/a><\/sup> Another example includes predictive policing company <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geolitica\" title=\"Geolitica\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53aa97811d6f2dcb7e2b7b6f9ff8a8ad\">Geolitica<\/a>'s predictive algorithm that resulted in \u201cdisproportionately high levels of over-policing in low-income and minority communities\u201d after being trained with historical crime data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:23_133-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:23-133\">[133]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>While responsible <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_collection\" title=\"Data collection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c480fa3155cedfb5132e5258cdc0aa80\">collection of data<\/a> and documentation of algorithmic rules used by a system is considered a critical part of machine learning, some researchers blame lack of participation and representation of minority population in the field of AI for machine learning's vulnerability to biases.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-134\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-134\">[134]<\/a><\/sup> In fact, according to research carried out by the Computing Research Association (CRA) in 2021, \u201cfemale faculty merely make up 16.1%\u201d of all faculty members who focus on AI among several universities around the world.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:32_135-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:32-135\">[135]<\/a><\/sup> Furthermore, among the group of \u201cnew U.S. resident AI PhD graduates,\u201d 45% identified as white, 22.4% as Asian, 3.2% as Hispanic, and 2.4% as African American, which further demonstrates a lack of diversity in the field of AI.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:32_135-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:32-135\">[135]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>AI can be well-equipped to make decisions in technical fields, which rely heavily on data and historical information. These decisions rely on objectivity and logical reasoning.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-136\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-136\">[136]<\/a><\/sup> Because human languages contain biases, machines trained on language <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Text_corpus\" title=\"Text corpus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"788482749050db6fe187385cc144bc73\">corpora<\/a><\/i> will necessarily also learn these biases.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-137\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-137\">[137]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-138\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-138\">[138]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Other forms of ethical challenges, not related to personal biases, are seen in health care. There are concerns among health care professionals that these systems might not be designed in the public's interest but as income-generating machines.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-139\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-139\">[139]<\/a><\/sup> This is especially true in the United States where there is a long-standing ethical dilemma of improving health care, but also increasing profits. For example, the algorithms could be designed to provide patients with unnecessary tests or medication in which the algorithm's proprietary owners hold stakes. There is potential for machine learning in health care to provide professionals an additional tool to diagnose, medicate, and plan recovery paths for patients, but this requires these biases to be mitigated.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-140\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-140\">[140]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Hardware\">Hardware<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Since the 2010s, advances in both machine learning algorithms and computer hardware have led to more efficient methods for training <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_neural_network\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Deep neural network\" data-key=\"a9ed700c42e118a181e5612b1dbfbd9a\">deep neural networks<\/a> (a particular narrow subdomain of machine learning) that contain many layers of non-linear hidden units.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-141\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-141\">[141]<\/a><\/sup> By 2019, graphic processing units (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GPU\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"GPU\" data-key=\"db3ef2b28ed656dce3597710a302f862\">GPUs<\/a>), often with AI-specific enhancements, had displaced CPUs as the dominant method of training large-scale commercial cloud AI.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-142\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-142\">[142]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OpenAI\" title=\"OpenAI\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4980df9317894d76a3309b4bed8d51e4\">OpenAI<\/a> estimated the hardware computing used in the largest deep learning projects from AlexNet (2012) to AlphaZero (2017), and found a 300,000-fold increase in the amount of compute required, with a doubling-time trendline of 3.4 months.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-143\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-143\">[143]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-144\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-144\">[144]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Neuromorphic.2FPhysical_Neural_Networks\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Neuromorphic\/Physical_Neural_Networks\">Neuromorphic\/Physical Neural Networks<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Physical_neural_network\" title=\"Physical neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d60141470437681807204f41707244bc\">physical neural network<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neuromorphic_engineering\" title=\"Neuromorphic engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1f5ca10ba55e1013132581a530d1046a\">Neuromorphic computer<\/a> is a type of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_neural_network\" title=\"Artificial neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73964ffff0d6be12acd68eded7e41d19\">artificial neural network<\/a> in which an electrically adjustable material is used to emulate the function of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chemical_synapse\" title=\"Chemical synapse\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"38db21351a2f49592a0974fff64295f4\">neural synapse<\/a>. \"Physical\" neural network is used to emphasize the reliance on physical hardware used to emulate <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neurons\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Neurons\" data-key=\"a7fa55e0708c294c62c2e008adc2a510\">neurons<\/a> as opposed to software-based approaches. More generally the term is applicable to other artificial neural networks in which a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Memristor\" title=\"Memristor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3a9d89fcc155ef599a047080b8cb087d\">memristor<\/a> or other electrically adjustable resistance material is used to emulate a neural synapse.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-145\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-145\">[145]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-146\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-146\">[146]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Embedded_Machine_Learning\">Embedded Machine Learning<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><b>Embedded Machine Learning<\/b> is a sub-field of machine learning, where the machine learning model is run on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Embedded_systems\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Embedded systems\" data-key=\"51d9c3c401ff6ee2ae6781e1b5b920ea\">embedded systems<\/a> with limited computing resources such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wearable_computer\" title=\"Wearable computer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"558c7f84922d6dddc0204702ee768574\">wearable computers<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Edge_device\" title=\"Edge device\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1a87bbf4768211ea4879c4c4afec180\">edge devices<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microcontrollers\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Microcontrollers\" data-key=\"2f0d7615892b9331182c86265220a89a\">microcontrollers<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-147\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-147\">[147]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-148\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-148\">[148]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-149\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-149\">[149]<\/a><\/sup> Running machine learning model in embedded devices removes the need for transferring and storing data on cloud servers for further processing, henceforth, reducing data breaches and privacy leaks happening because of transferring data, and also minimizes theft of intellectual properties, personal data and business secrets. Embedded Machine Learning could be applied through several techniques including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hardware_acceleration\" title=\"Hardware acceleration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"08eca6db41178b30cfface10fe61d940\">hardware acceleration<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-150\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-150\">[150]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-151\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-151\">[151]<\/a><\/sup> using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Approximate_computing\" title=\"Approximate computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"933841297f658860e98316919872535a\">approximate computing<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-152\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-152\">[152]<\/a><\/sup> optimization of machine learning models and many more.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-153\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-153\">[153]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-154\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-154\">[154]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Software\">Software<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_suite\" title=\"Software suite\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2d8f2d5129b04c90d56e5efe62482452\">Software suites<\/a> containing a variety of machine learning algorithms include the following:\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Free_and_open-source_software\">Free and open-source software<span class=\"anchor\" id=\"rdp-ebb-Open-source_software\"><\/span><\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115\" \/><div class=\"div-col\" style=\"column-width: 18em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Caffe_(software)\" title=\"Caffe (software)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f41b29caf168f68aefa65f66fda44409\">Caffe<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deeplearning4j\" title=\"Deeplearning4j\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea4c677cd54f457e0b1e6db895ea192d\">Deeplearning4j<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DeepSpeed\" title=\"DeepSpeed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"93d57ab5ae5cb78913118bb121f7c62b\">DeepSpeed<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ELKI\" title=\"ELKI\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5875eb65694616d929e61a21990b3fc3\">ELKI<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Google_JAX\" title=\"Google JAX\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4fb91bc5cffba0c1a71adc14c48c8158\">Google JAX<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Infer.NET\" title=\"Infer.NET\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed22173ff09cef4bf5e75ddeea929826\">Infer.NET<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Keras\" title=\"Keras\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b104db4c00efd14ab61066d5ed12da02\">Keras<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kubeflow\" title=\"Kubeflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4db0c844d9a088da310afae1ed956329\">Kubeflow<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/LightGBM\" title=\"LightGBM\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1c7ea9845364f4e17c606da3d042ebcf\">LightGBM<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apache_Mahout\" title=\"Apache Mahout\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eeb4724dc023db9fa7c20d444d49a4f2\">Mahout<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mallet_(software_project)\" title=\"Mallet (software project)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f00845b711cda17a329aad55a4b5bab6\">Mallet<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft_Cognitive_Toolkit\" title=\"Microsoft Cognitive Toolkit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b12459fe9713a263e6449bbbc522493b\">Microsoft Cognitive Toolkit<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ML.NET\" title=\"ML.NET\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"267f07695108db0cc273ac3038a51942\">ML.NET<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mlpack\" title=\"Mlpack\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebe20838eecdf93f4c56e474913a90b1\">mlpack<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MXNet\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"MXNet\" data-key=\"f66fe083b2326c2d169d5ecafa8fe106\">MXNet<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OpenNN\" title=\"OpenNN\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4ac25cc1e0b57f7e0d9d8252afbebca3\">OpenNN<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Orange_(software)\" title=\"Orange (software)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e31be634139ed2f50c915e71a4bc5a31\">Orange<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pandas_(software)\" title=\"Pandas (software)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4da4c3da599da885efff853c42b3609a\">pandas (software)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ROOT\" title=\"ROOT\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7156f381cf47b633533a9c47747a4e44\">ROOT<\/a> (TMVA with ROOT)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scikit-learn\" title=\"Scikit-learn\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0e9baac6399c5b2a01d32ed79685060f\">scikit-learn<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shogun_(toolbox)\" title=\"Shogun (toolbox)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8de3a0aad80a43e4a0d08627f40027fa\">Shogun<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apache_Spark#MLlib_Machine_Learning_Library\" title=\"Apache Spark\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c8861acbb2539b63a8c63a47702326de\">Spark MLlib<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apache_SystemML\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Apache SystemML\" data-key=\"4f9fb855e46ce8db2c5f3f7628761825\">SystemML<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/TensorFlow\" title=\"TensorFlow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"68adf147371b6522b59dbf636fd0c4c6\">TensorFlow<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Torch_(machine_learning)\" title=\"Torch (machine learning)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7eb292e8efff1ebd45a059a1157f3d44\">Torch<\/a> \/ <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PyTorch\" title=\"PyTorch\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"567da5fffc2a0654a44ed4e34d3cfa4c\">PyTorch<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Weka_(machine_learning)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Weka (machine learning)\" data-key=\"bb84ec309cc29afa9b4e20566cd336d1\">Weka<\/a> \/ <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MOA_(Massive_Online_Analysis)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"MOA (Massive Online Analysis)\" data-key=\"e8f72cf61ea065798d43a05d1bbc3669\">MOA<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/XGBoost\" title=\"XGBoost\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e14e51612b5a68aab15b27fe0532b58\">XGBoost<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Yooreeka\" title=\"Yooreeka\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"36b0390e3eb7337de85e44d9aabb7aa1\">Yooreeka<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Proprietary_software_with_free_and_open-source_editions\">Proprietary software with free and open-source editions<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/KNIME\" title=\"KNIME\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a1aba78fe28e4faf376abd3a46d64179\">KNIME<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/RapidMiner\" title=\"RapidMiner\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae57d48c59aeab8e6d6bde3706fa3947\">RapidMiner<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Proprietary_software\">Proprietary software<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115\" \/><div class=\"div-col\" style=\"column-width: 18em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Amazon_Machine_Learning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Amazon Machine Learning\" data-key=\"8124139a130dbd81e464f0533c39bae4\">Amazon Machine Learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Angoss\" title=\"Angoss\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"24b48d3f50870d6544ab5e6cca88af89\">Angoss<\/a> KnowledgeSTUDIO<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Azure_Machine_Learning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Azure Machine Learning\" data-key=\"5278de93946d2fbe09045ebf639d9cb3\">Azure Machine Learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IBM_Watson_Studio\" title=\"IBM Watson Studio\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"12b13f7249c0c3bd00e78359386c987c\">IBM Watson Studio<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Google_Cloud_Platform#Cloud_AI\" title=\"Google Cloud Platform\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3aad388a3f92b3be49721deff23d9767\">Google Cloud Vertex AI<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Google_APIs\" title=\"Google APIs\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fc7106f29f7433637ec2ff0c7edcc44f\">Google Prediction API<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SPSS_Modeler\" title=\"SPSS Modeler\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2f79b15a79e91e6f6c6f1927fb4ad123\">IBM SPSS Modeler<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/KXEN_Inc.\" title=\"KXEN Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f827f83eadeedb2d4bfe348d59a7cce\">KXEN Modeler<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/LIONsolver\" title=\"LIONsolver\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b93506bbeca29c2d008a9b7ee8e5f2c\">LIONsolver<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mathematica\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Mathematica\" data-key=\"713dfff001f5147ec7603eac761b5008\">Mathematica<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MATLAB\" title=\"MATLAB\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"242cf4906bffee581ab22741b7da9cf5\">MATLAB<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neural_Designer\" title=\"Neural Designer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a8d006dcf230a73daf53ebd81087dbb\">Neural Designer<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/NeuroSolutions\" title=\"NeuroSolutions\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f2b74dbdc02abd4067edc073fb4c33a\">NeuroSolutions<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oracle_Data_Mining\" title=\"Oracle Data Mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3ad2ca524e5b2c2bd9a70d7a2038658d\">Oracle Data Mining<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oracle_Cloud#Platform_as_a_Service_(PaaS)\" title=\"Oracle Cloud\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9669561a3a0a41d3f3d3865502edd4f7\">Oracle AI Platform Cloud Service<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PolyAnalyst\" title=\"PolyAnalyst\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bf26e84de7009cdeab94d85112cfe39e\">PolyAnalyst<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/RCASE\" title=\"RCASE\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8b1e95a87761c5e1e03a7867b1db27ca\">RCASE<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SAS_(software)#Components\" title=\"SAS (software)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f23d80ccc4a187d33e5527a73d97a9a\">SAS Enterprise Miner<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SequenceL\" title=\"SequenceL\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f98c18a495770a9c5cd9c28cc9821695\">SequenceL<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Splunk\" title=\"Splunk\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"564b668b55344073832a9965904416ab\">Splunk<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/STATISTICA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"STATISTICA\" data-key=\"a47380324938227ba8de983f2781538f\">STATISTICA<\/a> Data Miner<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Journals\">Journals<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Journal_of_Machine_Learning_Research\" title=\"Journal of Machine Learning Research\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0986ff6f540bccf40ef2dfe3f7e45775\">Journal of Machine Learning Research<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_Learning_(journal)\" title=\"Machine Learning (journal)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27721329792e0278fe13787f13d45840\">Machine Learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nature_Machine_Intelligence\" title=\"Nature Machine Intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ac029fc9a33048beed38e1fe7cf6b8e9\">Nature Machine Intelligence<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neural_Computation_(journal)\" title=\"Neural Computation (journal)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"95c4bedade192c2df34a585aee812a74\">Neural Computation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IEEE_Transactions_on_Pattern_Analysis_and_Machine_Intelligence\" title=\"IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e10dcbde1528851549f7e50e8030c023\">IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Conferences\">Conferences<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AAAI_Conference_on_Artificial_Intelligence\" title=\"AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"23dc4fbd904b7e27cecb8b69ed928690\">AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Association_for_Computational_Linguistics\" title=\"Association for Computational Linguistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a9195f0e52126cbfc5d77505a75ac22\">Association for Computational Linguistics (<b>ACL<\/b>)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Conference_on_Machine_Learning_and_Principles_and_Practice_of_Knowledge_Discovery_in_Databases\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"European Conference on Machine Learning and Principles and Practice of Knowledge Discovery in Databases\" data-key=\"7ae5a17d5466e528d4f36680e1e646f7\">European Conference on Machine Learning and Principles and Practice of Knowledge Discovery in Databases (<b>ECML PKDD<\/b>)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Conference_on_Computational_Intelligence_Methods_for_Bioinformatics_and_Biostatistics\" title=\"International Conference on Computational Intelligence Methods for Bioinformatics and Biostatistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f697738d212874a44f8278e4cd8ae92\">International Conference on Computational Intelligence Methods for Bioinformatics and Biostatistics (<b>CIBB<\/b>)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Conference_on_Machine_Learning\" title=\"International Conference on Machine Learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afdcffd4f79def1da21bef6ece0e65ec\">International Conference on Machine Learning (<b>ICML<\/b>)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Conference_on_Learning_Representations\" title=\"International Conference on Learning Representations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d0a25d10322360cd22711cb94bd7a2f7\">International Conference on Learning Representations (<b>ICLR<\/b>)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Conference_on_Intelligent_Robots_and_Systems\" title=\"International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"22ea9fdbf17755c0881163761b431b75\">International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (<b>IROS<\/b>)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conference_on_Knowledge_Discovery_and_Data_Mining\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining\" data-key=\"0568f7de857cb8a157fdf4fb67796ef5\">Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (<b>KDD<\/b>)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conference_on_Neural_Information_Processing_Systems\" title=\"Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0730e0e4164eeb30eb2d903a1979b3ec\">Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (<b>NeurIPS<\/b>)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_machine_learning\" title=\"Automated machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cf546d54bcba69734c4ae557eb27bc71\">Automated machine learning<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Process of automating the application of machine learning<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Big_data\" title=\"Big data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e130d519686c4edbc43ee36a686a3d0a\">Big data<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Extremely large or complex datasets<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Differentiable_programming\" title=\"Differentiable programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1472d6b79a41e8cc5f4319839d5de0a3\">Differentiable programming<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Programming paradigm<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Force_control\" title=\"Force control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"52d35f8808f4e52f9f33e469f08487b6\">Force control<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_important_publications_in_computer_science#Machine_learning\" title=\"List of important publications in computer science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea24477ae7cecc9f81653febcd0b6019\">List of important publications in machine learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_datasets_for_machine-learning_research\" title=\"List of datasets for machine-learning research\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9429ca0cecce3817e6ad4b4da64a0438\">List of datasets for machine-learning research<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist reflist-columns references-column-width\" style=\"column-width: 30em;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">The definition \"without being explicitly programmed\" is often attributed to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Arthur_Samuel_(computer_scientist)\" title=\"Arthur Samuel (computer scientist)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07ca64ab9edc7c8977958d425055d049\">Arthur Samuel<\/a>, who coined the term \"machine learning\" in 1959, but the phrase is not found verbatim in this publication, and may be a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Paraphrase\" title=\"Paraphrase\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f3b203c703d086e1bbe1e5e884c778e1\">paraphrase<\/a> that appeared later. Confer \"Paraphrasing Arthur Samuel (1959), the question is: How can computers learn to solve problems without being explicitly programmed?\" in <cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKozaBennettAndreKeane1996\" class=\"citation conference cs1\">Koza, John R.; Bennett, Forrest H.; Andre, David; Keane, Martin A. (1996). \"Automated Design of Both the Topology and Sizing of Analog Electrical Circuits Using Genetic Programming\". <i>Artificial Intelligence in Design '96<\/i>. Artificial Intelligence in Design '96. Springer, Dordrecht. pp.&#160;151\u2013170. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2F978-94-009-0279-4_9\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/978-94-009-0279-4_9<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-94-010-6610-5<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=conference&amp;rft.atitle=Automated+Design+of+Both+the+Topology+and+Sizing+of+Analog+Electrical+Circuits+Using+Genetic+Programming&amp;rft.btitle=Artificial+Intelligence+in+Design+%2796&amp;rft.pages=151-170&amp;rft.pub=Springer%2C+Dordrecht&amp;rft.date=1996&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-94-009-0279-4_9&amp;rft.isbn=978-94-010-6610-5&amp;rft.aulast=Koza&amp;rft.aufirst=John+R.&amp;rft.au=Bennett%2C+Forrest+H.&amp;rft.au=Andre%2C+David&amp;rft.au=Keane%2C+Martin+A.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ibm-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ibm_2-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ibm.com\/topics\/machine-learning\" target=\"_blank\">\"What is Machine Learning?\"<\/a>. <i>IBM<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2023-06-27<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=IBM&amp;rft.atitle=What+is+Machine+Learning%3F&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibm.com%2Ftopics%2Fmachine-learning&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:6-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:6_3-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:6_3-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFZhou2019\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Zhou, Victor (2019-12-20). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/towardsdatascience.com\/machine-learning-for-beginners-an-introduction-to-neural-networks-d49f22d238f9\" target=\"_blank\">\"Machine Learning for Beginners: An Introduction to Neural Networks\"<\/a>. <i>Medium<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20220309053518\/https:\/\/towardsdatascience.com\/machine-learning-for-beginners-an-introduction-to-neural-networks-d49f22d238f9\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2022-03-09<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-08-15<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Medium&amp;rft.atitle=Machine+Learning+for+Beginners%3A+An+Introduction+to+Neural+Networks&amp;rft.date=2019-12-20&amp;rft.aulast=Zhou&amp;rft.aufirst=Victor&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftowardsdatascience.com%2Fmachine-learning-for-beginners-an-introduction-to-neural-networks-d49f22d238f9&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-tvt-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-tvt_4-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHuNiuCarrascoLennox2020\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Hu, Junyan; Niu, Hanlin; Carrasco, Joaquin; Lennox, Barry; Arvin, Farshad (2020). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2Ftvt.2020.3034800\" target=\"_blank\">\"Voronoi-Based Multi-Robot Autonomous Exploration in Unknown Environments via Deep Reinforcement Learning\"<\/a>. <i>IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology<\/i>. <b>69<\/b> (12): 14413\u201314423. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2Ftvt.2020.3034800\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/tvt.2020.3034800<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0018-9545\" target=\"_blank\">0018-9545<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:228989788\" target=\"_blank\">228989788<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=IEEE+Transactions+on+Vehicular+Technology&amp;rft.atitle=Voronoi-Based+Multi-Robot+Autonomous+Exploration+in+Unknown+Environments+via+Deep+Reinforcement+Learning&amp;rft.volume=69&amp;rft.issue=12&amp;rft.pages=14413-14423&amp;rft.date=2020&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A228989788%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.issn=0018-9545&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2Ftvt.2020.3034800&amp;rft.aulast=Hu&amp;rft.aufirst=Junyan&amp;rft.au=Niu%2C+Hanlin&amp;rft.au=Carrasco%2C+Joaquin&amp;rft.au=Lennox%2C+Barry&amp;rft.au=Arvin%2C+Farshad&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1109%252Ftvt.2020.3034800&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:7-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:7_5-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:7_5-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFYoosefzadeh-NajafabadiHughTulpanSulik2021\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Yoosefzadeh-Najafabadi, Mohsen; Hugh, Earl; Tulpan, Dan; Sulik, John; Eskandari, Milad (2021). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC7835636\" target=\"_blank\">\"Application of Machine Learning Algorithms in Plant Breeding: Predicting Yield From Hyperspectral Reflectance in Soybean?\"<\/a>. <i>Front. Plant Sci<\/i>. <b>11<\/b>: 624273. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389%2Ffpls.2020.624273\" target=\"_blank\">10.3389\/fpls.2020.624273<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC7835636\" target=\"_blank\">7835636<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/33510761\" target=\"_blank\">33510761<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Front.+Plant+Sci.&amp;rft.atitle=Application+of+Machine+Learning+Algorithms+in+Plant+Breeding%3A+Predicting+Yield+From+Hyperspectral+Reflectance+in+Soybean%3F&amp;rft.volume=11&amp;rft.pages=624273&amp;rft.date=2021&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7835636%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33510761&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffpls.2020.624273&amp;rft.aulast=Yoosefzadeh-Najafabadi&amp;rft.aufirst=Mohsen&amp;rft.au=Hugh%2C+Earl&amp;rft.au=Tulpan%2C+Dan&amp;rft.au=Sulik%2C+John&amp;rft.au=Eskandari%2C+Milad&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7835636&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-bishop2006-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-bishop2006_6-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-bishop2006_6-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-bishop2006_6-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBishop2006\" class=\"citation cs2\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Christopher_M._Bishop\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Christopher M. 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M.<\/a> (2006), <i>Pattern Recognition and Machine Learning<\/i>, Springer, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-387-31073-2<\/bdi><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Pattern+Recognition+and+Machine+Learning&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-387-31073-2&amp;rft.aulast=Bishop&amp;rft.aufirst=C.+M.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-7\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Machine learning and pattern recognition \"can be viewed as two facets of the same field\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-bishop2006_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-bishop2006-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"reference nowrap\"><span title=\"Page \/ location: vii\">:\u200avii\u200a<\/span><\/sup><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:9-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:9_8-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:9_8-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFFriedman1998\" class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jerome_H._Friedman\" title=\"Jerome H. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 September<\/span> 2021<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nautilus&amp;rft.atitle=How+the+Computer+Got+Its+Revenge+on+the+Soviet+Union&amp;rft.date=2015-04-09&amp;rft.aulast=Gerovitch&amp;rft.aufirst=Slava&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnautil.us%2Fissue%2F23%2Fdominoes%2Fhow-the-computer-got-its-revenge-on-the-soviet-union&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-12\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLindsay1964\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Lindsay, Richard P. (1 September 1964). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/106591296401700364\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Impact of Automation On Public Administration\"<\/a>. <i>Western Political Quarterly<\/i>. <b>17<\/b> (3): 78\u201381. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177%2F106591296401700364\" target=\"_blank\">10.1177\/106591296401700364<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0043-4078\" target=\"_blank\">0043-4078<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:154021253\" target=\"_blank\">154021253<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20211006190841\/https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/106591296401700364\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 6 October 2021<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Hebb\"<\/a>. <i>Scientific American<\/i>. <b>268<\/b> (1): 124\u2013129. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/1993SciAm.268a.124M\" target=\"_blank\">1993SciAm.268a.124M<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0193-124\" target=\"_blank\">10.1038\/scientificamerican0193-124<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0036-8733\" target=\"_blank\">0036-8733<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JSTOR_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"JSTOR (identifier)\" data-key=\"5452009cc6ddc0c9ed86584fc7a26cc8\">JSTOR<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/24941344\" target=\"_blank\">24941344<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/8418480\" target=\"_blank\">8418480<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&amp;rft.atitle=The+Mind+and+Donald+O.+Hebb&amp;rft.volume=268&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=124-129&amp;rft.date=1993&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24941344%23id-name%3DJSTOR&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1993SciAm.268a.124M&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8418480&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0193-124&amp;rft.issn=0036-8733&amp;rft.aulast=Milner&amp;rft.aufirst=Peter+M.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24941344&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-15\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\"Science: The Goof Button\", <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Time_(magazine)\" title=\"Time (magazine)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"78c9635caebb304ac06552edc287561a\">Time (magazine)<\/a>, 18 August 1961.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-16\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Nilsson N. Learning Machines, McGraw Hill, 1965.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Duda, R., Hart P. Pattern Recognition and Scene Analysis, Wiley Interscience, 1973<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-18\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">S. Bozinovski \"Teaching space: A representation concept for adaptive pattern classification\" COINS Technical Report No. 81-28, Computer and Information Science Department, University of Massachusetts at Amherst, MA, 1981. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.cs.umass.edu\/publication\/docs\/1981\/UM-CS-1981-028.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.cs.umass.edu\/publication\/docs\/1981\/UM-CS-1981-028.pdf<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210225070218\/https:\/\/web.cs.umass.edu\/publication\/docs\/1981\/UM-CS-1981-028.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2021-02-25 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Mitchell-1997-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Mitchell-1997_19-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Mitchell-1997_19-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMitchell,_T.1997\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Mitchell, T. (1997). <i>Machine Learning<\/i>. McGraw Hill. p.&#160;2. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-07-042807-2<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Machine+Learning&amp;rft.pages=2&amp;rft.pub=McGraw+Hill&amp;rft.date=1997&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-07-042807-2&amp;rft.au=Mitchell%2C+T.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-20\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHarnad2008\" class=\"citation cs2\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stevan_Harnad\" title=\"Stevan Harnad\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"194de853d0694ce77570cd4dd421682d\">Harnad, Stevan<\/a> (2008), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120309113922\/http:\/\/eprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk\/12954\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Annotation Game: On Turing (1950) on Computing, Machinery, and Intelligence\"<\/a>, in Epstein, Robert; Peters, Grace (eds.), <i>The Turing Test Sourcebook: Philosophical and Methodological Issues in the Quest for the Thinking Computer<\/i>, Kluwer, pp.&#160;23\u201366, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781402067082<\/bdi>, archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/eprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk\/12954\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 2012-03-09<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2012-12-11<\/span><\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=The+Annotation+Game%3A+On+Turing+%281950%29+on+Computing%2C+Machinery%2C+and+Intelligence&amp;rft.btitle=The+Turing+Test+Sourcebook%3A+Philosophical+and+Methodological+Issues+in+the+Quest+for+the+Thinking+Computer&amp;rft.pages=23-66&amp;rft.pub=Kluwer&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.isbn=9781402067082&amp;rft.aulast=Harnad&amp;rft.aufirst=Stevan&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk%2F12954%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-21\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/edzion.com\/2020\/12\/09\/introduction-to-ai-part-1\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Introduction to AI Part 1\"<\/a>. <i>Edzion<\/i>. 2020-12-08. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210218005157\/https:\/\/edzion.com\/2020\/12\/09\/introduction-to-ai-part-1\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2021-02-18<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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(1994). \"Neural Networks and statistical models\". <i>SUGI 19: proceedings of the Nineteenth Annual SAS Users Group International Conference<\/i>. SAS Institute. pp.&#160;1538\u201350. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781555446116<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/35546178\" target=\"_blank\">35546178<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Neural+Networks+and+statistical+models&amp;rft.btitle=SUGI+19%3A+proceedings+of+the+Nineteenth+Annual+SAS+Users+Group+International+Conference&amp;rft.pages=1538-50&amp;rft.pub=SAS+Institute&amp;rft.date=1994&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F35546178&amp;rft.isbn=9781555446116&amp;rft.aulast=Sarle&amp;rft.aufirst=Warren+S.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-aima-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-aima_24-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-aima_24-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-aima_24-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-aima_24-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stuart_J._Russell\" title=\"Stuart J. Russell\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e38c6f5a629dd2baa69347ae6a6a541a\">Russell, Stuart<\/a>; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peter_Norvig\" title=\"Peter Norvig\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"681461eb2a0dfd85ab3e7c620a4c4ef0\">Norvig, Peter<\/a> (2003) [1995]. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_Intelligence:_A_Modern_Approach\" title=\"Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9dbb28c25594c66d5bac1148dc06e5f6\">Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach<\/a><\/i> (2nd&#160;ed.). Prentice Hall. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0137903955<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Artificial+Intelligence%3A+A+Modern+Approach&amp;rft.edition=2nd&amp;rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.isbn=978-0137903955&amp;rft.aulast=Russell&amp;rft.aufirst=Stuart&amp;rft.au=Norvig%2C+Peter&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-changing-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-changing_25-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-changing_25-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLangley2011\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Langley, Pat (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2Fs10994-011-5242-y\" target=\"_blank\">\"The changing science of machine learning\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_Learning_(journal)\" title=\"Machine Learning (journal)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27721329792e0278fe13787f13d45840\">Machine Learning<\/a><\/i>. <b>82<\/b> (3): 275\u20139. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2Fs10994-011-5242-y\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/s10994-011-5242-y<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Machine+Learning&amp;rft.atitle=The+changing+science+of+machine+learning&amp;rft.volume=82&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=275-9&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10994-011-5242-y&amp;rft.aulast=Langley&amp;rft.aufirst=Pat&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs10994-011-5242-y&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-26\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLe_RouxBengioFitzgibbon2012\" class=\"citation encyclopaedia cs1\">Le Roux, Nicolas; Bengio, Yoshua; Fitzgibbon, Andrew (2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=JPQx7s2L1A8C&q=%22Improving+First+and+Second-Order+Methods+by+Modeling+Uncertainty&pg=PA403\" target=\"_blank\">\"Improving First and Second-Order Methods by Modeling Uncertainty\"<\/a>. In Sra, Suvrit; Nowozin, Sebastian; Wright, Stephen J. (eds.). <i>Optimization for Machine Learning<\/i>. MIT Press. p.&#160;404. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780262016469<\/bdi>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20230117053335\/https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=JPQx7s2L1A8C&q=%22Improving+First+and+Second-Order+Methods+by+Modeling+Uncertainty&pg=PA403\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2023-01-17<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2020-11-12<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Improving+First+and+Second-Order+Methods+by+Modeling+Uncertainty&amp;rft.btitle=Optimization+for+Machine+Learning&amp;rft.pages=404&amp;rft.pub=MIT+Press&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.isbn=9780262016469&amp;rft.aulast=Le+Roux&amp;rft.aufirst=Nicolas&amp;rft.au=Bengio%2C+Yoshua&amp;rft.au=Fitzgibbon%2C+Andrew&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJPQx7s2L1A8C%26q%3D%2522Improving%2BFirst%2Band%2BSecond-Order%2BMethods%2Bby%2BModeling%2BUncertainty%26pg%3DPA403&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-27\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBzdokAltmanKrzywinski2018\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Bzdok, Danilo; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Naomi_Altman\" title=\"Naomi Altman\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6eb389d0ca05eae138e342d50ac070ea\">Altman, Naomi<\/a>; Krzywinski, Martin (2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC6082636\" target=\"_blank\">\"Statistics versus Machine Learning\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nature_Methods\" title=\"Nature Methods\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a64d0de18dcdabd4b440d695fde211c\">Nature Methods<\/a><\/i>. <b>15<\/b> (4): 233\u2013234. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038%2Fnmeth.4642\" target=\"_blank\">10.1038\/nmeth.4642<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC6082636\" target=\"_blank\">6082636<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/30100822\" target=\"_blank\">30100822<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature+Methods&amp;rft.atitle=Statistics+versus+Machine+Learning&amp;rft.volume=15&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=233-234&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6082636%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30100822&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnmeth.4642&amp;rft.aulast=Bzdok&amp;rft.aufirst=Danilo&amp;rft.au=Altman%2C+Naomi&amp;rft.au=Krzywinski%2C+Martin&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6082636&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-mi_jordan_ama-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-mi_jordan_ama_28-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-mi_jordan_ama_28-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMichael_I._Jordan2014\" class=\"citation web cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Michael_I._Jordan\" title=\"Michael I. Jordan\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"85a970be35318eab19c293827bd3c5c9\">Michael I. Jordan<\/a> (2014-09-10). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.reddit.com\/r\/MachineLearning\/comments\/2fxi6v\/ama_michael_i_jordan\/ckelmtt?context=3\" target=\"_blank\">\"statistics and machine learning\"<\/a>. reddit. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171018192328\/https:\/\/www.reddit.com\/r\/MachineLearning\/comments\/2fxi6v\/ama_michael_i_jordan\/ckelmtt\/?context=3\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2017-10-18<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2014-10-01<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=statistics+and+machine+learning&amp;rft.pub=reddit&amp;rft.date=2014-09-10&amp;rft.au=Michael+I.+Jordan&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reddit.com%2Fr%2FMachineLearning%2Fcomments%2F2fxi6v%2Fama_michael_i_jordan%2Fckelmtt%3Fcontext%3D3&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-29\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Hung et al. Algorithms to Measure Surgeon Performance and Anticipate Clinical Outcomes in Robotic Surgery. JAMA Surg. 2018<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:4-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-:4_30-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCornell_University_Library2001\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Cornell University Library (August 2001). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/projecteuclid.org\/download\/pdf_1\/euclid.ss\/1009213726\" target=\"_blank\">\"Breiman: Statistical Modeling: The Two Cultures (with comments and a rejoinder by the author)\"<\/a>. <i>Statistical Science<\/i>. <b>16<\/b> (3). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1214%2Fss%2F1009213726\" target=\"_blank\">10.1214\/ss\/1009213726<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:62729017\" target=\"_blank\">62729017<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170626042637\/http:\/\/projecteuclid.org\/download\/pdf_1\/euclid.ss\/1009213726\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 26 June 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 August<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Statistical+Science&amp;rft.atitle=Breiman%3A+Statistical+Modeling%3A+The+Two+Cultures+%28with+comments+and+a+rejoinder+by+the+author%29&amp;rft.volume=16&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.date=2001-08&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1214%2Fss%2F1009213726&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A62729017%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.au=Cornell+University+Library&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fprojecteuclid.org%2Fdownload%2Fpdf_1%2Feuclid.ss%2F1009213726&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-islr-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-islr_31-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGareth_JamesDaniela_WittenTrevor_HastieRobert_Tibshirani2013\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Gareth James; Daniela Witten; Trevor Hastie; Robert Tibshirani (2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www-bcf.usc.edu\/~gareth\/ISL\/\" target=\"_blank\"><i>An Introduction to Statistical Learning<\/i><\/a>. Springer. p.&#160;vii. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190623150237\/http:\/\/www-bcf.usc.edu\/~gareth\/ISL\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2019-06-23<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2014-10-25<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Statistical+Learning&amp;rft.pages=vii&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.au=Gareth+James&amp;rft.au=Daniela+Witten&amp;rft.au=Trevor+Hastie&amp;rft.au=Robert+Tibshirani&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-bcf.usc.edu%2F~gareth%2FISL%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SP_1-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SP_1_32-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRamezanpour,_A.Beam,_A.L.Chen,_J.H.Mashaghi,_A.2020\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Ramezanpour, A.; Beam, A.L.; Chen, J.H.; Mashaghi, A. (17 November 2020). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC7699346\" target=\"_blank\">\"Statistical Physics for Medical Diagnostics: Learning, Inference, and Optimization Algorithms\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Diagnostics\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Diagnostics\" data-key=\"5e8290cb5a240b29a2b9a5331e23d624\">Diagnostics<\/a><\/i>. <b>10<\/b> (11): 972. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390%2Fdiagnostics10110972\" target=\"_blank\">10.3390\/diagnostics10110972<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC7699346\" target=\"_blank\">7699346<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/33228143\" target=\"_blank\">33228143<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Diagnostics&amp;rft.atitle=Statistical+Physics+for+Medical+Diagnostics%3A+Learning%2C+Inference%2C+and+Optimization+Algorithms&amp;rft.volume=10&amp;rft.issue=11&amp;rft.pages=972&amp;rft.date=2020-11-17&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7699346%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33228143&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fdiagnostics10110972&amp;rft.au=Ramezanpour%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=Beam%2C+A.L.&amp;rft.au=Chen%2C+J.H.&amp;rft.au=Mashaghi%2C+A.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7699346&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SP_2-33\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SP_2_33-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMashaghi,_A.Ramezanpour,_A.2018\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Mashaghi, A.; Ramezanpour, A. (16 March 2018). \"Statistical physics of medical diagnostics: Study of a probabilistic model\". <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Physical_Review_E\" title=\"Physical Review E\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8283ccb90820a77d27d0fb96db839524\">Physical Review E<\/a><\/i>. <b>97<\/b> (3\u20131): 032118. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ArXiv_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ArXiv (identifier)\" data-key=\"cac981fddd16d20fbebac22fd7e4bac7\">arXiv<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1803.10019\" target=\"_blank\">1803.10019<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2018PhRvE..97c2118M\" target=\"_blank\">2018PhRvE..97c2118M<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1103%2FPhysRevE.97.032118\" target=\"_blank\">10.1103\/PhysRevE.97.032118<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/29776109\" target=\"_blank\">29776109<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:4955393\" target=\"_blank\">4955393<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+E&amp;rft.atitle=Statistical+physics+of+medical+diagnostics%3A+Study+of+a+probabilistic+model&amp;rft.volume=97&amp;rft.issue=3%E2%80%931&amp;rft.pages=032118&amp;rft.date=2018-03-16&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4955393%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018PhRvE..97c2118M&amp;rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1803.10019&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29776109&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevE.97.032118&amp;rft.au=Mashaghi%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=Ramezanpour%2C+A.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:5-34\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-:5_34-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMohriRostamizadehTalwalkar2012\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mehryar_Mohri\" title=\"Mehryar Mohri\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"119fc87451b751ec9b1281df60079ea3\">Mohri, Mehryar<\/a>; Rostamizadeh, Afshin; Talwalkar, Ameet (2012). <i>Foundations of Machine Learning<\/i>. US, Massachusetts: MIT Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780262018258<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Foundations+of+Machine+Learning&amp;rft.place=US%2C+Massachusetts&amp;rft.pub=MIT+Press&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.isbn=9780262018258&amp;rft.aulast=Mohri&amp;rft.aufirst=Mehryar&amp;rft.au=Rostamizadeh%2C+Afshin&amp;rft.au=Talwalkar%2C+Ameet&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-alpaydin-35\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-alpaydin_35-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAlpaydin,_Ethem2010\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Alpaydin, Ethem (2010). <span class=\"cs1-lock-registration\" title=\"Free registration required\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/introductiontoma00alpa_0\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Introduction to Machine Learning<\/i><\/a><\/span>. London: The MIT Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-262-01243-0<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">4 February<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Machine+Learning&amp;rft.place=London&amp;rft.pub=The+MIT+Press&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-262-01243-0&amp;rft.au=Alpaydin%2C+Ethem&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fintroductiontoma00alpa_0&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-36\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-36\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFJordanMitchell2015\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Jordan, M. I.; Mitchell, T. M. (17 July 2015). \"Machine learning: Trends, perspectives, and prospects\". <i>Science<\/i>. <b>349<\/b> (6245): 255\u2013260. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2015Sci...349..255J\" target=\"_blank\">2015Sci...349..255J<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126%2Fscience.aaa8415\" target=\"_blank\">10.1126\/science.aaa8415<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/26185243\" target=\"_blank\">26185243<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:677218\" target=\"_blank\">677218<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Science&amp;rft.atitle=Machine+learning%3A+Trends%2C+perspectives%2C+and+prospects&amp;rft.volume=349&amp;rft.issue=6245&amp;rft.pages=255-260&amp;rft.date=2015-07-17&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.aaa8415&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A677218%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26185243&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015Sci...349..255J&amp;rft.aulast=Jordan&amp;rft.aufirst=M.+I.&amp;rft.au=Mitchell%2C+T.+M.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-37\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFEl_NaqaMurphy2015\" class=\"citation book cs1\">El Naqa, Issam; Murphy, Martin J. (2015). \"What is Machine Learning?\". <i>Machine Learning in Radiation Oncology<\/i>. pp.&#160;3\u201311. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2F978-3-319-18305-3_1\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/978-3-319-18305-3_1<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-3-319-18304-6<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:178586107\" target=\"_blank\">178586107<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=What+is+Machine+Learning%3F&amp;rft.btitle=Machine+Learning+in+Radiation+Oncology&amp;rft.pages=3-11&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A178586107%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-18305-3_1&amp;rft.isbn=978-3-319-18304-6&amp;rft.aulast=El+Naqa&amp;rft.aufirst=Issam&amp;rft.au=Murphy%2C+Martin+J.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-38\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFOkolieSavageOgbagaGunes2022\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Okolie, Jude A.; Savage, Shauna; Ogbaga, Chukwuma C.; Gunes, Burcu (June 2022). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.totert.2022.100001\" target=\"_blank\">\"Assessing the potential of machine learning methods to study the removal of pharmaceuticals from wastewater using biochar or activated carbon\"<\/a>. <i>Total Environment Research Themes<\/i>. <b>1\u20132<\/b>: 100001. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.totert.2022.100001\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.totert.2022.100001<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:249022386\" target=\"_blank\">249022386<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Total+Environment+Research+Themes&amp;rft.atitle=Assessing+the+potential+of+machine+learning+methods+to+study+the+removal+of+pharmaceuticals+from+wastewater+using+biochar+or+activated+carbon&amp;rft.volume=1-2&amp;rft.pages=100001&amp;rft.date=2022-06&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.totert.2022.100001&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A249022386%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Okolie&amp;rft.aufirst=Jude+A.&amp;rft.au=Savage%2C+Shauna&amp;rft.au=Ogbaga%2C+Chukwuma+C.&amp;rft.au=Gunes%2C+Burcu&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.totert.2022.100001&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-39\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-39\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRussellNorvig2010\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Russell, Stuart J.; Norvig, Peter (2010). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_Intelligence:_A_Modern_Approach\" title=\"Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9dbb28c25594c66d5bac1148dc06e5f6\"><i>Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach<\/i><\/a> (Third&#160;ed.). Prentice Hall. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780136042594<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Artificial+Intelligence%3A+A+Modern+Approach&amp;rft.edition=Third&amp;rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.isbn=9780136042594&amp;rft.aulast=Russell&amp;rft.aufirst=Stuart+J.&amp;rft.au=Norvig%2C+Peter&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-40\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-40\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMohriRostamizadehTalwalkar2012\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Mohri, Mehryar; Rostamizadeh, Afshin; Talwalkar, Ameet (2012). <i>Foundations of Machine Learning<\/i>. The MIT Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780262018258<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Foundations+of+Machine+Learning&amp;rft.pub=The+MIT+Press&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.isbn=9780262018258&amp;rft.aulast=Mohri&amp;rft.aufirst=Mehryar&amp;rft.au=Rostamizadeh%2C+Afshin&amp;rft.au=Talwalkar%2C+Ameet&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:3-41\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-:3_41-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAlpaydin2010\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Alpaydin, Ethem (2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=7f5bBAAAQBAJ\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Introduction to Machine Learning<\/i><\/a>. MIT Press. p.&#160;9. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-262-01243-0<\/bdi>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20230117053338\/https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=7f5bBAAAQBAJ\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2023-01-17<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2018-11-25<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Machine+Learning&amp;rft.pages=9&amp;rft.pub=MIT+Press&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-262-01243-0&amp;rft.aulast=Alpaydin&amp;rft.aufirst=Ethem&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7f5bBAAAQBAJ&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-JordanBishop2004-42\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-JordanBishop2004_42-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFJordanBishop2004\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Jordan, Michael I.; Bishop, Christopher M. (2004). \"Neural Networks\". In Allen B. Tucker (ed.). <i>Computer Science Handbook, Second Edition (Section VII: Intelligent Systems)<\/i>. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2018-11-25<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=conference&amp;rft.btitle=An+analysis+of+single-layer+networks+in+unsupervised+feature+learning&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.aulast=Coates&amp;rft.aufirst=Adam&amp;rft.au=Lee%2C+Honglak&amp;rft.au=Ng%2C+Andrew+Y.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmachinelearning.wustl.edu%2Fmlpapers%2Fpaper_files%2FAISTATS2011_CoatesNL11.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-55\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-55\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCsurkaDanceFanWillamowski2004\" class=\"citation conference cs1\">Csurka, Gabriella; Dance, Christopher C.; Fan, Lixin; Willamowski, Jutta; Bray, C\u00e9dric (2004). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cs.cmu.edu\/~efros\/courses\/LBMV07\/Papers\/csurka-eccv-04.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Visual categorization with bags of keypoints<\/i><\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. ECCV Workshop on Statistical Learning in Computer Vision. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190713040210\/http:\/\/www.cs.cmu.edu\/~efros\/courses\/LBMV07\/Papers\/csurka-eccv-04.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 2019-07-13<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2019-08-29<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=conference&amp;rft.btitle=Visual+categorization+with+bags+of+keypoints&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.aulast=Csurka&amp;rft.aufirst=Gabriella&amp;rft.au=Dance%2C+Christopher+C.&amp;rft.au=Fan%2C+Lixin&amp;rft.au=Willamowski%2C+Jutta&amp;rft.au=Bray%2C+C%C3%A9dric&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.cmu.edu%2F~efros%2Fcourses%2FLBMV07%2FPapers%2Fcsurka-eccv-04.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-jurafsky-56\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-jurafsky_56-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDaniel_JurafskyJames_H._Martin2009\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Daniel Jurafsky; James H. Martin (2009). <i>Speech and Language Processing<\/i>. Pearson Education International. pp.&#160;145\u2013146.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Speech+and+Language+Processing&amp;rft.pages=145-146&amp;rft.pub=Pearson+Education+International&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.au=Daniel+Jurafsky&amp;rft.au=James+H.+Martin&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-57\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-57\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLuPlataniotisVenetsanopoulos2011\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Lu, Haiping; Plataniotis, K.N.; Venetsanopoulos, A.N. (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.dsp.utoronto.ca\/~haiping\/Publication\/SurveyMSL_PR2011.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Survey of Multilinear Subspace Learning for Tensor Data\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Pattern Recognition<\/i>. <b>44<\/b> (7): 1540\u20131551. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2011PatRe..44.1540L\" target=\"_blank\">2011PatRe..44.1540L<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.patcog.2011.01.004\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.patcog.2011.01.004<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190710225429\/http:\/\/www.dsp.utoronto.ca\/~haiping\/Publication\/SurveyMSL_PR2011.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 2019-07-10<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Now Publishers Inc. pp.&#160;1\u20133. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-60198-294-0<\/bdi>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20230117053339\/https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=cq5ewg7FniMC&pg=PA3\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2023-01-17<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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(2015). \"On the Computational Intractability of Exact and Approximate Dictionary Learning\". <i>IEEE Signal Processing Letters<\/i>. <b>22<\/b> (1): 45\u201349. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ArXiv_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ArXiv (identifier)\" data-key=\"cac981fddd16d20fbebac22fd7e4bac7\">arXiv<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1405.6664\" target=\"_blank\">1405.6664<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2015ISPL...22...45T\" target=\"_blank\">2015ISPL...22...45T<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2FLSP.2014.2345761\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/LSP.2014.2345761<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:13342762\" target=\"_blank\">13342762<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=IEEE+Signal+Processing+Letters&amp;rft.atitle=On+the+Computational+Intractability+of+Exact+and+Approximate+Dictionary+Learning&amp;rft.volume=22&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=45-49&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1405.6664&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A13342762%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FLSP.2014.2345761&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015ISPL...22...45T&amp;rft.aulast=Tillmann&amp;rft.aufirst=A.+M.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-60\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-60\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Michal_Aharon\" title=\"Michal Aharon\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a57ee4094c2260d6531fa6239eb6be80\">Aharon, M<\/a>, M Elad, and A Bruckstein. 2006. \"<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/sites.fas.harvard.edu\/~cs278\/papers\/ksvd.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">K-SVD: An Algorithm for Designing Overcomplete Dictionaries for Sparse Representation<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20181123142158\/http:\/\/sites.fas.harvard.edu\/~cs278\/papers\/ksvd.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2018-11-23 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a>.\" Signal Processing, IEEE Transactions on 54 (11): 4311\u20134322<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:0-61\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_61-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFZimekSchubert2017\" class=\"citation cs2\">Zimek, Arthur; Schubert, Erich (2017), \"Outlier Detection\", <i>Encyclopedia of Database Systems<\/i>, Springer New York, pp.&#160;1\u20135, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2F978-1-4899-7993-3_80719-1\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/978-1-4899-7993-3_80719-1<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781489979933<\/bdi><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Outlier+Detection&amp;rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Database+Systems&amp;rft.pages=1-5&amp;rft.pub=Springer+New+York&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4899-7993-3_80719-1&amp;rft.isbn=9781489979933&amp;rft.aulast=Zimek&amp;rft.aufirst=Arthur&amp;rft.au=Schubert%2C+Erich&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-62\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-62\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHodgeAustin2004\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Hodge, V. J.; Austin, J. (2004). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/eprints.whiterose.ac.uk\/767\/1\/hodgevj4.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Survey of Outlier Detection Methodologies\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Artificial Intelligence Review<\/i>. <b>22<\/b> (2): 85\u2013126. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CiteSeerX_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"CiteSeerX (identifier)\" data-key=\"d1ea3e5168e7880002688dac1448af19\">CiteSeerX<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/summary?doi=10.1.1.318.4023\" target=\"_blank\">10.1.1.318.4023<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2Fs10462-004-4304-y\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/s10462-004-4304-y<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:59941878\" target=\"_blank\">59941878<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150622042146\/http:\/\/eprints.whiterose.ac.uk\/767\/1\/hodgevj4.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 2015-06-22<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2018-11-25<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Artificial+Intelligence+Review&amp;rft.atitle=A+Survey+of+Outlier+Detection+Methodologies&amp;rft.volume=22&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=85-126&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.318.4023%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A59941878%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10462-004-4304-y&amp;rft.aulast=Hodge&amp;rft.aufirst=V.+J.&amp;rft.au=Austin%2C+J.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feprints.whiterose.ac.uk%2F767%2F1%2Fhodgevj4.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-63\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-63\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDokasErtozKumarLazarevic2002\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Dokas, Paul; Ertoz, Levent; Kumar, Vipin; Lazarevic, Aleksandar; Srivastava, Jaideep; Tan, Pang-Ning (2002). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www-users.cse.umn.edu\/~lazar027\/MINDS\/papers\/nsf_ngdm_2002.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data mining for network intrusion detection\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Proceedings NSF Workshop on Next Generation Data Mining<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150923211542\/http:\/\/www.csee.umbc.edu\/~kolari1\/Mining\/ngdm\/dokas.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 2015-09-23<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Ritter\"<\/a>. <i>PLOS ONE<\/i>. <b>15<\/b> (1): e0226880. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ArXiv_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ArXiv (identifier)\" data-key=\"cac981fddd16d20fbebac22fd7e4bac7\">arXiv<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1902.07501\" target=\"_blank\">1902.07501<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0226880\" target=\"_blank\">10.1371\/journal.pone.0226880<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC6940144\" target=\"_blank\">6940144<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/31896135\" target=\"_blank\">31896135<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&amp;rft.atitle=Learning+efficient+haptic+shape+exploration+with+a+rigid+tactile+sensor+array%2C+S.+Fleer%2C+A.+Moringen%2C+R.+Klatzky%2C+H.+Ritter&amp;rft.volume=15&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=e0226880&amp;rft.date=2020&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6940144%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31896135&amp;rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1902.07501&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0226880&amp;rft.aulast=Fleer&amp;rft.aufirst=S.&amp;rft.au=Moringen%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=Klatzky%2C+R.+L.&amp;rft.au=Ritter%2C+H.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6940144&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-66\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-66\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMoringenFleerWalckRitter2020\" class=\"citation cs2\">Moringen, Alexandra; 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(2009-09-22). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155%2F2009%2F736398\" target=\"_blank\">\"Learning Classifier Systems: A Complete Introduction, Review, and Roadmap\"<\/a>. <i>Journal of Artificial Evolution and Applications<\/i>. <b>2009<\/b>: 1\u201325. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155%2F2009%2F736398\" target=\"_blank\">10.1155\/2009\/736398<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1687-6229\" target=\"_blank\">1687-6229<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Artificial+Evolution+and+Applications&amp;rft.atitle=Learning+Classifier+Systems%3A+A+Complete+Introduction%2C+Review%2C+and+Roadmap&amp;rft.volume=2009&amp;rft.pages=1-25&amp;rft.date=2009-09-22&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1155%2F2009%2F736398&amp;rft.issn=1687-6229&amp;rft.aulast=Urbanowicz&amp;rft.aufirst=Ryan+J.&amp;rft.au=Moore%2C+Jason+H.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1155%252F2009%252F736398&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-71\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-71\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Plotkin G.D. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.era.lib.ed.ac.uk\/bitstream\/handle\/1842\/6656\/Plotkin1972.pdf;sequence=1\" target=\"_blank\">Automatic Methods of Inductive Inference<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171222051034\/https:\/\/www.era.lib.ed.ac.uk\/bitstream\/handle\/1842\/6656\/Plotkin1972.pdf;sequence=1\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2017-12-22 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a>, PhD thesis, University of Edinburgh, 1970.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-72\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-72\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Shapiro, Ehud Y. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ftp.cs.yale.edu\/publications\/techreports\/tr192.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Inductive inference of theories from facts<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210821071609\/http:\/\/ftp.cs.yale.edu\/publications\/techreports\/tr192.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2021-08-21 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a>, Research Report 192, Yale University, Department of Computer Science, 1981. Reprinted in J.-L. Lassez, G. Plotkin (Eds.), Computational Logic, The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1991, pp. 199\u2013254.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-73\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-73\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Shapiro, Ehud Y. (1983). <i>Algorithmic program debugging<\/i>. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-262-19218-7<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-74\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-74\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Shapiro, Ehud Y. \"<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dl.acm.org\/citation.cfm?id=1623364\" target=\"_blank\">The model inference system<\/a>.\" Proceedings of the 7th international joint conference on Artificial intelligence-Volume 2. Morgan Kaufmann Publishers Inc., 1981.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-75\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-75\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Honglak Lee, Roger Grosse, Rajesh Ranganath, Andrew Y. Ng. \"<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/download?doi=10.1.1.149.802&rep=rep1&type=pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Convolutional Deep Belief Networks for Scalable Unsupervised Learning of Hierarchical Representations<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171018182235\/http:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/download?doi=10.1.1.149.802&rep=rep1&type=pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2017-10-18 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a>\" Proceedings of the 26th Annual International Conference on Machine Learning, 2009.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CorinnaCortes-76\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-CorinnaCortes_76-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCortesVapnik1995\" class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Corinna_Cortes\" title=\"Corinna Cortes\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7410b36ec09bb4edaf4fa40cf0304209\">Cortes, Corinna<\/a>; Vapnik, Vladimir N. (1995). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2FBF00994018\" target=\"_blank\">\"Support-vector networks\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_Learning_(journal)\" title=\"Machine Learning (journal)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27721329792e0278fe13787f13d45840\">Machine Learning<\/a><\/i>. <b>20<\/b> (3): 273\u2013297. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2FBF00994018\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/BF00994018<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Machine+Learning&amp;rft.atitle=Support-vector+networks&amp;rft.volume=20&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=273-297&amp;rft.date=1995&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00994018&amp;rft.aulast=Cortes&amp;rft.aufirst=Corinna&amp;rft.au=Vapnik%2C+Vladimir+N.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252FBF00994018&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-77\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-77\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFStevenson\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Stevenson, Christopher. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/facultystaff.richmond.edu\/~cstevens\/301\/Excel4.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Tutorial: Polynomial Regression in Excel\"<\/a>. <i>facultystaff.richmond.edu<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130602200850\/https:\/\/facultystaff.richmond.edu\/~cstevens\/301\/Excel4.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2 June 2013<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">22 January<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=facultystaff.richmond.edu&amp;rft.atitle=Tutorial%3A+Polynomial+Regression+in+Excel&amp;rft.aulast=Stevenson&amp;rft.aufirst=Christopher&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffacultystaff.richmond.edu%2F~cstevens%2F301%2FExcel4.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-78\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-78\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">The documentation for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scikit-learn\" title=\"Scikit-learn\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0e9baac6399c5b2a01d32ed79685060f\">scikit-learn<\/a> also has similar <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/scikit-learn.org\/stable\/auto_examples\/gaussian_process\/plot_compare_gpr_krr.html\" target=\"_blank\">examples<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20221102184805\/https:\/\/scikit-learn.org\/stable\/auto_examples\/gaussian_process\/plot_compare_gpr_krr.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2022-11-02 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-79\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-79\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGoldbergHolland1988\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Goldberg, David E.; Holland, John H. (1988). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/deepblue.lib.umich.edu\/bitstream\/2027.42\/46947\/1\/10994_2005_Article_422926.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Genetic algorithms and machine learning\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_Learning_(journal)\" title=\"Machine Learning (journal)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27721329792e0278fe13787f13d45840\">Machine Learning<\/a><\/i>. <b>3<\/b> (2): 95\u201399. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2Fbf00113892\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/bf00113892<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:35506513\" target=\"_blank\">35506513<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110516025803\/http:\/\/deepblue.lib.umich.edu\/bitstream\/2027.42\/46947\/1\/10994_2005_Article_422926.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 2011-05-16<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2019-09-03<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Machine+Learning&amp;rft.atitle=Genetic+algorithms+and+machine+learning&amp;rft.volume=3&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=95-99&amp;rft.date=1988&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fbf00113892&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A35506513%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Goldberg&amp;rft.aufirst=David+E.&amp;rft.au=Holland%2C+John+H.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdeepblue.lib.umich.edu%2Fbitstream%2F2027.42%2F46947%2F1%2F10994_2005_Article_422926.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-80\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-80\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMichieSpiegelhalterTaylor1994\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Michie, D.; Spiegelhalter, D. J.; Taylor, C. C. (1994). \"Machine Learning, Neural and Statistical Classification\". <i>Ellis Horwood Series in Artificial Intelligence<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/1994mlns.book.....M\" target=\"_blank\">1994mlns.book.....M<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Ellis+Horwood+Series+in+Artificial+Intelligence&amp;rft.atitle=Machine+Learning%2C+Neural+and+Statistical+Classification&amp;rft.date=1994&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1994mlns.book.....M&amp;rft.aulast=Michie&amp;rft.aufirst=D.&amp;rft.au=Spiegelhalter%2C+D.+J.&amp;rft.au=Taylor%2C+C.+C.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-81\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-81\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFZhangZhanLinChen2011\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Zhang, Jun; Zhan, Zhi-hui; Lin, Ying; Chen, Ni; Gong, Yue-jiao; Zhong, Jing-hui; Chung, Henry S.H.; Li, Yun; Shi, Yu-hui (2011). \"Evolutionary Computation Meets Machine Learning: A Survey\". <i>Computational Intelligence Magazine<\/i>. <b>6<\/b> (4): 68\u201375. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2Fmci.2011.942584\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/mci.2011.942584<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:6760276\" target=\"_blank\">6760276<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Computational+Intelligence+Magazine&amp;rft.atitle=Evolutionary+Computation+Meets+Machine+Learning%3A+A+Survey&amp;rft.volume=6&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=68-75&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2Fmci.2011.942584&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A6760276%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Zhang&amp;rft.aufirst=Jun&amp;rft.au=Zhan%2C+Zhi-hui&amp;rft.au=Lin%2C+Ying&amp;rft.au=Chen%2C+Ni&amp;rft.au=Gong%2C+Yue-jiao&amp;rft.au=Zhong%2C+Jing-hui&amp;rft.au=Chung%2C+Henry+S.H.&amp;rft.au=Li%2C+Yun&amp;rft.au=Shi%2C+Yu-hui&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-82\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-82\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ai.googleblog.com\/2017\/04\/federated-learning-collaborative.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Federated Learning: Collaborative Machine Learning without Centralized Training Data\"<\/a>. <i>Google AI Blog<\/i>. 6 April 2017. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190607054623\/https:\/\/ai.googleblog.com\/2017\/04\/federated-learning-collaborative.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2019-06-07<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2019-06-08<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Google+AI+Blog&amp;rft.atitle=Federated+Learning%3A+Collaborative+Machine+Learning+without+Centralized+Training+Data&amp;rft.date=2017-04-06&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fai.googleblog.com%2F2017%2F04%2Ffederated-learning-collaborative.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-83\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-83\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Machine learning is included in the <a href=\"#Curriculum\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Chartered Financial Analyst (CFA)\">CFA Curriculum<\/a> (discussion is top-down); see: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cfainstitute.org\/-\/media\/documents\/study-session\/2020-l2-ss3.ashx\" target=\"_blank\">Kathleen DeRose and Christophe Le Lanno (2020). \"Machine Learning\"<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200113085425\/https:\/\/www.cfainstitute.org\/-\/media\/documents\/study-session\/2020-l2-ss3.ashx\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2020-01-13 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-84\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-84\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFIvanenkoSmolikWantaMidura2023\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Ivanenko, Mikhail; Smolik, Waldemar T.; Wanta, Damian; Midura, Mateusz; Wr\u00f3blewski, Przemys\u0142aw; Hou, Xiaohan; Yan, Xiaoheng (2023). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC10538128\" target=\"_blank\">\"Image Reconstruction Using Supervised Learning in Wearable Electrical Impedance Tomography of the Thorax\"<\/a>. <i>Sensors<\/i>. <b>23<\/b> (18): 7774. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2023Senso..23.7774I\" target=\"_blank\">2023Senso..23.7774I<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390%2Fs23187774\" target=\"_blank\">10.3390\/s23187774<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC10538128\" target=\"_blank\">10538128<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/37765831\" target=\"_blank\">37765831<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Sensors&amp;rft.atitle=Image+Reconstruction+Using+Supervised+Learning+in+Wearable+Electrical+Impedance+Tomography+of+the+Thorax&amp;rft.volume=23&amp;rft.issue=18&amp;rft.pages=7774&amp;rft.date=2023&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10538128%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F37765831&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fs23187774&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2023Senso..23.7774I&amp;rft.aulast=Ivanenko&amp;rft.aufirst=Mikhail&amp;rft.au=Smolik%2C+Waldemar+T.&amp;rft.au=Wanta%2C+Damian&amp;rft.au=Midura%2C+Mateusz&amp;rft.au=Wr%C3%B3blewski%2C+Przemys%C5%82aw&amp;rft.au=Hou%2C+Xiaohan&amp;rft.au=Yan%2C+Xiaoheng&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10538128&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-85\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-85\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20151110062742\/http:\/\/www2.research.att.com\/~volinsky\/netflix\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"BelKor Home Page\"<\/a> research.att.com<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-86\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-86\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160531002916\/http:\/\/techblog.netflix.com\/2012\/04\/netflix-recommendations-beyond-5-stars.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Netflix Tech Blog: Netflix Recommendations: Beyond the 5 stars (Part 1)\"<\/a>. 2012-04-06. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/techblog.netflix.com\/2012\/04\/netflix-recommendations-beyond-5-stars.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 31 May 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 August<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=The+Netflix+Tech+Blog%3A+Netflix+Recommendations%3A+Beyond+the+5+stars+%28Part+1%29&amp;rft.date=2012-04-06&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftechblog.netflix.com%2F2012%2F04%2Fnetflix-recommendations-beyond-5-stars.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-87\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-87\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFScott_Patterson2010\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Scott Patterson (13 July 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.wsj.com\/articles\/SB10001424052748703834604575365310813948080\" target=\"_blank\">\"Letting the Machines Decide\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Wall_Street_Journal\" title=\"The Wall Street Journal\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0f01ac1e33bbf6d25fdd85331ab0ea2f\">The Wall Street Journal<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180624151019\/https:\/\/www.wsj.com\/articles\/SB10001424052748703834604575365310813948080\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 24 June 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 June<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Letting+the+Machines+Decide&amp;rft.pub=The+Wall+Street+Journal&amp;rft.date=2010-07-13&amp;rft.au=Scott+Patterson&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2FSB10001424052748703834604575365310813948080&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-88\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-88\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFVinod_Khosla2012\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Vinod Khosla (January 10, 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/techcrunch.com\/2012\/01\/10\/doctors-or-algorithms\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Do We Need Doctors or Algorithms?\"<\/a>. Tech Crunch. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180618175811\/https:\/\/techcrunch.com\/2012\/01\/10\/doctors-or-algorithms\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on June 18, 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">October 20,<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Do+We+Need+Doctors+or+Algorithms%3F&amp;rft.pub=Tech+Crunch&amp;rft.date=2012-01-10&amp;rft.au=Vinod+Khosla&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftechcrunch.com%2F2012%2F01%2F10%2Fdoctors-or-algorithms%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-89\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-89\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/medium.com\/the-physics-arxiv-blog\/when-a-machine-learning-algorithm-studied-fine-art-paintings-it-saw-things-art-historians-had-never-b8e4e7bf7d3e\" target=\"_blank\">When A Machine Learning Algorithm Studied Fine Art Paintings, It Saw Things Art Historians Had Never Noticed<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160604072143\/https:\/\/medium.com\/the-physics-arxiv-blog\/when-a-machine-learning-algorithm-studied-fine-art-paintings-it-saw-things-art-historians-had-never-b8e4e7bf7d3e\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2016-06-04 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a>, <i>The Physics at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ArXiv\" title=\"ArXiv\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"84b604eac0fe0659f490c93649bb7700\">ArXiv<\/a> blog<\/i><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-90\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-90\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFVincent2019\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Vincent, James (2019-04-10). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theverge.com\/2019\/4\/10\/18304558\/ai-writing-academic-research-book-springer-nature-artificial-intelligence\" target=\"_blank\">\"The first AI-generated textbook shows what robot writers are actually good at\"<\/a>. <i>The Verge<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190505200409\/https:\/\/www.theverge.com\/2019\/4\/10\/18304558\/ai-writing-academic-research-book-springer-nature-artificial-intelligence\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2019-05-05<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2019-05-05<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Verge&amp;rft.atitle=The+first+AI-generated+textbook+shows+what+robot+writers+are+actually+good+at&amp;rft.date=2019-04-10&amp;rft.aulast=Vincent&amp;rft.aufirst=James&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theverge.com%2F2019%2F4%2F10%2F18304558%2Fai-writing-academic-research-book-springer-nature-artificial-intelligence&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-91\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-91\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFVaishyaJavaidKhanHaleem2020\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Vaishya, Raju; Javaid, Mohd; Khan, Ibrahim Haleem; Haleem, Abid (July 1, 2020). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC7195043\" target=\"_blank\">\"Artificial Intelligence (AI) applications for COVID-19 pandemic\"<\/a>. <i>Diabetes &amp; Metabolic Syndrome: Clinical Research &amp; Reviews<\/i>. <b>14<\/b> (4): 337\u2013339. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.dsx.2020.04.012\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.dsx.2020.04.012<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC7195043\" target=\"_blank\">7195043<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/32305024\" target=\"_blank\">32305024<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Diabetes+%26+Metabolic+Syndrome%3A+Clinical+Research+%26+Reviews&amp;rft.atitle=Artificial+Intelligence+%28AI%29+applications+for+COVID-19+pandemic&amp;rft.volume=14&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=337-339&amp;rft.date=2020-07-01&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7195043%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32305024&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.dsx.2020.04.012&amp;rft.aulast=Vaishya&amp;rft.aufirst=Raju&amp;rft.au=Javaid%2C+Mohd&amp;rft.au=Khan%2C+Ibrahim+Haleem&amp;rft.au=Haleem%2C+Abid&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7195043&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-92\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-92\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRezapouraghdamAkhshikRamkissoon2021\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Rezapouraghdam, Hamed; Akhshik, Arash; Ramkissoon, Haywantee (March 10, 2021). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080%2F09669582.2021.1887878\" target=\"_blank\">\"Application of machine learning to predict visitors' green behavior in marine protected areas: evidence from Cyprus\"<\/a>. <i>Journal of Sustainable Tourism<\/i>. <b>31<\/b> (11): 2479\u20132505. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080%2F09669582.2021.1887878\" target=\"_blank\">10.1080\/09669582.2021.1887878<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hdl_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hdl (identifier)\" data-key=\"e94e1ec39bdb0b58479ac2c362cd4b22\">hdl<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/hdl.handle.net\/10037%2F24073\" target=\"_blank\">10037\/24073<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Sustainable+Tourism&amp;rft.atitle=Application+of+machine+learning+to+predict+visitors%27+green+behavior+in+marine+protected+areas%3A+evidence+from+Cyprus&amp;rft.volume=31&amp;rft.issue=11&amp;rft.pages=2479-2505&amp;rft.date=2021-03-10&amp;rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10037%2F24073&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09669582.2021.1887878&amp;rft.aulast=Rezapouraghdam&amp;rft.aufirst=Hamed&amp;rft.au=Akhshik%2C+Arash&amp;rft.au=Ramkissoon%2C+Haywantee&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F09669582.2021.1887878&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-93\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-93\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDeySinghWangMcDonald-Maier2020\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Dey, Somdip; Singh, Amit Kumar; Wang, Xiaohang; McDonald-Maier, Klaus (2020-06-15). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/document\/9116294\" target=\"_blank\">\"User Interaction Aware Reinforcement Learning for Power and Thermal Efficiency of CPU-GPU Mobile MPSoCs\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/repository.essex.ac.uk\/27546\/1\/User%20Interaction%20Aware%20Reinforcement%20Learning.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>2020 Design, Automation &amp; Test in Europe Conference &amp; Exhibition (DATE)<\/i><\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. pp.&#160;1728\u20131733. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.23919%2FDATE48585.2020.9116294\" target=\"_blank\">10.23919\/DATE48585.2020.9116294<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-3-9819263-4-7<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:219858480\" target=\"_blank\">219858480<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20211213192526\/https:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/document\/9116294\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2021-12-13<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2022-01-20<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=User+Interaction+Aware+Reinforcement+Learning+for+Power+and+Thermal+Efficiency+of+CPU-GPU+Mobile+MPSoCs&amp;rft.btitle=2020+Design%2C+Automation+%26+Test+in+Europe+Conference+%26+Exhibition+%28DATE%29&amp;rft.pages=1728-1733&amp;rft.date=2020-06-15&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A219858480%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.23919%2FDATE48585.2020.9116294&amp;rft.isbn=978-3-9819263-4-7&amp;rft.aulast=Dey&amp;rft.aufirst=Somdip&amp;rft.au=Singh%2C+Amit+Kumar&amp;rft.au=Wang%2C+Xiaohang&amp;rft.au=McDonald-Maier%2C+Klaus&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fdocument%2F9116294&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-94\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-94\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFQuested\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Quested, Tony. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.businessweekly.co.uk\/news\/academia-research\/smartphones-get-smarter-essex-innovation\" target=\"_blank\">\"Smartphones get smarter with Essex innovation\"<\/a>. <i>Business Weekly<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210624200126\/https:\/\/www.businessweekly.co.uk\/news\/academia-research\/smartphones-get-smarter-essex-innovation\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2021-06-24<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-06-17<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Business+Weekly&amp;rft.atitle=Smartphones+get+smarter+with+Essex+innovation&amp;rft.aulast=Quested&amp;rft.aufirst=Tony&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.businessweekly.co.uk%2Fnews%2Facademia-research%2Fsmartphones-get-smarter-essex-innovation&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-95\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-95\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWilliams2020\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Williams, Rhiannon (2020-07-21). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/inews.co.uk\/news\/technology\/future-smartphones-prolong-battery-life-monitoring-behaviour-558689\" target=\"_blank\">\"Future smartphones 'will prolong their own battery life by monitoring owners' behaviour'<span class=\"cs1-kern-right\"><\/span>\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/I_(newspaper)\" title=\"I (newspaper)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2dc3881895a548895e39caae2f060d59\">i<\/a><\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210624201153\/https:\/\/inews.co.uk\/news\/technology\/future-smartphones-prolong-battery-life-monitoring-behaviour-558689\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2021-06-24<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-06-17<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=i&amp;rft.atitle=Future+smartphones+%27will+prolong+their+own+battery+life+by+monitoring+owners%27+behaviour%27&amp;rft.date=2020-07-21&amp;rft.aulast=Williams&amp;rft.aufirst=Rhiannon&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Finews.co.uk%2Fnews%2Ftechnology%2Ffuture-smartphones-prolong-battery-life-monitoring-behaviour-558689&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-96\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-96\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRasekhschaffeJones2019\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Rasekhschaffe, Keywan Christian; Jones, Robert C. (2019-07-01). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.tandfonline.com\/doi\/full\/10.1080\/0015198X.2019.1596678\" target=\"_blank\">\"Machine Learning for Stock Selection\"<\/a>. <i>Financial Analysts Journal<\/i>. <b>75<\/b> (3): 70\u201388. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080%2F0015198X.2019.1596678\" target=\"_blank\">10.1080\/0015198X.2019.1596678<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0015-198X\" target=\"_blank\">0015-198X<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:108312507\" target=\"_blank\">108312507<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Financial+Analysts+Journal&amp;rft.atitle=Machine+Learning+for+Stock+Selection&amp;rft.volume=75&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=70-88&amp;rft.date=2019-07-01&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A108312507%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.issn=0015-198X&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F0015198X.2019.1596678&amp;rft.aulast=Rasekhschaffe&amp;rft.aufirst=Keywan+Christian&amp;rft.au=Jones%2C+Robert+C.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1080%2F0015198X.2019.1596678&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-97\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-97\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170320225010\/https:\/\/www.bloomberg.com\/news\/articles\/2016-11-10\/why-machine-learning-models-often-fail-to-learn-quicktake-q-a\" target=\"_blank\">\"Why Machine Learning Models Often Fail to Learn: QuickTake Q&amp;A\"<\/a>. <i>Bloomberg.com<\/i>. 2016-11-10. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bloomberg.com\/news\/articles\/2016-11-10\/why-machine-learning-models-often-fail-to-learn-quicktake-q-a\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 2017-03-20<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2017-04-10<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Bloomberg.com&amp;rft.atitle=Why+Machine+Learning+Models+Often+Fail+to+Learn%3A+QuickTake+Q%26A&amp;rft.date=2016-11-10&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bloomberg.com%2Fnews%2Farticles%2F2016-11-10%2Fwhy-machine-learning-models-often-fail-to-learn-quicktake-q-a&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-98\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-98\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/hbr.org\/2017\/04\/the-first-wave-of-corporate-ai-is-doomed-to-fail\" target=\"_blank\">\"The First Wave of Corporate AI Is Doomed to Fail\"<\/a>. <i>Harvard Business Review<\/i>. 2017-04-18. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180821032004\/https:\/\/hbr.org\/2017\/04\/the-first-wave-of-corporate-ai-is-doomed-to-fail\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2018-08-21<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2018-08-20<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Harvard+Business+Review&amp;rft.atitle=The+First+Wave+of+Corporate+AI+Is+Doomed+to+Fail&amp;rft.date=2017-04-18&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhbr.org%2F2017%2F04%2Fthe-first-wave-of-corporate-ai-is-doomed-to-fail&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-99\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-99\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/venturebeat.com\/2016\/09\/17\/why-the-a-i-euphoria-is-doomed-to-fail\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Why the A.I. euphoria is doomed to fail\"<\/a>. <i>VentureBeat<\/i>. 2016-09-18. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180819124138\/https:\/\/venturebeat.com\/2016\/09\/17\/why-the-a-i-euphoria-is-doomed-to-fail\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2018-08-19<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2018-08-20<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=VentureBeat&amp;rft.atitle=Why+the+A.I.+euphoria+is+doomed+to+fail&amp;rft.date=2016-09-18&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fventurebeat.com%2F2016%2F09%2F17%2Fwhy-the-a-i-euphoria-is-doomed-to-fail%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-100\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-100\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.kdnuggets.com\/2018\/07\/why-machine-learning-project-fail.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"9 Reasons why your machine learning project will fail\"<\/a>. <i>www.kdnuggets.com<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180821031802\/https:\/\/www.kdnuggets.com\/2018\/07\/why-machine-learning-project-fail.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2018-08-21<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2018-08-20<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=www.kdnuggets.com&amp;rft.atitle=9+Reasons+why+your+machine+learning+project+will+fail&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kdnuggets.com%2F2018%2F07%2Fwhy-machine-learning-project-fail.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:12-101\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:12_101-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:12_101-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBabutaOswaldRinik2018\" class=\"citation report cs1\">Babuta, Alexander; Oswald, Marion; Rinik, Christine (2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/resrep37375.8\" target=\"_blank\">Transparency and Intelligibility<\/a> (Report). Royal United Services Institute (RUSI). pp.&#160;17\u201322.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=report&amp;rft.btitle=Transparency+and+Intelligibility&amp;rft.pages=17-22&amp;rft.pub=Royal+United+Services+Institute+%28RUSI%29&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft.aulast=Babuta&amp;rft.aufirst=Alexander&amp;rft.au=Oswald%2C+Marion&amp;rft.au=Rinik%2C+Christine&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fresrep37375.8&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-102\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-102\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.economist.com\/the-economist-explains\/2018\/05\/29\/why-ubers-self-driving-car-killed-a-pedestrian\" target=\"_blank\">\"Why Uber's self-driving car killed a pedestrian\"<\/a>. <i>The Economist<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180821031818\/https:\/\/www.economist.com\/the-economist-explains\/2018\/05\/29\/why-ubers-self-driving-car-killed-a-pedestrian\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2018-08-21<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2018-08-20<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Economist&amp;rft.atitle=Why+Uber%27s+self-driving+car+killed+a+pedestrian&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fthe-economist-explains%2F2018%2F05%2F29%2Fwhy-ubers-self-driving-car-killed-a-pedestrian&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-103\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-103\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.statnews.com\/2018\/07\/25\/ibm-watson-recommended-unsafe-incorrect-treatments\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"IBM's Watson recommended 'unsafe and incorrect' cancer treatments \u2013 STAT\"<\/a>. <i>STAT<\/i>. 2018-07-25. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180821062616\/https:\/\/www.statnews.com\/2018\/07\/25\/ibm-watson-recommended-unsafe-incorrect-treatments\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2018-08-21<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2018-08-21<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=STAT&amp;rft.atitle=IBM%27s+Watson+recommended+%27unsafe+and+incorrect%27+cancer+treatments+%E2%80%93+STAT&amp;rft.date=2018-07-25&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.statnews.com%2F2018%2F07%2F25%2Fibm-watson-recommended-unsafe-incorrect-treatments%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-104\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-104\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHernandezGreenwald2018\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Hernandez, Daniela; Greenwald, Ted (2018-08-11). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.wsj.com\/articles\/ibm-bet-billions-that-watson-could-improve-cancer-treatment-it-hasnt-worked-1533961147\" target=\"_blank\">\"IBM Has a Watson Dilemma\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Wall_Street_Journal\" title=\"The Wall Street Journal\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0f01ac1e33bbf6d25fdd85331ab0ea2f\">The Wall Street Journal<\/a><\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0099-9660\" target=\"_blank\">0099-9660<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180821031906\/https:\/\/www.wsj.com\/articles\/ibm-bet-billions-that-watson-could-improve-cancer-treatment-it-hasnt-worked-1533961147\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2018-08-21<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2018-08-21<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Wall+Street+Journal&amp;rft.atitle=IBM+Has+a+Watson+Dilemma&amp;rft.date=2018-08-11&amp;rft.issn=0099-9660&amp;rft.aulast=Hernandez&amp;rft.aufirst=Daniela&amp;rft.au=Greenwald%2C+Ted&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2Fibm-bet-billions-that-watson-could-improve-cancer-treatment-it-hasnt-worked-1533961147&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-105\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-105\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAllyn2023\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Allyn, Bobby (Feb 27, 2023). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.npr.org\/2023\/02\/27\/1159630243\/how-microsofts-experiment-in-artificial-intelligence-tech-backfired\" target=\"_blank\">\"How Microsoft's experiment in artificial intelligence tech backfired\"<\/a>. <i>National Public Radio<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">Dec 8,<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=National+Public+Radio&amp;rft.atitle=How+Microsoft%27s+experiment+in+artificial+intelligence+tech+backfired&amp;rft.date=2023-02-27&amp;rft.aulast=Allyn&amp;rft.aufirst=Bobby&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2F2023%2F02%2F27%2F1159630243%2Fhow-microsofts-experiment-in-artificial-intelligence-tech-backfired&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-106\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-106\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFReddyPatelWeyrichFenton2020\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Reddy, Shivani M.; Patel, Sheila; Weyrich, Meghan; Fenton, Joshua; Viswanathan, Meera (2020). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC7574591\" target=\"_blank\">\"Comparison of a traditional systematic review approach with review-of-reviews and semi-automation as strategies to update the evidence\"<\/a>. <i>Systematic Reviews<\/i>. <b>9<\/b> (1): 243. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186%2Fs13643-020-01450-2\" target=\"_blank\">10.1186\/s13643-020-01450-2<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/2046-4053\" target=\"_blank\">2046-4053<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC7574591\" target=\"_blank\">7574591<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/33076975\" target=\"_blank\">33076975<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Systematic+Reviews&amp;rft.atitle=Comparison+of+a+traditional+systematic+review+approach+with+review-of-reviews+and+semi-automation+as+strategies+to+update+the+evidence&amp;rft.volume=9&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=243&amp;rft.date=2020&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7574591%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft.issn=2046-4053&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33076975&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fs13643-020-01450-2&amp;rft.aulast=Reddy&amp;rft.aufirst=Shivani+M.&amp;rft.au=Patel%2C+Sheila&amp;rft.au=Weyrich%2C+Meghan&amp;rft.au=Fenton%2C+Joshua&amp;rft.au=Viswanathan%2C+Meera&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7574591&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:15-107\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-:15_107-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGarcia2016\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Garcia, Megan (2016). \"Racist in the Machine\". <i>World Policy Journal<\/i>. <b>33<\/b> (4): 111\u2013117. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1215%2F07402775-3813015\" target=\"_blank\">10.1215\/07402775-3813015<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0740-2775\" target=\"_blank\">0740-2775<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:151595343\" target=\"_blank\">151595343<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=World+Policy+Journal&amp;rft.atitle=Racist+in+the+Machine&amp;rft.volume=33&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=111-117&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A151595343%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.issn=0740-2775&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1215%2F07402775-3813015&amp;rft.aulast=Garcia&amp;rft.aufirst=Megan&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-108\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-108\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCaliskanBrysonNarayanan2017\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Caliskan, Aylin; Bryson, Joanna J.; Narayanan, Arvind (2017-04-14). \"Semantics derived automatically from language corpora contain human-like biases\". <i>Science<\/i>. <b>356<\/b> (6334): 183\u2013186. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ArXiv_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ArXiv (identifier)\" data-key=\"cac981fddd16d20fbebac22fd7e4bac7\">arXiv<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1608.07187\" target=\"_blank\">1608.07187<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2017Sci...356..183C\" target=\"_blank\">2017Sci...356..183C<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126%2Fscience.aal4230\" target=\"_blank\">10.1126\/science.aal4230<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0036-8075\" target=\"_blank\">0036-8075<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/28408601\" target=\"_blank\">28408601<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:23163324\" target=\"_blank\">23163324<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Science&amp;rft.atitle=Semantics+derived+automatically+from+language+corpora+contain+human-like+biases&amp;rft.volume=356&amp;rft.issue=6334&amp;rft.pages=183-186&amp;rft.date=2017-04-14&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A23163324%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017Sci...356..183C&amp;rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1608.07187&amp;rft.issn=0036-8075&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.aal4230&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28408601&amp;rft.aulast=Caliskan&amp;rft.aufirst=Aylin&amp;rft.au=Bryson%2C+Joanna+J.&amp;rft.au=Narayanan%2C+Arvind&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-109\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-109\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2018-08-20<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&amp;rft.atitle=Opinion+%7C+Artificial+Intelligence%27s+White+Guy+Problem&amp;rft.date=2016-06-25&amp;rft.aulast=Crawford&amp;rft.aufirst=Kate&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2016%2F06%2F26%2Fopinion%2Fsunday%2Fartificial-intelligences-white-guy-problem.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-113\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-113\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMetz\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Metz, Rachel. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.technologyreview.com\/s\/601111\/why-microsoft-accidentally-unleashed-a-neo-nazi-sexbot\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Why Microsoft's teen chatbot, Tay, said lots of awful things online\"<\/a>. <i>MIT Technology Review<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20181109023754\/https:\/\/www.technologyreview.com\/s\/601111\/why-microsoft-accidentally-unleashed-a-neo-nazi-sexbot\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2018-11-09<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2018-08-20<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=MIT+Technology+Review&amp;rft.atitle=Why+Microsoft%27s+teen+chatbot%2C+Tay%2C+said+lots+of+awful+things+online&amp;rft.aulast=Metz&amp;rft.aufirst=Rachel&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.technologyreview.com%2Fs%2F601111%2Fwhy-microsoft-accidentally-unleashed-a-neo-nazi-sexbot%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-114\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-114\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSimonite\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Simonite, Tom. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.technologyreview.com\/s\/603944\/microsoft-ai-isnt-yet-adaptable-enough-to-help-businesses\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Microsoft says its racist chatbot illustrates how AI isn't adaptable enough to help most businesses\"<\/a>. <i>MIT Technology Review<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20181109022820\/https:\/\/www.technologyreview.com\/s\/603944\/microsoft-ai-isnt-yet-adaptable-enough-to-help-businesses\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2018-11-09<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2018-08-20<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=MIT+Technology+Review&amp;rft.atitle=Microsoft+says+its+racist+chatbot+illustrates+how+AI+isn%27t+adaptable+enough+to+help+most+businesses&amp;rft.aulast=Simonite&amp;rft.aufirst=Tom&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.technologyreview.com%2Fs%2F603944%2Fmicrosoft-ai-isnt-yet-adaptable-enough-to-help-businesses%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-115\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-115\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHempel2018\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Hempel, Jessi (2018-11-13). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.wired.com\/story\/fei-fei-li-artificial-intelligence-humanity\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Fei-Fei Li's Quest to Make Machines Better for Humanity\"<\/a>. <i>Wired<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1059-1028\" target=\"_blank\">1059-1028<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20201214095220\/https:\/\/www.wired.com\/story\/fei-fei-li-artificial-intelligence-humanity\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2020-12-14<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Zhang, Xuesong; Bohrer, Gil; Liu, Yanlan; Zhou, Yuyu; Martin, Jay; LI, Yang; Zhao, Kaiguang (2023). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S0168192323001508\" target=\"_blank\">\"Crop yield prediction via explainable AI and interpretable machine learning: Dangers of black box models for evaluating climate change impacts on crop yield\"<\/a>. <i>Agricultural and Forest Meteorology<\/i>. <b>336<\/b>: 109458. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.agrformet.2023.109458\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.agrformet.2023.109458<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:258552400\" target=\"_blank\">258552400<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Agricultural+and+Forest+Meteorology&amp;rft.atitle=Crop+yield+prediction+via+explainable+AI+and+interpretable+machine+learning%3A+Dangers+of+black+box+models+for+evaluating+climate+change+impacts+on+crop+yield&amp;rft.volume=336&amp;rft.pages=109458&amp;rft.date=2023&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.agrformet.2023.109458&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A258552400%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Hu&amp;rft.aufirst=Tongxi&amp;rft.au=Zhang%2C+Xuesong&amp;rft.au=Bohrer%2C+Gil&amp;rft.au=Liu%2C+Yanlan&amp;rft.au=Zhou%2C+Yuyu&amp;rft.au=Martin%2C+Jay&amp;rft.au=LI%2C+Yang&amp;rft.au=Zhao%2C+Kaiguang&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0168192323001508&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015Chapter_6,_Chapter_7-118\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015Chapter_6,_Chapter_7_118-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFDomingos2015\">Domingos 2015<\/a>, Chapter 6, Chapter 7.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015286-119\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015286_119-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFDomingos2015\">Domingos 2015<\/a>, p.&#160;286.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-120\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-120\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bbc.com\/news\/technology-41845878\" target=\"_blank\">\"Single pixel change fools AI programs\"<\/a>. <i>BBC News<\/i>. 3 November 2017. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180322011306\/http:\/\/www.bbc.com\/news\/technology-41845878\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 22 March 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">12 March<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=BBC+News&amp;rft.atitle=Single+pixel+change+fools+AI+programs&amp;rft.date=2017-11-03&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Ftechnology-41845878&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-121\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-121\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.wired.com\/story\/ai-has-a-hallucination-problem-thats-proving-tough-to-fix\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"AI Has a Hallucination Problem That's Proving Tough to Fix\"<\/a>. <i>WIRED<\/i>. 2018. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180312024533\/https:\/\/www.wired.com\/story\/ai-has-a-hallucination-problem-thats-proving-tough-to-fix\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 12 March 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">12 March<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=WIRED&amp;rft.atitle=AI+Has+a+Hallucination+Problem+That%27s+Proving+Tough+to+Fix&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2Fstory%2Fai-has-a-hallucination-problem-thats-proving-tough-to-fix%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TD_1-122\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-TD_1_122-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMadry,_A.Makelov,_A.Schmidt,_L.Tsipras,_D.2019\" class=\"citation arxiv cs1\">Madry, A.; Makelov, A.; Schmidt, L.; Tsipras, D.; Vladu, A. (4 September 2019). \"Towards deep learning models resistant to adversarial attacks\". <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ArXiv_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ArXiv (identifier)\" data-key=\"cac981fddd16d20fbebac22fd7e4bac7\">arXiv<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1706.06083\" target=\"_blank\">1706.06083<\/a><\/span> [<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/archive\/stat.ML\" target=\"_blank\">stat.ML<\/a>].<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=preprint&amp;rft.jtitle=arXiv&amp;rft.atitle=Towards+deep+learning+models+resistant+to+adversarial+attacks&amp;rft.date=2019-09-04&amp;rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1706.06083&amp;rft.au=Madry%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=Makelov%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=Schmidt%2C+L.&amp;rft.au=Tsipras%2C+D.&amp;rft.au=Vladu%2C+A.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-123\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-123\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/cltc.berkeley.edu\/aml\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Adversarial Machine Learning \u2013 CLTC UC Berkeley Center for Long-Term Cybersecurity\"<\/a>. <i>CLTC<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20220517045352\/https:\/\/cltc.berkeley.edu\/aml\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2022-05-17<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2022-05-25<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=CLTC&amp;rft.atitle=Adversarial+Machine+Learning+%E2%80%93+CLTC+UC+Berkeley+Center+for+Long-Term+Cybersecurity&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcltc.berkeley.edu%2Faml%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-124\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-124\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theregister.com\/2022\/04\/21\/machine_learning_models_backdoors\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Machine-learning models vulnerable to undetectable backdoors\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Register\" title=\"The Register\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2eb0545423025dd1f51e39f5eed0591\">The Register<\/a><\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20220513171215\/https:\/\/www.theregister.com\/2022\/04\/21\/machine_learning_models_backdoors\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 13 May 2022<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">13 May<\/span> 2022<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Register&amp;rft.atitle=Machine-learning+models+vulnerable+to+undetectable+backdoors&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theregister.com%2F2022%2F04%2F21%2Fmachine_learning_models_backdoors%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-125\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-125\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/spectrum.ieee.org\/machine-learningbackdoor\" target=\"_blank\">\"Undetectable Backdoors Plantable In Any Machine-Learning Algorithm\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IEEE_Spectrum\" title=\"IEEE Spectrum\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb31bac59e904a476465eedf8472a85e\">IEEE Spectrum<\/a><\/i>. 10 May 2022. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20220511152052\/https:\/\/spectrum.ieee.org\/machine-learningbackdoor\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 11 May 2022<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">13 May<\/span> 2022<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=IEEE+Spectrum&amp;rft.atitle=Undetectable+Backdoors+Plantable+In+Any+Machine-Learning+Algorithm&amp;rft.date=2022-05-10&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspectrum.ieee.org%2Fmachine-learningbackdoor&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-126\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-126\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGoldwasserKimVaikuntanathanZamir2022\" class=\"citation arxiv cs1\">Goldwasser, Shafi; Kim, Michael P.; Vaikuntanathan, Vinod; Zamir, Or (14 April 2022). \"Planting Undetectable Backdoors in Machine Learning Models\". <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ArXiv_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ArXiv (identifier)\" data-key=\"cac981fddd16d20fbebac22fd7e4bac7\">arXiv<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2204.06974\" target=\"_blank\">2204.06974<\/a><\/span> [<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/archive\/cs.LG\" target=\"_blank\">cs.LG<\/a>].<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=preprint&amp;rft.jtitle=arXiv&amp;rft.atitle=Planting+Undetectable+Backdoors+in+Machine+Learning+Models&amp;rft.date=2022-04-14&amp;rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F2204.06974&amp;rft.aulast=Goldwasser&amp;rft.aufirst=Shafi&amp;rft.au=Kim%2C+Michael+P.&amp;rft.au=Vaikuntanathan%2C+Vinod&amp;rft.au=Zamir%2C+Or&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-127\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-127\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKohavi1995\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Kohavi, Ron (1995). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ai.stanford.edu\/~ronnyk\/accEst.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Study of Cross-Validation and Bootstrap for Accuracy Estimation and Model Selection\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180712102706\/http:\/\/web.cs.iastate.edu\/~jtian\/cs573\/Papers\/Kohavi-IJCAI-95.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 2018-07-12<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2023-03-26<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=International+Joint+Conference+on+Artificial+Intelligence&amp;rft.atitle=A+Study+of+Cross-Validation+and+Bootstrap+for+Accuracy+Estimation+and+Model+Selection&amp;rft.date=1995&amp;rft.aulast=Kohavi&amp;rft.aufirst=Ron&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fai.stanford.edu%2F~ronnyk%2FaccEst.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-128\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-128\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPontiusSi2014\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Pontius, Robert Gilmore; Si, Kangping (2014). \"The total operating characteristic to measure diagnostic ability for multiple thresholds\". <i>International Journal of Geographical Information Science<\/i>. <b>28<\/b> (3): 570\u2013583. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2014IJGIS..28..570P\" target=\"_blank\">2014IJGIS..28..570P<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080%2F13658816.2013.862623\" target=\"_blank\">10.1080\/13658816.2013.862623<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:29204880\" target=\"_blank\">29204880<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Geographical+Information+Science&amp;rft.atitle=The+total+operating+characteristic+to+measure+diagnostic+ability+for+multiple+thresholds&amp;rft.volume=28&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=570-583&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A29204880%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13658816.2013.862623&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014IJGIS..28..570P&amp;rft.aulast=Pontius&amp;rft.aufirst=Robert+Gilmore&amp;rft.au=Si%2C+Kangping&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-129\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-129\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBostrom2011\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Bostrom, Nick (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160304015020\/http:\/\/www.nickbostrom.com\/ethics\/artificial-intelligence.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Ethics of Artificial Intelligence\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nickbostrom.com\/ethics\/artificial-intelligence.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 4 March 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">11 April<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=The+Ethics+of+Artificial+Intelligence&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.aulast=Bostrom&amp;rft.aufirst=Nick&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nickbostrom.com%2Fethics%2Fartificial-intelligence.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:1-130\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-:1_130-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGarcia2016\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Garcia, Megan (2016). \"Racist in the Machine\". <i>World Policy Journal<\/i>. <b>33<\/b> (4): 111\u2013117. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1215%2F07402775-3813015\" target=\"_blank\">10.1215\/07402775-3813015<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0740-2775\" target=\"_blank\">0740-2775<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:151595343\" target=\"_blank\">151595343<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=World+Policy+Journal&amp;rft.atitle=Racist+in+the+Machine&amp;rft.volume=33&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=111-117&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A151595343%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.issn=0740-2775&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1215%2F07402775-3813015&amp;rft.aulast=Garcia&amp;rft.aufirst=Megan&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Edionwe_Outline-131\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Edionwe_Outline_131-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFEdionwe\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Edionwe, Tolulope. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/theoutline.com\/post\/1571\/the-fight-against-racist-algorithms\" target=\"_blank\">\"The fight against racist algorithms\"<\/a>. <i>The Outline<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171117174504\/https:\/\/theoutline.com\/post\/1571\/the-fight-against-racist-algorithms\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 17 November 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">17 November<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Outline&amp;rft.atitle=The+fight+against+racist+algorithms&amp;rft.aulast=Edionwe&amp;rft.aufirst=Tolulope&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheoutline.com%2Fpost%2F1571%2Fthe-fight-against-racist-algorithms&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Jeffries_Outline-132\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Jeffries_Outline_132-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFJeffries\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Jeffries, Adrianne. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/theoutline.com\/post\/1439\/machine-learning-is-racist-because-the-internet-is-racist\" target=\"_blank\">\"Machine learning is racist because the internet is racist\"<\/a>. <i>The Outline<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171117174503\/https:\/\/theoutline.com\/post\/1439\/machine-learning-is-racist-because-the-internet-is-racist\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 17 November 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">17 November<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Outline&amp;rft.atitle=Machine+learning+is+racist+because+the+internet+is+racist&amp;rft.aulast=Jeffries&amp;rft.aufirst=Adrianne&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheoutline.com%2Fpost%2F1439%2Fmachine-learning-is-racist-because-the-internet-is-racist&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:23-133\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-:23_133-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSilvaKenney2018\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Silva, Selena; Kenney, Martin (2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/26545017\" target=\"_blank\">\"Algorithms, Platforms, and Ethnic Bias: An Integrative Essay\"<\/a>. <i>Phylon (1960-)<\/i>. <b>55<\/b> (1 &amp; 2): 9\u201337. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0031-8906\" target=\"_blank\">0031-8906<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JSTOR_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"JSTOR (identifier)\" data-key=\"5452009cc6ddc0c9ed86584fc7a26cc8\">JSTOR<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/26545017\" target=\"_blank\">26545017<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Phylon+%281960-%29&amp;rft.atitle=Algorithms%2C+Platforms%2C+and+Ethnic+Bias%3A+An+Integrative+Essay&amp;rft.volume=55&amp;rft.issue=1+%26+2&amp;rft.pages=9-37&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26545017%23id-name%3DJSTOR&amp;rft.issn=0031-8906&amp;rft.aulast=Silva&amp;rft.aufirst=Selena&amp;rft.au=Kenney%2C+Martin&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26545017&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-134\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-134\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWong2023\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Wong, Carissa (2023-03-30). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/d41586-023-00935-z\" target=\"_blank\">\"AI 'fairness' research held back by lack of diversity\"<\/a>. <i>Nature<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038%2Fd41586-023-00935-z\" target=\"_blank\">10.1038\/d41586-023-00935-z<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/36997714\" target=\"_blank\">36997714<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:257857012\" target=\"_blank\">257857012<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature&amp;rft.atitle=AI+%27fairness%27+research+held+back+by+lack+of+diversity&amp;rft.date=2023-03-30&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A257857012%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36997714&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fd41586-023-00935-z&amp;rft.aulast=Wong&amp;rft.aufirst=Carissa&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fd41586-023-00935-z&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:32-135\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:32_135-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:32_135-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFZhang\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Zhang, Jack Clark. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/aiindex.stanford.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/11\/2021-AI-Index-Report_Master.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Artificial Intelligence Index Report 2021\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Stanford Institute for Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence<\/i>.<\/cite><span 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ETHICS OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Nick Bostrom<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20151220175220\/http:\/\/www.nickbostrom.com\/ethics\/artificial-intelligence.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 2015-12-20<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2020-11-18<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Nick+Bostrom&amp;rft.atitle=THE+ETHICS+OF+ARTIFICIAL+INTELLIGENCE&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.aulast=Bostrom&amp;rft.aufirst=Nick&amp;rft.au=Yudkowsky%2C+Eliezer&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nickbostrom.com%2Fethics%2Fartificial-intelligence.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-137\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-137\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFM.O.R._PratesP.H.C._AvelarL.C._Lamb2019\" class=\"citation arxiv cs1\">M.O.R. Prates; P.H.C. Avelar; L.C. Lamb (11 Mar 2019). \"Assessing Gender Bias in Machine Translation \u2013 A Case Study with Google Translate\". <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ArXiv_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ArXiv (identifier)\" data-key=\"cac981fddd16d20fbebac22fd7e4bac7\">arXiv<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1809.02208\" target=\"_blank\">1809.02208<\/a><\/span> [<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/archive\/cs.CY\" target=\"_blank\">cs.CY<\/a>].<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=preprint&amp;rft.jtitle=arXiv&amp;rft.atitle=Assessing+Gender+Bias+in+Machine+Translation+%E2%80%93+A+Case+Study+with+Google+Translate&amp;rft.date=2019-03-11&amp;rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1809.02208&amp;rft.au=M.O.R.+Prates&amp;rft.au=P.H.C.+Avelar&amp;rft.au=L.C.+Lamb&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-138\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-138\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFNarayanan2016\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Narayanan, Arvind (August 24, 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/freedom-to-tinker.com\/2016\/08\/24\/language-necessarily-contains-human-biases-and-so-will-machines-trained-on-language-corpora\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Language necessarily contains human biases, and so will machines trained on language corpora\"<\/a>. <i>Freedom to Tinker<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180625021555\/https:\/\/freedom-to-tinker.com\/2016\/08\/24\/language-necessarily-contains-human-biases-and-so-will-machines-trained-on-language-corpora\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on June 25, 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">November 19,<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Freedom+to+Tinker&amp;rft.atitle=Language+necessarily+contains+human+biases%2C+and+so+will+machines+trained+on+language+corpora&amp;rft.date=2016-08-24&amp;rft.aulast=Narayanan&amp;rft.aufirst=Arvind&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffreedom-to-tinker.com%2F2016%2F08%2F24%2Flanguage-necessarily-contains-human-biases-and-so-will-machines-trained-on-language-corpora%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-139\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-139\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCharShahMagnus2018\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Char, Danton S.; Shah, Nigam H.; Magnus, David (2018-03-15). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5962261\" target=\"_blank\">\"Implementing Machine Learning in Health Care \u2014 Addressing Ethical Challenges\"<\/a>. <i>New England Journal of Medicine<\/i>. <b>378<\/b> (11): 981\u2013983. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1056%2FNEJMp1714229\" target=\"_blank\">10.1056\/NEJMp1714229<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0028-4793\" target=\"_blank\">0028-4793<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5962261\" target=\"_blank\">5962261<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/29539284\" target=\"_blank\">29539284<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=New+England+Journal+of+Medicine&amp;rft.atitle=Implementing+Machine+Learning+in+Health+Care+%E2%80%94+Addressing+Ethical+Challenges&amp;rft.volume=378&amp;rft.issue=11&amp;rft.pages=981-983&amp;rft.date=2018-03-15&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5962261%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft.issn=0028-4793&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29539284&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1056%2FNEJMp1714229&amp;rft.aulast=Char&amp;rft.aufirst=Danton+S.&amp;rft.au=Shah%2C+Nigam+H.&amp;rft.au=Magnus%2C+David&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5962261&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-140\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-140\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCharShahMagnus2018\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Char, D. S.; Shah, N. H.; Magnus, D. (2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5962261\" target=\"_blank\">\"Implementing Machine Learning in Health Care\u2014Addressing Ethical Challenges\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/New_England_Journal_of_Medicine\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"New England Journal of Medicine\" data-key=\"2cb213a5728264b7c1c3debe5601dd75\">New England Journal of Medicine<\/a><\/i>. <b>378<\/b> (11): 981\u2013983. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1056%2Fnejmp1714229\" target=\"_blank\">10.1056\/nejmp1714229<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5962261\" target=\"_blank\">5962261<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/29539284\" target=\"_blank\">29539284<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=New+England+Journal+of+Medicine&amp;rft.atitle=Implementing+Machine+Learning+in+Health+Care%E2%80%94Addressing+Ethical+Challenges&amp;rft.volume=378&amp;rft.issue=11&amp;rft.pages=981-983&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5962261%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29539284&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1056%2Fnejmp1714229&amp;rft.aulast=Char&amp;rft.aufirst=D.+S.&amp;rft.au=Shah%2C+N.+H.&amp;rft.au=Magnus%2C+D.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5962261&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-141\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-141\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFResearch2015\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Research, AI (23 October 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/airesearch.com\/ai-research-papers\/deep-neural-networks-for-acoustic-modeling-in-speech-recognition\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Deep Neural Networks for Acoustic Modeling in Speech Recognition\"<\/a>. <i>airesearch.com<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160201033801\/http:\/\/airesearch.com\/ai-research-papers\/deep-neural-networks-for-acoustic-modeling-in-speech-recognition\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 1 February 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">23 October<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=airesearch.com&amp;rft.atitle=Deep+Neural+Networks+for+Acoustic+Modeling+in+Speech+Recognition&amp;rft.date=2015-10-23&amp;rft.aulast=Research&amp;rft.aufirst=AI&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fairesearch.com%2Fai-research-papers%2Fdeep-neural-networks-for-acoustic-modeling-in-speech-recognition%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-142\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-142\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/big-data\/ai-machine-learning\/gpus-continue-to-dominate-the-ai-accelerator-market-for-now\/a\/d-id\/1336475\" target=\"_blank\">\"GPUs Continue to Dominate the AI Accelerator Market for Now\"<\/a>. <i>InformationWeek<\/i>. December 2019. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200610094310\/https:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/big-data\/ai-machine-learning\/gpus-continue-to-dominate-the-ai-accelerator-market-for-now\/a\/d-id\/1336475\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 10 June 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">11 June<\/span> 2020<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=InformationWeek&amp;rft.atitle=GPUs+Continue+to+Dominate+the+AI+Accelerator+Market+for+Now&amp;rft.date=2019-12&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.informationweek.com%2Fbig-data%2Fai-machine-learning%2Fgpus-continue-to-dominate-the-ai-accelerator-market-for-now%2Fa%2Fd-id%2F1336475&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-143\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-143\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRay2019\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Ray, Tiernan (2019). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.zdnet.com\/article\/ai-is-changing-the-entire-nature-of-compute\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"AI is changing the entire nature of compute\"<\/a>. <i>ZDNet<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200525144635\/https:\/\/www.zdnet.com\/article\/ai-is-changing-the-entire-nature-of-compute\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 25 May 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">11 June<\/span> 2020<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=ZDNet&amp;rft.atitle=AI+is+changing+the+entire+nature+of+compute&amp;rft.date=2019&amp;rft.aulast=Ray&amp;rft.aufirst=Tiernan&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.zdnet.com%2Farticle%2Fai-is-changing-the-entire-nature-of-compute%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-144\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-144\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/openai.com\/blog\/ai-and-compute\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"AI and Compute\"<\/a>. <i>OpenAI<\/i>. 16 May 2018. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200617200602\/https:\/\/openai.com\/blog\/ai-and-compute\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 17 June 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">11 June<\/span> 2020<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=OpenAI&amp;rft.atitle=AI+and+Compute&amp;rft.date=2018-05-16&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenai.com%2Fblog%2Fai-and-compute%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-145\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-145\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/syncedreview.com\/2021\/05\/27\/deepmind-podracer-tpu-based-rl-frameworks-deliver-exceptional-performance-at-low-cost-28\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cornell &amp; NTT's Physical Neural Networks: A \"Radical Alternative for Implementing Deep Neural Networks\" That Enables Arbitrary Physical Systems Training | Synced\"<\/a>. 27 May 2021. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20211027183428\/https:\/\/syncedreview.com\/2021\/05\/27\/deepmind-podracer-tpu-based-rl-frameworks-deliver-exceptional-performance-at-low-cost-28\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 27 October 2021<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">12 October<\/span> 2021<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Cornell+%26+NTT%27s+Physical+Neural+Networks%3A+A+%22Radical+Alternative+for+Implementing+Deep+Neural+Networks%22+That+Enables+Arbitrary+Physical+Systems+Training+%26%23124%3B+Synced&amp;rft.date=2021-05-27&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsyncedreview.com%2F2021%2F05%2F27%2Fdeepmind-podracer-tpu-based-rl-frameworks-deliver-exceptional-performance-at-low-cost-28%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-146\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-146\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theregister.com\/2021\/10\/05\/analogue_neural_network_research\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Nano-spaghetti to solve neural network power consumption\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20211006150057\/https:\/\/www.theregister.com\/2021\/10\/05\/analogue_neural_network_research\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2021-10-06<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-10-12<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Nano-spaghetti+to+solve+neural+network+power+consumption&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theregister.com%2F2021%2F10%2F05%2Fanalogue_neural_network_research%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-147\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-147\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFFafoutisMarchegianiElstsPope2018\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Fafoutis, Xenofon; Marchegiani, Letizia; Elsts, Atis; Pope, James; Piechocki, Robert; Craddock, Ian (2018-05-07). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/document\/8355116\" target=\"_blank\">\"Extending the battery lifetime of wearable sensors with embedded machine learning\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/research-information.bris.ac.uk\/en\/publications\/b8fdb58b-7114-45c6-82e4-4ab239c1327f\" target=\"_blank\"><i>2018 IEEE 4th World Forum on Internet of Things (WF-IoT)<\/i><\/a>. pp.&#160;269\u2013274. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2FWF-IoT.2018.8355116\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/WF-IoT.2018.8355116<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hdl_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hdl (identifier)\" data-key=\"e94e1ec39bdb0b58479ac2c362cd4b22\">hdl<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/hdl.handle.net\/1983%2Fb8fdb58b-7114-45c6-82e4-4ab239c1327f\" target=\"_blank\">1983\/b8fdb58b-7114-45c6-82e4-4ab239c1327f<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-4673-9944-9<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:19192912\" target=\"_blank\">19192912<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20220118182543\/https:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/abstract\/document\/8355116?casa_token=LCpUeGLS1e8AAAAA:2OjuJfNwZBnV2pgDxfnEAC-jbrETv_BpTcX35_aFqN6IULFxu1xbYbVSRpD-zMd4GCUMELyG\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2022-01-18<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2022-01-17<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Extending+the+battery+lifetime+of+wearable+sensors+with+embedded+machine+learning&amp;rft.btitle=2018+IEEE+4th+World+Forum+on+Internet+of+Things+%28WF-IoT%29&amp;rft.pages=269-274&amp;rft.date=2018-05-07&amp;rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1983%2Fb8fdb58b-7114-45c6-82e4-4ab239c1327f&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A19192912%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FWF-IoT.2018.8355116&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-4673-9944-9&amp;rft.aulast=Fafoutis&amp;rft.aufirst=Xenofon&amp;rft.au=Marchegiani%2C+Letizia&amp;rft.au=Elsts%2C+Atis&amp;rft.au=Pope%2C+James&amp;rft.au=Piechocki%2C+Robert&amp;rft.au=Craddock%2C+Ian&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fdocument%2F8355116&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-148\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-148\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/analyticsindiamag.com\/a-beginners-guide-to-machine-learning-for-embedded-systems\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Beginner's Guide To Machine learning For Embedded Systems\"<\/a>. <i>Analytics India Magazine<\/i>. 2021-06-02. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20220118182754\/https:\/\/analyticsindiamag.com\/a-beginners-guide-to-machine-learning-for-embedded-systems\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2022-01-18<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2022-01-17<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Analytics+India+Magazine&amp;rft.atitle=A+Beginner%27s+Guide+To+Machine+learning+For+Embedded+Systems&amp;rft.date=2021-06-02&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fanalyticsindiamag.com%2Fa-beginners-guide-to-machine-learning-for-embedded-systems%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-149\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-149\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSynced2022\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Synced (2022-01-12). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/syncedreview.com\/2022\/01\/12\/deepmind-podracer-tpu-based-rl-frameworks-deliver-exceptional-performance-at-low-cost-183\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Google, Purdue &amp; Harvard U's Open-Source Framework for TinyML Achieves up to 75x Speedups on FPGAs | Synced\"<\/a>. <i>syncedreview.com<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20220118182404\/https:\/\/syncedreview.com\/2022\/01\/12\/deepmind-podracer-tpu-based-rl-frameworks-deliver-exceptional-performance-at-low-cost-183\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2022-01-18<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2022-01-17<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=syncedreview.com&amp;rft.atitle=Google%2C+Purdue+%26+Harvard+U%27s+Open-Source+Framework+for+TinyML+Achieves+up+to+75x+Speedups+on+FPGAs+%7C+Synced&amp;rft.date=2022-01-12&amp;rft.au=Synced&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsyncedreview.com%2F2022%2F01%2F12%2Fdeepmind-podracer-tpu-based-rl-frameworks-deliver-exceptional-performance-at-low-cost-183%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-150\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-150\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGiriChiuDi_GuglielmoMantovani2020\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Giri, Davide; Chiu, Kuan-Lin; Di Guglielmo, Giuseppe; Mantovani, Paolo; Carloni, Luca P. (2020-06-15). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/document\/9116317\" target=\"_blank\">\"ESP4ML: Platform-Based Design of Systems-on-Chip for Embedded Machine Learning\"<\/a>. <i>2020 Design, Automation &amp; Test in Europe Conference &amp; Exhibition (DATE)<\/i>. pp.&#160;1049\u20131054. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ArXiv_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ArXiv (identifier)\" data-key=\"cac981fddd16d20fbebac22fd7e4bac7\">arXiv<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2004.03640\" target=\"_blank\">2004.03640<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.23919%2FDATE48585.2020.9116317\" target=\"_blank\">10.23919\/DATE48585.2020.9116317<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-3-9819263-4-7<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:210928161\" target=\"_blank\">210928161<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20220118182342\/https:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/abstract\/document\/9116317?casa_token=5I_Tmgrrbu4AAAAA:v7pDHPEWlRuo2Vk3pU06194PO0-W21UOdyZqADrZxrRdPBZDMLwQrjJSAHUhHtzJmLu_VdgW\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2022-01-18<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2022-01-17<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=ESP4ML%3A+Platform-Based+Design+of+Systems-on-Chip+for+Embedded+Machine+Learning&amp;rft.btitle=2020+Design%2C+Automation+%26+Test+in+Europe+Conference+%26+Exhibition+%28DATE%29&amp;rft.pages=1049-1054&amp;rft.date=2020-06-15&amp;rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F2004.03640&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A210928161%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.23919%2FDATE48585.2020.9116317&amp;rft.isbn=978-3-9819263-4-7&amp;rft.aulast=Giri&amp;rft.aufirst=Davide&amp;rft.au=Chiu%2C+Kuan-Lin&amp;rft.au=Di+Guglielmo%2C+Giuseppe&amp;rft.au=Mantovani%2C+Paolo&amp;rft.au=Carloni%2C+Luca+P.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fdocument%2F9116317&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-151\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-151\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLouisAzadDelshadtehraniGupta2019\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Louis, Marcia Sahaya; Azad, Zahra; Delshadtehrani, Leila; Gupta, Suyog; Warden, Pete; Reddi, Vijay Janapa; Joshi, Ajay (2019). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/edge.seas.harvard.edu\/publications\/towards-deep-learning-using-tensorflow-lite-risc-v\" target=\"_blank\">\"Towards Deep Learning using TensorFlow Lite on RISC-V\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Harvard_University\" title=\"Harvard University\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9ab8916caf331d92cae577b077c74c57\">Harvard University<\/a><\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20220117031909\/https:\/\/edge.seas.harvard.edu\/publications\/towards-deep-learning-using-tensorflow-lite-risc-v\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2022-01-17<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2022-01-17<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Harvard+University&amp;rft.atitle=Towards+Deep+Learning+using+TensorFlow+Lite+on+RISC-V&amp;rft.date=2019&amp;rft.aulast=Louis&amp;rft.aufirst=Marcia+Sahaya&amp;rft.au=Azad%2C+Zahra&amp;rft.au=Delshadtehrani%2C+Leila&amp;rft.au=Gupta%2C+Suyog&amp;rft.au=Warden%2C+Pete&amp;rft.au=Reddi%2C+Vijay+Janapa&amp;rft.au=Joshi%2C+Ajay&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fedge.seas.harvard.edu%2Fpublications%2Ftowards-deep-learning-using-tensorflow-lite-risc-v&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-152\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-152\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFIbrahimOstaAlamehSaleh2019\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Ibrahim, Ali; Osta, Mario; Alameh, Mohamad; Saleh, Moustafa; Chible, Hussein; Valle, Maurizio (2019-01-21). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/document\/8617877\" target=\"_blank\">\"Approximate Computing Methods for Embedded Machine Learning\"<\/a>. <i>2018 25th IEEE International Conference on Electronics, Circuits and Systems (ICECS)<\/i>. pp.&#160;845\u2013848. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2FICECS.2018.8617877\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/ICECS.2018.8617877<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-5386-9562-3<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:58670712\" target=\"_blank\">58670712<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20220117031855\/https:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/abstract\/document\/8617877?casa_token=arUW5Oy-tzwAAAAA:I9x6edlfskM6kGNFUN9zAFrjEBv_8kYTz7ERTxtXu9jAqdrYCcDbbwjBdgwXvb6QAH_-0VJJ\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2022-01-17<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2022-01-17<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Approximate+Computing+Methods+for+Embedded+Machine+Learning&amp;rft.btitle=2018+25th+IEEE+International+Conference+on+Electronics%2C+Circuits+and+Systems+%28ICECS%29&amp;rft.pages=845-848&amp;rft.date=2019-01-21&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A58670712%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FICECS.2018.8617877&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-5386-9562-3&amp;rft.aulast=Ibrahim&amp;rft.aufirst=Ali&amp;rft.au=Osta%2C+Mario&amp;rft.au=Alameh%2C+Mohamad&amp;rft.au=Saleh%2C+Moustafa&amp;rft.au=Chible%2C+Hussein&amp;rft.au=Valle%2C+Maurizio&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fdocument%2F8617877&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-153\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-153\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dblp.org\/rec\/journals\/corr\/abs-1903-01855.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"dblp: TensorFlow Eager: A Multi-Stage, Python-Embedded DSL for Machine Learning\"<\/a>. <i>dblp.org<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20220118182335\/https:\/\/dblp.org\/rec\/journals\/corr\/abs-1903-01855.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2022-01-18<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2022-01-17<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=dblp.org&amp;rft.atitle=dblp%3A+TensorFlow+Eager%3A+A+Multi-Stage%2C+Python-Embedded+DSL+for+Machine+Learning.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdblp.org%2Frec%2Fjournals%2Fcorr%2Fabs-1903-01855.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-154\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-154\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBrancoFerreiraCabral2019\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Branco, S\u00e9rgio; Ferreira, Andr\u00e9 G.; Cabral, Jorge (2019-11-05). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390%2Felectronics8111289\" target=\"_blank\">\"Machine Learning in Resource-Scarce Embedded Systems, FPGAs, and End-Devices: A Survey\"<\/a>. <i>Electronics<\/i>. <b>8<\/b> (11): 1289. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390%2Felectronics8111289\" target=\"_blank\">10.3390\/electronics8111289<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hdl_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hdl (identifier)\" data-key=\"e94e1ec39bdb0b58479ac2c362cd4b22\">hdl<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/hdl.handle.net\/1822%2F62521\" target=\"_blank\">1822\/62521<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/2079-9292\" target=\"_blank\">2079-9292<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Electronics&amp;rft.atitle=Machine+Learning+in+Resource-Scarce+Embedded+Systems%2C+FPGAs%2C+and+End-Devices%3A+A+Survey&amp;rft.volume=8&amp;rft.issue=11&amp;rft.pages=1289&amp;rft.date=2019-11-05&amp;rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1822%2F62521&amp;rft.issn=2079-9292&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Felectronics8111289&amp;rft.aulast=Branco&amp;rft.aufirst=S%C3%A9rgio&amp;rft.au=Ferreira%2C+Andr%C3%A9+G.&amp;rft.au=Cabral%2C+Jorge&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Felectronics8111289&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Sources\">Sources<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDomingos2015\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pedro_Domingos\" title=\"Pedro Domingos\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"054fdd869e12e909b1bb7842a2b55e14\">Domingos, Pedro<\/a> (September 22, 2015). <i>The Master Algorithm: How the Quest for the Ultimate Learning Machine Will Remake Our World<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Basic_Books\" title=\"Basic Books\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a45c9bfeb695415c9b540ec18eb0af4c\">Basic Books<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0465065707<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Master+Algorithm%3A+How+the+Quest+for+the+Ultimate+Learning+Machine+Will+Remake+Our+World&amp;rft.pub=Basic+Books&amp;rft.date=2015-09-22&amp;rft.isbn=978-0465065707&amp;rft.aulast=Domingos&amp;rft.aufirst=Pedro&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFNilsson1998\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nils_Nilsson_(researcher)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Nils Nilsson (researcher)\" data-key=\"5ec99f61dc752c5fa3f7b86c24345070\">Nilsson, Nils<\/a> (1998). <span class=\"cs1-lock-registration\" title=\"Free registration required\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/artificialintell0000nils\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Artificial Intelligence: A New Synthesis<\/i><\/a><\/span>. Morgan Kaufmann. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-55860-467-4<\/bdi>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200726131654\/https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/artificialintell0000nils\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 26 July 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 November<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Artificial+Intelligence%3A+A+New+Synthesis&amp;rft.pub=Morgan+Kaufmann&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-55860-467-4&amp;rft.aulast=Nilsson&amp;rft.aufirst=Nils&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fartificialintell0000nils&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\" class=\"citation cs2\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stuart_J._Russell\" title=\"Stuart J. Russell\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e38c6f5a629dd2baa69347ae6a6a541a\">Russell, Stuart J.<\/a>; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peter_Norvig\" title=\"Peter Norvig\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"681461eb2a0dfd85ab3e7c620a4c4ef0\">Norvig, Peter<\/a> (2003), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/aima.cs.berkeley.edu\/\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach<\/i><\/a> (2nd&#160;ed.), Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>0-13-790395-2<\/bdi><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Artificial+Intelligence%3A+A+Modern+Approach&amp;rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+New+Jersey&amp;rft.edition=2nd&amp;rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.isbn=0-13-790395-2&amp;rft.aulast=Russell&amp;rft.aufirst=Stuart+J.&amp;rft.au=Norvig%2C+Peter&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faima.cs.berkeley.edu%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span>.<\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Poole, David; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alan_Mackworth\" title=\"Alan Mackworth\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0e12463d5ba2a3f90905d9ae7c57867\">Mackworth, Alan<\/a>; Goebel, Randy (1998). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/computationalint00pool\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Computational Intelligence: A Logical Approach<\/i><\/a>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-19-510270-3<\/bdi>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200726131436\/https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/computationalint00pool\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 26 July 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">22 August<\/span> 2020<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Computational+Intelligence%3A+A+Logical+Approach&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-510270-3&amp;rft.aulast=Poole&amp;rft.aufirst=David&amp;rft.au=Mackworth%2C+Alan&amp;rft.au=Goebel%2C+Randy&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcomputationalint00pool&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width\" style=\"column-width: 30em\">\n<ul><li>Nils J. Nilsson, <i><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ai.stanford.edu\/people\/nilsson\/mlbook.html\" target=\"_blank\">Introduction to Machine Learning<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190816182600\/http:\/\/ai.stanford.edu\/people\/nilsson\/mlbook.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2019-08-16 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/i>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Trevor_Hastie\" title=\"Trevor Hastie\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"91f46d294bbb721bc3e895facdc46e27\">Trevor Hastie<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robert_Tibshirani\" title=\"Robert Tibshirani\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"97b4a3b2851f5269177b933f4fd7b428\">Robert Tibshirani<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jerome_H._Friedman\" title=\"Jerome H. Friedman\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b49981e69e36d417e6a0c3a3424ebc05\">Jerome H. Friedman<\/a> (2001). <i><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.stanford.edu\/~hastie\/ElemStatLearn\/\" target=\"_blank\">The Elements of Statistical Learning<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131027220938\/http:\/\/www-stat.stanford.edu\/%7Etibs\/ElemStatLearn\/\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2013-10-27 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/i>, Springer. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-387-95284-5.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pedro_Domingos\" title=\"Pedro Domingos\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"054fdd869e12e909b1bb7842a2b55e14\">Pedro Domingos<\/a> (September 2015), <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Master_Algorithm\" title=\"The Master Algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"18c2fcdd2e2c3cfc53b5f3dd7dfe8550\">The Master Algorithm<\/a><\/i>, Basic Books, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;978-0-465-06570-7<\/li>\n<li>Ian H. Witten and Eibe Frank (2011). <i>Data Mining: Practical machine learning tools and techniques<\/i> Morgan Kaufmann, 664pp., <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;978-0-12-374856-0.<\/li>\n<li>Ethem Alpaydin (2004). <i>Introduction to Machine Learning<\/i>, MIT Press, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;978-0-262-01243-0.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/David_J._C._MacKay\" title=\"David J. C. MacKay\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1c68ba369472121bb53d09946a459f4d\">David J. C. MacKay<\/a>. <i><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.inference.phy.cam.ac.uk\/mackay\/itila\/book.html\" target=\"_blank\">Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160217105359\/http:\/\/www.inference.phy.cam.ac.uk\/mackay\/itila\/book.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2016-02-17 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/i> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-521-64298-1<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Richard_O._Duda\" title=\"Richard O. Duda\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"342e1889be74692ed6bb1d247a459bb1\">Richard O. Duda<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peter_E._Hart\" title=\"Peter E. Hart\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e681444931ad91c64647360c56579ea1\">Peter E. Hart<\/a>, David G. Stork (2001) <i>Pattern classification<\/i> (2nd edition), Wiley, New York, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-471-05669-3.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Christopher_Bishop\" title=\"Christopher Bishop\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0e148f47e5c7f88c2cd72fe1c57a49a7\">Christopher Bishop<\/a> (1995). <i>Neural Networks for Pattern Recognition<\/i>, Oxford University Press. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-19-853864-2.<\/li>\n<li>Stuart Russell &amp; Peter Norvig, (2009). <i><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/aima.cs.berkeley.edu\/\" target=\"_blank\">Artificial Intelligence \u2013 A Modern Approach<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110228023805\/http:\/\/aima.cs.berkeley.edu\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2011-02-28 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/i>. Pearson, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9789332543515.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ray_Solomonoff\" title=\"Ray Solomonoff\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"938a83ba5a77aced401a2894a2e4abde\">Ray Solomonoff<\/a>, <i>An Inductive Inference Machine<\/i>, IRE Convention Record, Section on Information Theory, Part 2, pp., 56\u201362, 1957.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ray_Solomonoff\" title=\"Ray Solomonoff\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"938a83ba5a77aced401a2894a2e4abde\">Ray Solomonoff<\/a>, <i><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/world.std.com\/~rjs\/indinf56.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">An Inductive Inference Machine<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110426161749\/http:\/\/world.std.com\/~rjs\/indinf56.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2011-04-26 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/i> A privately circulated report from the 1956 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dartmouth_workshop\" title=\"Dartmouth workshop\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5c9c16aef7f504ef818e0ea59764de30\">Dartmouth Summer Research Conference on AI<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>Kevin P. Murphy (2021). <i><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/probml.github.io\/pml-book\/book1.html\" target=\"_blank\">Probabilistic Machine Learning: An Introduction<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210411153246\/https:\/\/probml.github.io\/pml-book\/book1.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2021-04-11 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/i>, MIT Press.<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n\n<ul><li><span class=\"noviewer\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"f4d3caba744ae3fd1e5b2eb3fad01b5c\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/fa\/Wikiquote-logo.svg\/13px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"13\" height=\"16\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span> Quotations related to Machine learning at Wikiquote<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171230081341\/http:\/\/machinelearning.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">International Machine Learning Society<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/mloss.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">mloss<\/a> is an academic database of open-source machine learning software.<\/li><\/ul>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\" \/><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319\" \/><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw\u2010web.eqiad.main\u201068897b7589\u2010z8vs9\nCached time: 20240110125807\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 1.923 seconds\nReal time usage: 2.291 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 13997\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 449768\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 7837\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 21\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 37\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 503486\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 1.217\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 26776078\/52428800 bytes\nLua Profile:\n<\/p>\n<pre> dataWrapper <mw.lua:672> 220 ms 18.6%\n MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub 200 ms 16.9%\n ? 160 ms 13.6%\n MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction 120 ms 10.2%\n (for generator) <mw.lua:684> 60 ms 5.1%\n MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match 40 ms 3.4%\n match 40 ms 3.4%\n MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::plain 40 ms 3.4%\n MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getEntityStatements 40 ms 3.4%\n MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub 40 ms 3.4%\n [others] 220 ms 18.6%\n<\/pre>\n<p>Number of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 1881.402 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>45.19% 850.267 1 Template:Reflist\n15.46% 290.885 48 Template:Cite_journal\n 7.72% 145.257 5 Template:Annotated_link\n 7.28% 137.034 2 Template:Refn\n 7.04% 132.516 29 Template:Cite_web\n 6.65% 125.110 23 Template:Cite_book\n 6.61% 124.293 4 Template:Cite_conference\n 6.23% 117.182 2 Template:Sfn\n 4.60% 86.607 1 Template:Machine_learning_bar\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:233488-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110125804 and revision id 1194703446. Rendering was triggered because: page-view\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110154223\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.446 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.821 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 468979\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 608.966 1 wikipedia:Machine_learning\n100.00% 608.966 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:12008-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110154222 and revision id 48271. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Machine_learning\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Machine_learning<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","79aab39cfa124c958cd1dbcab3dde122_images":[],"79aab39cfa124c958cd1dbcab3dde122_timestamp":1704907018,"0061880849aeaca05f8aa27ae171f331_type":"article","0061880849aeaca05f8aa27ae171f331_title":"Laboratory automation","0061880849aeaca05f8aa27ae171f331_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_automation","0061880849aeaca05f8aa27ae171f331_plaintext":"\n\nLaboratory automationFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Laboratory_automation?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_automation\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_automation<\/a>\nCategory: Automation and artificial intelligenceHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 12 June 2022, at 14:34.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 6,276 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","0061880849aeaca05f8aa27ae171f331_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Laboratory_automation rootpage-Laboratory_automation skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Laboratory automation<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Laboratory_automation?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Laboratory_automation\" data-key=\"035711b891e560e9b9819d6b0644849a\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171658\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.093 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.170 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 103\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 165.730 1 wikipedia:Laboratory_automation\n100.00% 165.730 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:2135-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171658 and revision id 48270. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_automation\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_automation<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","0061880849aeaca05f8aa27ae171f331_images":[],"0061880849aeaca05f8aa27ae171f331_timestamp":1704907017,"0d6f53b8041934738836e4f80a4a6a5c_type":"article","0d6f53b8041934738836e4f80a4a6a5c_title":"Knowledge representation and reasoning","0d6f53b8041934738836e4f80a4a6a5c_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning","0d6f53b8041934738836e4f80a4a6a5c_plaintext":"\n\nKnowledge representation and reasoningFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchField of artificial intelligence\nKnowledge representation and reasoning (KRR, KR&amp;R, KR\u00b2) is the field of artificial intelligence (AI) dedicated to representing information about the world in a form that a computer system can use to solve complex tasks such as diagnosing a medical condition or having a dialog in a natural language. Knowledge representation incorporates findings from psychology[1] about how humans solve problems, and represent knowledge in order to design formalisms that will make complex systems easier to design and build. Knowledge representation and reasoning also incorporates findings from logic to automate various kinds of reasoning, such as the application of rules or the relations of sets and subsets.\nExamples of knowledge representation formalisms include semantic nets, systems architecture, frames, rules, logic programs and ontologies. Examples of automated reasoning engines include inference engines, theorem provers, model generators and classifiers.\n\n\n\nHistory \nPart of a series onArtificial intelligence\nMajor goals\nArtificial general intelligence\nPlanning\nComputer vision\nGeneral game playing\nKnowledge reasoning\nMachine learning\nNatural language processing\nRobotics\nAI safety\n\nApproaches\nSymbolic\nDeep learning\nBayesian networks\nEvolutionary algorithms\nSituated approach\nHybrid intelligent systems\nSystems integration\n\nApplications\nProjects\nDeepfake\nMachine translation\nArt\nHealthcare\nMental health\nGovernment\nMusic\nIndustry\nEarth sciences\nBioinformatics\nPhysics\n\nPhilosophy\nChinese room\nFriendly AI\nControl problem\/Takeover\nEthics\nExistential risk\nTuring test\nRegulation\n\nHistory\nTimeline\nProgress\nAI winter\nAI boom\n\nTechnology\nProgramming languages\n\nGlossary\nGlossary\nvte\nThe earliest work in computerized knowledge representation was focused on general problem-solvers such as the General Problem Solver (GPS) system developed by Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon in 1959 and the Advice Taker proposed by John McCarthy also in 1959. GPS featured data structures for planning and decomposition. The system would begin with a goal. It would then decompose that goal into sub-goals and then set out to construct strategies that could accomplish each subgoal. The Advisor Taker, on the other hand, proposed the use of the predicate calculus to represent common sense reasoning.\nMany of the early approaches to knowledge represention in AI used graph representations and semantic networks, similar to knowledge graphs today. In such approaches, problem solving was a form of graph traversal[2] or path-finding, as in the A* search algorithm. Typical applications included robot plan-formation and game-playing.\nOther researchers focused on developing automated theorem-provers for first-order logic, motivated by the use of mathematical logic to formalise mathematics and to automate the proof of mathematical theorems. A major step in this direction was the development of the resolution method by John Alan Robinson.\nIn the meanwhile, John McCarthy and Pat Hayes developed the situation calculus as a logical representation of common sense knowledge about the laws of cause and effect. Cordell Green, in turn, showed how to do robot plan-formation by applying resolution to the situation calculus. He also showed how to use resolution for question-answering and automatic programming.[3]\nIn contrast, researchers at MIT rejected the resolution uniform proof procedure paradigm and advocated the procedural embedding of knowledge instead.[4] The resulting conflict between the use of logical representations and the use of procedural representations was resolved in the early 1970s with the development of logic programming and Prolog, using SLD resolution to treat Horn clauses as goal-reduction procedures.\nThe early development of logic programming was largely a European phenomenon. In North America, AI researchers such as Ed Feigenbaum and Frederick Hayes-Roth began to advocate the representation of domain-specific knowledge rather than general-purpose reasoning.[5]\nThese efforts led to the cognitive revolution in psychology and to the phase of AI focused on knowledge representation that resulted in expert systems in the 1970s and 80s, production systems, frame languages, etc. Rather than general problem solvers, AI changed its focus to expert systems that could match human competence on a specific task, such as medical diagnosis.[6]\nExpert systems gave us the terminology still in use today where AI systems are divided into a knowledge base, with facts about the world and rules, and an inference engine, which applies the rules to the knowledge base in order to answer questions and solve problems. In these early systems the knowledge base tended to be a fairly flat structure, essentially assertions about the values of variables used by the rules.[7]\nMeanwhile, Marvin Minsky developed the concept of frame in the mid-1970s.[8] A frame is similar to an object class: It is an abstract description of a category describing things in the world, problems, and potential solutions. Frames were originally used on systems geared toward human interaction, e.g. understanding natural language and the social settings in which various default expectations such as ordering food in a restaurant narrow the search space and allow the system to choose appropriate responses to dynamic situations.\nIt was not long before the frame communities and the rule-based researchers realized that there was a synergy between their approaches. Frames were good for representing the real world, described as classes, subclasses, slots (data values) with various constraints on possible values. Rules were good for representing and utilizing complex logic such as the process to make a medical diagnosis. Integrated systems were developed that combined frames and rules. One of the most powerful and well known was the 1983 Knowledge Engineering Environment (KEE) from Intellicorp. KEE had a complete rule engine with forward and backward chaining. It also had a complete frame-based knowledge base with triggers, slots (data values), inheritance, and message passing. Although message passing originated in the object-oriented community rather than AI it was quickly embraced by AI researchers as well in environments such as KEE and in the operating systems for Lisp machines from Symbolics, Xerox, and Texas Instruments.[9]\nThe integration of frames, rules, and object-oriented programming was significantly driven by commercial ventures such as KEE and Symbolics spun off from various research projects. At the same time as this was occurring, there was another strain of research that was less commercially focused and was driven by mathematical logic and automated theorem proving.[citation needed ] One of the most influential languages in this research was the KL-ONE language of the mid-'80s. KL-ONE was a frame language that had a rigorous semantics, formal definitions for concepts such as an Is-A relation.[10] KL-ONE and languages that were influenced by it such as Loom had an automated reasoning engine that was based on formal logic rather than on IF-THEN rules. This reasoner is called the classifier. A classifier can analyze a set of declarations and infer new assertions, for example, redefine a class to be a subclass or superclass of some other class that wasn't formally specified. In this way the classifier can function as an inference engine, deducing new facts from an existing knowledge base. The classifier can also provide consistency checking on a knowledge base (which in the case of KL-ONE languages is also referred to as an Ontology).[11]\nAnother area of knowledge representation research was the problem of common-sense reasoning. One of the first realizations learned from trying to make software that can function with human natural language was that humans regularly draw on an extensive foundation of knowledge about the real world that we simply take for granted but that is not at all obvious to an artificial agent. Basic principles of common-sense physics, causality, intentions, etc. An example is the frame problem, that in an event driven logic there need to be axioms that state things maintain position from one moment to the next unless they are moved by some external force. In order to make a true artificial intelligence agent that can converse with humans using natural language and can process basic statements and questions about the world, it is essential to represent this kind of knowledge.[citation needed ] One of the most ambitious programs to tackle this problem was Doug Lenat's Cyc project. Cyc established its own Frame language and had large numbers of analysts document various areas of common-sense reasoning in that language. The knowledge recorded in Cyc included common-sense models of time, causality, physics, intentions, and many others.[12]\nThe starting point for knowledge representation is the knowledge representation hypothesis first formalized by Brian C. Smith in 1985:[13]\n\nAny mechanically embodied intelligent process will be comprised of structural ingredients that a) we as external observers naturally take to represent a propositional account of the knowledge that the overall process exhibits, and b) independent of such external semantic attribution, play a formal but causal and essential role in engendering the behavior that manifests that knowledge.\nCurrently, one of the most active areas of knowledge representation research are projects associated with the Semantic Web.[citation needed ] The Semantic Web seeks to add a layer of semantics (meaning) on top of the current Internet. Rather than indexing web sites and pages via keywords, the Semantic Web creates large ontologies of concepts. Searching for a concept will be more effective than traditional text only searches. Frame languages and automatic classification play a big part in the vision for the future Semantic Web. The automatic classification gives developers technology to provide order on a constantly evolving network of knowledge. Defining ontologies that are static and incapable of evolving on the fly would be very limiting for Internet-based systems. The classifier technology provides the ability to deal with the dynamic environment of the Internet.\nRecent projects funded primarily by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) have integrated frame languages and classifiers with markup languages based on XML. The Resource Description Framework (RDF) provides the basic capability to define classes, subclasses, and properties of objects. The Web Ontology Language (OWL) provides additional levels of semantics and enables integration with classification engines.[14][15]\n\nOverview \nKnowledge-representation is a field of artificial intelligence that focuses on designing computer representations that capture information about the world that can be used for solving complex problems.\nThe justification for knowledge representation is that conventional procedural code is not the best formalism to use to solve complex problems. Knowledge representation makes complex software easier to define and maintain than procedural code and can be used in expert systems.\nFor example, talking to experts in terms of business rules rather than code lessens the semantic gap between users and developers and makes development of complex systems more practical.\nKnowledge representation goes hand in hand with automated reasoning because one of the main purposes of explicitly representing knowledge is to be able to reason about that knowledge, to make inferences, assert new knowledge, etc. Virtually all knowledge representation languages have a reasoning or inference engine as part of the system.[16]\nA key trade-off in the design of a knowledge representation formalism is that between expressivity and practicality. The ultimate knowledge representation formalism in terms of expressive power and compactness is First Order Logic (FOL). There is no more powerful formalism than that used by mathematicians to define general propositions about the world. However, FOL has two drawbacks as a knowledge representation formalism: ease of use and practicality of implementation. First order logic can be intimidating even for many software developers. Languages that do not have the complete formal power of FOL can still provide close to the same expressive power with a user interface that is more practical for the average developer to understand. The issue of practicality of implementation is that FOL in some ways is too expressive. With FOL it is possible to create statements (e.g. quantification over infinite sets) that would cause a system to never terminate if it attempted to verify them.\nThus, a subset of FOL can be both easier to use and more practical to implement. This was a driving motivation behind rule-based expert systems. IF-THEN rules provide a subset of FOL but a very useful one that is also very intuitive. The history of most of the early AI knowledge representation formalisms; from databases to semantic nets to theorem provers and production systems can be viewed as various design decisions on whether to emphasize expressive power or computability and efficiency.[17]\nIn a key 1993 paper on the topic, Randall Davis of MIT outlined five distinct roles to analyze a knowledge representation framework:[18]\n\n\"A knowledge representation (KR) is most fundamentally a surrogate, a substitute for the thing itself, used to enable an entity to determine consequences by thinking rather than acting,\" [18] i.e., \"by reasoning about the world rather than taking action in it.\"[18]\n\"It is a set of ontological commitments\",[18] i.e., \"an answer to the question: In what terms should I think about the world?\" [18]\n\"It is a fragmentary theory of intelligent reasoning, expressed in terms of three components: (i) the representation's fundamental conception of intelligent reasoning; (ii) the set of inferences the representation sanctions; and (iii) the set of inferences it recommends.\"[18]\n\"It is a medium for pragmatically efficient computation\",[18] i.e., \"the computational environment in which thinking is accomplished. One contribution to this pragmatic efficiency is supplied by the guidance a representation provides for organizing information\" [18] so as \"to facilitate making the recommended inferences.\"[18]\n\"It is a medium of human expression\",[18] i.e., \"a language in which we say things about the world.\"[18]\nKnowledge representation and reasoning are a key enabling technology for the Semantic Web. Languages based on the Frame model with automatic classification provide a layer of semantics on top of the existing Internet. Rather than searching via text strings as is typical today, it will be possible to define logical queries and find pages that map to those queries.[14] The automated reasoning component in these systems is an engine known as the classifier. Classifiers focus on the subsumption relations in a knowledge base rather than rules. A classifier can infer new classes and dynamically change the ontology as new information becomes available. This capability is ideal for the ever-changing and evolving information space of the Internet.[19]\nThe Semantic Web integrates concepts from knowledge representation and reasoning with markup languages based on XML. The Resource Description Framework (RDF) provides the basic capabilities to define knowledge-based objects on the Internet with basic features such as Is-A relations and object properties. The Web Ontology Language (OWL) adds additional semantics and integrates with automatic classification reasoners.[20]\n\nCharacteristics \nIn 1985, Ron Brachman categorized the core issues for knowledge representation as follows:[21]\n\nPrimitives. What is the underlying framework used to represent knowledge? Semantic networks were one of the first knowledge representation primitives. Also, data structures and algorithms for general fast search. In this area, there is a strong overlap with research in data structures and algorithms in computer science. In early systems, the Lisp programming language, which was modeled after the lambda calculus, was often used as a form of functional knowledge representation. Frames and Rules were the next kind of primitive. Frame languages had various mechanisms for expressing and enforcing constraints on frame data. All data in frames are stored in slots. Slots are analogous to relations in entity-relation modeling and to object properties in object-oriented modeling. Another technique for primitives is to define languages that are modeled after First Order Logic (FOL). The most well known example is Prolog, but there are also many special-purpose theorem-proving environments. These environments can validate logical models and can deduce new theories from existing models. Essentially they automate the process a logician would go through in analyzing a model. Theorem-proving technology had some specific practical applications in the areas of software engineering. For example, it is possible to prove that a software program rigidly adheres to a formal logical specification.\nMeta-representation. This is also known as the issue of reflection in computer science. It refers to the capability of a formalism to have access to information about its own state. An example would be the meta-object protocol in Smalltalk and CLOS that gives developers run time access to the class objects and enables them to dynamically redefine the structure of the knowledge base even at run time. Meta-representation means the knowledge representation language is itself expressed in that language. For example, in most Frame based environments all frames would be instances of a frame class. That class object can be inspected at run time, so that the object can understand and even change its internal structure or the structure of other parts of the model. In rule-based environments, the rules were also usually instances of rule classes. Part of the meta protocol for rules were the meta rules that prioritized rule firing.\nIncompleteness. Traditional logic requires additional axioms and constraints to deal with the real world as opposed to the world of mathematics. Also, it is often useful to associate degrees of confidence with a statement. I.e., not simply say \"Socrates is Human\" but rather \"Socrates is Human with confidence 50%\". This was one of the early innovations from expert systems research which migrated to some commercial tools, the ability to associate certainty factors with rules and conclusions. Later research in this area is known as fuzzy logic.[22]\nDefinitions and universals vs. facts and defaults. Universals are general statements about the world such as \"All humans are mortal\". Facts are specific examples of universals such as \"Socrates is a human and therefore mortal\". In logical terms definitions and universals are about universal quantification while facts and defaults are about existential quantifications. All forms of knowledge representation must deal with this aspect and most do so with some variant of set theory, modeling universals as sets and subsets and definitions as elements in those sets.\nNon-monotonic reasoning. Non-monotonic reasoning allows various kinds of hypothetical reasoning. The system associates facts asserted with the rules and facts used to justify them and as those facts change updates the dependent knowledge as well. In rule based systems this capability is known as a truth maintenance system.[23]\nExpressive adequacy. The standard that Brachman and most AI researchers use to measure expressive adequacy is usually First Order Logic (FOL). Theoretical limitations mean that a full implementation of FOL is not practical. Researchers should be clear about how expressive (how much of full FOL expressive power) they intend their representation to be.[24]\nReasoning efficiency. This refers to the run time efficiency of the system. The ability of the knowledge base to be updated and the reasoner to develop new inferences in a reasonable period of time. In some ways, this is the flip side of expressive adequacy. In general, the more powerful a representation, the more it has expressive adequacy, the less efficient its automated reasoning engine will be. Efficiency was often an issue, especially for early applications of knowledge representation technology. They were usually implemented in interpreted environments such as Lisp, which were slow compared to more traditional platforms of the time.\nOntology engineering \nMain articles: Ontology engineering and Ontology language\nIn the early years of knowledge-based systems the knowledge-bases were fairly small. The knowledge-bases that were meant to actually solve real problems rather than do proof of concept demonstrations needed to focus on well defined problems. So for example, not just medical diagnosis as a whole topic, but medical diagnosis of certain kinds of diseases.\nAs knowledge-based technology scaled up, the need for larger knowledge bases and for modular knowledge bases that could communicate and integrate with each other became apparent. This gave rise to the discipline of ontology engineering, designing and building large knowledge bases that could be used by multiple projects. One of the leading research projects in this area was the Cyc project. Cyc was an attempt to build a huge encyclopedic knowledge base that would contain not just expert knowledge but common-sense knowledge. In designing an artificial intelligence agent, it was soon realized that representing common-sense knowledge, knowledge that humans simply take for granted, was essential to make an AI that could interact with humans using natural language. Cyc was meant to address this problem. The language they defined was known as CycL.\nAfter CycL, a number of ontology languages have been developed. Most are declarative languages, and are either frame languages, or are based on first-order logic. Modularity\u2014the ability to define boundaries around specific domains and problem spaces\u2014is essential for these languages because as stated by Tom Gruber, \"Every ontology is a treaty- a social agreement among people with common motive in sharing.\" There are always many competing and differing views that make any general-purpose ontology impossible. A general-purpose ontology would have to be applicable in any domain and different areas of knowledge need to be unified.[25]\nThere is a long history of work attempting to build ontologies for a variety of task domains, e.g., an ontology for liquids,[26] the lumped element model widely used in representing electronic circuits (e.g.,[27]), as well as ontologies for time, belief, and even programming itself. Each of these offers a way to see some part of the world.\nThe lumped element model, for instance, suggests that we think of circuits in terms of components with connections between them, with signals flowing instantaneously along the connections. This is a useful view, but not the only possible one. A different ontology arises if we need to attend to the electrodynamics in the device: Here signals propagate at finite speed and an object (like a resistor) that was previously viewed as a single component with an I\/O behavior may now have to be thought of as an extended medium through which an electromagnetic wave flows.\nOntologies can of course be written down in a wide variety of languages and notations (e.g., logic, LISP, etc.); the essential information is not the form of that language but the content, i.e., the set of concepts offered as a way of thinking about the world. Simply put, the important part is notions like connections and components, not the choice between writing them as predicates or LISP constructs.\nThe commitment made selecting one or another ontology can produce a sharply different view of the task at hand. Consider the difference that arises in selecting the lumped element view of a circuit rather than the electrodynamic view of the same device. As a second example, medical diagnosis viewed in terms of rules (e.g., MYCIN) looks substantially different from the same task viewed in terms of frames (e.g., INTERNIST). Where MYCIN sees the medical world as made up of empirical associations connecting symptom to disease, INTERNIST sees a set of prototypes, in particular prototypical diseases, to be matched against the case at hand.\n\nSee also \nAlphabet of human thought\nBelief revision\nChunking (psychology)\nCommonsense knowledge base\nConceptual graph\nDATR, a language for lexical knowledge representation\nFO(.), a KR language based on First-order logic\nLogic programming\nLogico-linguistic modeling\nKnowledge graph\nKnowledge management\nMind map\nSemantic technology\nValuation-based system\nReferences \n\n\n^ Schank, Roger; Abelson, Robert (1977). Scripts, Plans, Goals, and Understanding: An Inquiry Into Human Knowledge Structures. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. \n\n^ Doran, J. E.; Michie, D. (1966-09-20). \"Experiments with the Graph Traverser program\". Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A. 294 (1437): 235\u2013259. Bibcode:1966RSPSA.294..235D. doi:10.1098\/rspa.1966.0205. S2CID&#160;21698093. \n\n^ Green, Cordell. Application of Theorem Proving to Problem Solving (PDF) . IJCAI 1969. \n\n^ Hewitt, C., 2009. Inconsistency robustness in logic programs. arXiv preprint arXiv:0904.3036. \n\n^ Kowalski, Robert (1986). \"The limitation of logic\". Proceedings of the 1986 ACM fourteenth annual conference on Computer science - CSC '86. pp.&#160;7\u201313. doi:10.1145\/324634.325168. ISBN&#160;0-89791-177-6. S2CID&#160;17211581. \n\n^ Nilsson, Nils (1995). \"Eye on the Prize\". AI Magazine. 16: 2. \n\n^ Hayes-Roth, Frederick; Waterman, Donald; Lenat, Douglas (1983). Building Expert Systems. Addison-Wesley. ISBN&#160;978-0-201-10686-2. \n\n^ Marvin Minsky, A Framework for Representing Knowledge, MIT-AI Laboratory Memo 306, June, 1974 \n\n^ Mettrey, William (1987). \"An Assessment of Tools for Building Large Knowledge-Based Systems\". AI Magazine. 8 (4). Archived from the original on 2013-11-10. Retrieved 2013-12-24 . \n\n^ Brachman, Ron (1978). \"A Structural Paradigm for Representing Knowledge\" (PDF) . Bolt, Beranek, and Neumann Technical Report (3605). Archived (PDF) from the original on April 30, 2020. \n\n^ MacGregor, Robert (June 1991). \"Using a description classifier to enhance knowledge representation\". IEEE Expert. 6 (3): 41\u201346. doi:10.1109\/64.87683. S2CID&#160;29575443. \n\n^ Lenat, Doug; R. V. Guha (January 1990). Building Large Knowledge-Based Systems: Representation and Inference in the Cyc Project. Addison-Wesley. ISBN&#160;978-0201517521. \n\n^ Smith, Brian C. (1985). \"Prologue to Reflections and Semantics in a Procedural Language\". In Ronald Brachman and Hector J. Levesque (ed.). Readings in Knowledge Representation. Morgan Kaufmann. pp.&#160;31\u201340. ISBN&#160;978-0-934613-01-9. \n\n^ a b Berners-Lee, Tim; Hendler, James; Lassila, Ora (May 17, 2001). \"The Semantic Web \u2013 A new form of Web content that is meaningful to computers will unleash a revolution of new possibilities\". Scientific American. 284 (5): 34\u201343. doi:10.1038\/scientificamerican0501-34. Archived from the original on April 24, 2013. \n\n^ Knublauch, Holger; Oberle, Daniel; Tetlow, Phil; Wallace, Evan (2006-03-09). \"A Semantic Web Primer for Object-Oriented Software Developers\". W3C. Archived from the original on 2018-01-06. Retrieved 2008-07-30 . \n\n^ Hayes-Roth, Frederick; Waterman, Donald; Lenat, Douglas (1983). Building Expert Systems. Addison-Wesley. pp.&#160;6\u20137. ISBN&#160;978-0-201-10686-2. \n\n^ Levesque, Hector; Brachman, Ronald (1985). \"A Fundamental Tradeoff in Knowledge Representation and Reasoning\". In Ronald Brachman and Hector J. Levesque (ed.). Readings in Knowledge Representation. Morgan Kaufmann. p.&#160;49. ISBN&#160;978-0-934613-01-9. The good news in reducing KR service to theorem proving is that we now have a very clear, very specific notion of what the KR system should do; the bad new is that it is also clear that the services can not be provided... deciding whether or not a sentence in FOL is a theorem... is unsolvable. \n\n^ a b c d e f g h i j k Davis, Randall; Shrobe, Howard; Szolovits, Peter (Spring 1993). \"What Is a Knowledge Representation?\". AI Magazine. 14 (1): 17\u201333. Archived from the original on 2012-04-06. Retrieved 2011-03-23 . \n\n^ Macgregor, Robert (August 13, 1999). \"Retrospective on Loom\". isi.edu. Information Sciences Institute. Archived from the original on 25 October 2013. Retrieved 10 December 2013 . \n\n^ Knublauch, Holger; Oberle, Daniel; Tetlow, Phil; Wallace, Evan (2006-03-09). \"A Semantic Web Primer for Object-Oriented Software Developers\". W3C. Archived from the original on 2018-01-06. Retrieved 2008-07-30 . \n\n^ Brachman, Ron (1985). \"Introduction\". In Ronald Brachman and Hector J. Levesque (ed.). Readings in Knowledge Representation . Morgan Kaufmann. pp.&#160;XVI\u2013XVII. ISBN&#160;978-0-934613-01-9. \n\n^ Bih, Joseph (2006). \"Paradigm Shift: An Introduction to Fuzzy Logic\" (PDF) . IEEE Potentials. 25: 6\u201321. doi:10.1109\/MP.2006.1635021. S2CID&#160;15451765. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 June 2014. Retrieved 24 December 2013 . \n\n^ Zlatarva, Nellie (1992). \"Truth Maintenance Systems and their Application for Verifying Expert System Knowledge Bases\". Artificial Intelligence Review. 6: 67\u2013110. doi:10.1007\/bf00155580. S2CID&#160;24696160. \n\n^ Levesque, Hector; Brachman, Ronald (1985). \"A Fundamental Tradeoff in Knowledge Representation and Reasoning\". In Ronald Brachman and Hector J. Levesque (ed.). Readings in Knowledge Representation. Morgan Kaufmann. pp.&#160;41\u201370. ISBN&#160;978-0-934613-01-9. \n\n^ Russell, Stuart J.; Norvig, Peter (2010), Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (3rd ed.), Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, ISBN&#160;0-13-604259-7, p. 437-439 \n\n^ Hayes P, Naive physics I: Ontology for liquids. University of Essex report, 1978, Essex, UK. \n\n^ Davis R, Shrobe H E, Representing Structure and Behavior of Digital Hardware, IEEE Computer, Special Issue on Knowledge Representation, 16(10):75-82. \n\n\nFurther reading \nRonald J. Brachman; What IS-A is and isn't. An Analysis of Taxonomic Links in Semantic Networks; IEEE Computer, 16 (10); October 1983\nRonald J. Brachman, Hector J. Levesque Knowledge Representation and Reasoning, Morgan Kaufmann, 2004 ISBN&#160;978-1-55860-932-7\nRonald J. Brachman, Hector J. Levesque (eds) Readings in Knowledge Representation, Morgan Kaufmann, 1985, ISBN&#160;0-934613-01-X\nChein, M., Mugnier, M.-L. (2009),Graph-based Knowledge Representation: Computational Foundations of Conceptual Graphs, Springer, 2009,ISBN&#160;978-1-84800-285-2.\nRandall Davis, Howard Shrobe, and Peter Szolovits; What Is a Knowledge Representation? AI Magazine, 14(1):17-33,1993\nRonald Fagin, Joseph Y. Halpern, Yoram Moses, Moshe Y. Vardi Reasoning About Knowledge, MIT Press, 1995, ISBN&#160;0-262-06162-7\nJean-Luc Hainaut, Jean-Marc Hick, Vincent Englebert, Jean Henrard, Didier Roland: Understanding Implementations of IS-A Relations. ER 1996: 42-57\nHermann Helbig: Knowledge Representation and the Semantics of Natural Language, Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York 2006\nFrank van Harmelen, Vladimir Lifschitz and Bruce Porter: Handbook of Knowledge Representation 2007.\nArthur B. Markman: Knowledge Representation Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1998\nJohn F. Sowa: Knowledge Representation: Logical, Philosophical, and Computational Foundations. Brooks\/Cole: New York, 2000\nAdrian Walker, Michael McCord, John F. Sowa, and Walter G. Wilson: Knowledge Systems and Prolog, Second Edition, Addison-Wesley, 1990\nMary-Anne Williams and Hans Rott: \"Frontiers in Belief Revision, Kluwer\", 2001.\nExternal links \n\n\n \nWikimedia Commons has media related to Knowledge representation .\n\nWhat is a Knowledge Representation? by Randall Davis and others\nIntroduction to Knowledge Modeling by Pejman Makhfi\nIntroduction to Description Logics course by Enrico Franconi, Faculty of Computer Science, Free University of Bolzano, Italy\nDATR Lexical knowledge representation language\nLoom Project Home Page\nPrinciples of Knowledge Representation and Reasoning Incorporated \nDescription Logic in Practice: A CLASSIC Application\nThe Rule Markup Initiative\nNelements KOS - a non-free 3d knowledge representation system\n\nvteComputer scienceNote: This template roughly follows the 2012 ACM Computing Classification System.Hardware\nPrinted circuit board\nPeripheral\nIntegrated circuit\nVery Large Scale Integration\nSystems on Chip 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lang=\"en\">Knowledge representation and reasoning<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Field of artificial intelligence<\/div>\n<p><b>Knowledge representation and reasoning<\/b> (<b>KRR<\/b>, <b>KR&amp;R<\/b>, <b>KR\u00b2<\/b>) is the field of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f69d9e0954165931d1f7176b378dc39f\">artificial intelligence<\/a> (AI) dedicated to representing <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3af0e7a381a856e93e11b5036866eb24\">information<\/a> about the world in a form that a computer system can use to solve complex tasks such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer-aided_diagnosis\" title=\"Computer-aided diagnosis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f654bf96b59cc27c875fdd77f45f4697\">diagnosing a medical condition<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_language_user_interface\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Natural language user interface\" data-key=\"e7c60f04f9da60566224f74c5bf313bb\">having a dialog in a natural language<\/a>. Knowledge representation incorporates findings from psychology<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> about how humans solve problems, and represent knowledge in order to design <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Formal_system\" title=\"Formal system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fb9435463d4170c0a6c0e938eecf9637\">formalisms<\/a> that will make complex systems easier to design and build. Knowledge representation and reasoning also incorporates findings from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logic\" title=\"Logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b1765a5c4c6dcb7becba1cf644fe3897\">logic<\/a> to automate various kinds of <i>reasoning<\/i>, such as the application of rules or the relations of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Set_theory\" title=\"Set theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7da89c571331a0d221dcd2f06dc34637\">sets<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Subset\" title=\"Subset\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"23d5135d15000145d2284e9e6ba5f081\">subsets<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>Examples of knowledge representation formalisms include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantic_network\" title=\"Semantic network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"64a11922fbc4867fa40750caf3480c27\">semantic nets<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Systems_architecture\" title=\"Systems architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2e578d55a1b1faa6049ce08a6ef48e7a\">systems architecture<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Frame_(artificial_intelligence)\" title=\"Frame (artificial intelligence)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5de0ade622122365c91ffa3e5ebb99e7\">frames<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rule-based_system\" title=\"Rule-based system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7acb4508f6397b1198a859c2dd7bc13e\"> rules<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logic_programming\" title=\"Logic programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e6c0943d2bbff45f5ba0d111f9a594b7\"> logic programs<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ontology_(information_science)\" title=\"Ontology (information science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6cd018caae9a0c95e80b08c71758343\">ontologies<\/a>. Examples of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_reasoning\" title=\"Automated reasoning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9de14c9c0d69a0cb33e3fcbd45499d1f\">automated reasoning<\/a> engines include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inference_engine\" title=\"Inference engine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9b2b016bbabb61097234156e189d313\">inference engines<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_theorem_proving\" title=\"Automated theorem proving\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"70283ba307cba4927c2ddd74c3e82e5c\">theorem provers<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Boolean_satisfiability_problem\" title=\"Boolean satisfiability problem\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f145e6f5db6a47712313fd550711ca35\"> model generators<\/a> and classifiers.\n<\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<table class=\"sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist\" style=\"\"><tbody><tr><td class=\"sidebar-pretitle\">Part of a series on<\/td><\/tr><tr><th class=\"sidebar-title-with-pretitle\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Outline_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Outline of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c37a26aa0fabe57fce6dc9d3efc57f0\">Artificial intelligence<\/a><\/th><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-image\"><figure class=\"mw-halign-center\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Anatomy-1751201_1280.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"c3af2ed3786d80b830eea607a8344e75\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/7a\/Anatomy-1751201_1280.png\/100px-Anatomy-1751201_1280.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"100\" height=\"85\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption><\/figcaption><\/figure><\/td><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence#Goals\" title=\"Artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bb9c1836d3769054e30ba50b411472bf\">Major goals<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_general_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial general intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8f53649097e783e63ebea1909d4045f\">Artificial general intelligence<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_planning_and_scheduling\" title=\"Automated planning and scheduling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd62254769426508b9de418255a3e6f9\">Planning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_vision\" title=\"Computer vision\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"082554c667906c00efbfe0986943ab7f\">Computer vision<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/General_game_playing\" title=\"General game playing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43b659f2ed91c7a28bca494393765fd1\">General game playing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a class=\"mw-selflink selflink\">Knowledge reasoning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">Machine learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_language_processing\" title=\"Natural language processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"258d1d348c952c69c2cf806f12baac0d\">Natural language processing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robotics\" title=\"Robotics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d51e34f62697c054ccec4bfed01d9051\">Robotics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_safety\" title=\"AI safety\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fb7e6c3b6e6290bdd2aab3d5c2210b1c\">AI safety<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\">Approaches<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Symbolic_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Symbolic artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"90f04195cac03010b9702e7b8db7ad93\">Symbolic<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_learning\" title=\"Deep learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60a402792d36ac6697fa1e78697b47ee\">Deep learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bayesian_network\" title=\"Bayesian network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebc823a40ca85fe6368464bee686f254\">Bayesian networks<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Evolutionary_algorithm\" title=\"Evolutionary algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2be5565f46780928629b4705cf141f08\">Evolutionary algorithms<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Situated_approach_(artificial_intelligence)\" title=\"Situated approach (artificial intelligence)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d371530e69c0c92a2f6c8ddfec6102dc\">Situated approach<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hybrid_intelligent_system\" title=\"Hybrid intelligent system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"134de857fb48c47e99864f5b0a8a0887\">Hybrid intelligent systems<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_systems_integration\" title=\"Artificial intelligence systems integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"03e8fe4cbdde2b0dfe6d6cf013a21d2c\">Systems integration<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Applications_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Applications of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d70560409a044fef08a6f24b39d11d72\">Applications<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_artificial_intelligence_projects\" title=\"List of artificial intelligence projects\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b22c368db35a66355e3bbe9abefb0276\">Projects<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deepfake\" title=\"Deepfake\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7165f1f34948befd7dc51d4f1941b98f\">Deepfake<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_translation\" title=\"Machine translation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14267942afd7a6873d7e227d71ba74d2\">Machine translation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_art\" title=\"Artificial intelligence art\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e7a322db732edd374428a32ee9b588e4\">Art<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_in_healthcare\" title=\"Artificial intelligence in healthcare\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a83c45f6d758fe57b1fe4cb086a660dd\">Healthcare<\/a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_in_mental_health\" title=\"Artificial intelligence in mental health\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"de7daf7fdd8ae3f7b3c22b6c78b505aa\">Mental health<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_in_government\" title=\"Artificial intelligence in government\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9448e3d83145520174134747105bd90e\">Government<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Music_and_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Music and artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"716b81931e24b5bb1fe02b1e4e6942ea\">Music<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_in_industry\" title=\"Artificial intelligence in industry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"36d21770ca3861059b0f98b63319134e\">Industry<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning_in_earth_sciences\" title=\"Machine learning in earth sciences\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c36894eb9ff1755893995191a5ab3b70\">Earth sciences<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning_in_bioinformatics\" title=\"Machine learning in bioinformatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d5ec4af63e9b8dc58cfeea658e348087\">Bioinformatics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning_in_physics\" title=\"Machine learning in physics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb87665b89561b156f33e004c9e9e3e4\">Physics<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Philosophy of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"72fe09222fe7606d43e990764f3076b4\">Philosophy<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chinese_room\" title=\"Chinese room\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"40e4f68def9042fbadc20dbe8654fdca\">Chinese room<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Friendly_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Friendly artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1d558aa453b40936ba47deaaf4ac9a5b\">Friendly AI<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_control_problem\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"AI control problem\" data-key=\"3a4b505ea3c272cedd95e33aec03d295\">Control problem<\/a>\/<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_takeover\" title=\"AI takeover\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dd96aa0bbc21e9e558b5130997c9dd87\">Takeover<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Ethics of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"608ca5c55237a263936a26d2500d09a6\">Ethics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Existential_risk_from_artificial_general_intelligence\" title=\"Existential risk from artificial general intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2417fff2c86867851343cad51bd9bfb9\">Existential risk<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Turing_test\" title=\"Turing test\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f309ecb31df135db989e843377fb9d\">Turing test<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regulation_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Regulation of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8bbabae0e8e2c822aa2ced8fec6ac219\">Regulation<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"History of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1bb00251245fc858edc9c12e32694439\">History<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Timeline of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e9d017e0ebfd460857b2be655c57964\">Timeline<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Progress_in_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Progress in artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0d8510838c2ea7a333c8e1efa7a70fea\">Progress<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_winter\" title=\"AI winter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0128870650338adbb7c06bbe1dadc305\">AI winter<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_boom\" title=\"AI boom\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb752fa087789f1afcf9c7b8c3e70e85\">AI boom<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\">Technology<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_programming_languages_for_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"List of programming languages for artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d3911d7eb588c4af3da6d6e2d106be4b\">Programming languages<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\">Glossary<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Glossary of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"441c02aab14ebdf235a3e39d66538693\">Glossary<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-navbar\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>The earliest work in computerized knowledge representation was focused on general problem-solvers such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/General_Problem_Solver\" title=\"General Problem Solver\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e16c1731c492fc53c663a4b5115d5012\">General Problem Solver<\/a> (GPS) system developed by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Allen_Newell\" title=\"Allen Newell\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92e155bb916e0a942167e5882906563e\">Allen Newell<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Herbert_A._Simon\" title=\"Herbert A. Simon\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d9e38903367abeb4880342cd666b2b0\">Herbert A. Simon<\/a> in 1959 and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Advice_Taker\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Advice Taker\" data-key=\"038b6c60d1778219916c4ddb9bcc9726\">Advice Taker<\/a> proposed by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_McCarthy_(computer_scientist)\" title=\"John McCarthy (computer scientist)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"498a2d3b08b0a194821bc61ed3b973fe\">John McCarthy<\/a> also in 1959. GPS featured data structures for planning and decomposition. The system would begin with a goal. It would then decompose that goal into sub-goals and then set out to construct strategies that could accomplish each subgoal. The Advisor Taker, on the other hand, proposed the use of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Predicate_calculus\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Predicate calculus\" data-key=\"db610cc41b3a2d0adf1cc0825662eacb\">predicate calculus<\/a> to represent <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Common_sense_reasoning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Common sense reasoning\" data-key=\"d3815139e019100faeb90fa8ac17bb16\">common sense reasoning<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>Many of the early approaches to knowledge represention in AI used graph representations and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantic_networks\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Semantic networks\" data-key=\"419cd6bc9ff224e4484496883ac2560a\">semantic networks<\/a>, similar to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_graphs\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Knowledge graphs\" data-key=\"3884bc3c4bf4d155b703751134612581\">knowledge graphs<\/a> today. In such approaches, problem solving was a form of graph traversal<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> or path-finding, as in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/A*_search_algorithm\" title=\"A* search algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b6b35f945632692d3f6a55cc3e6b8b14\">A* search algorithm<\/a>. Typical applications included robot plan-formation and game-playing.\n<\/p><p>Other researchers focused on developing <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_theorem_proving\" title=\"Automated theorem proving\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"70283ba307cba4927c2ddd74c3e82e5c\"> automated theorem-provers<\/a> for first-order logic, motivated by the use of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mathematical_logic\" title=\"Mathematical logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"20231b819e738dc63cf3e2fb7f171e0b\">mathematical logic<\/a> to formalise mathematics and to automate the proof of mathematical theorems. A major step in this direction was the development of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Resolution_prover\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Resolution prover\" data-key=\"06b27283b3d0cb312062a4bbb7dc44b4\">resolution method<\/a> by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_Alan_Robinson\" title=\"John Alan Robinson\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a6e0427a980a68ae6f2027a0bf40236\">John Alan Robinson<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>In the meanwhile, John McCarthy and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pat_Hayes\" title=\"Pat Hayes\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c87acb97fd58c19013d368bd50cfd2a\">Pat Hayes<\/a> developed the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Situation_calculus\" title=\"Situation calculus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b4054713bef9d121fb1ad13be0606a97\">situation calculus<\/a> as a logical representation of common sense knowledge about the laws of cause and effect. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cordell_Green\" title=\"Cordell Green\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1e6f4126ee883cadd0cba147649d6d52\">Cordell Green<\/a>, in turn, showed how to do robot plan-formation by applying resolution to the situation calculus. He also showed how to use resolution for question-answering and automatic programming.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In contrast, researchers at MIT rejected the resolution uniform proof procedure paradigm and advocated the procedural embedding of knowledge instead.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> The resulting conflict between the use of logical representations and the use of procedural representations was resolved in the early 1970s with the development of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logic_programming\" title=\"Logic programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e6c0943d2bbff45f5ba0d111f9a594b7\">logic programming<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Prolog\" title=\"Prolog\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fa2833d010677a23881b973b47826430\">Prolog<\/a>, using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SLD_resolution\" title=\"SLD resolution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f98e15d779c1b04243dd0bb885db14ee\">SLD resolution<\/a> to treat <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Horn_clause\" title=\"Horn clause\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"08129ab108d3d828c170b1b7c3c33116\">Horn clauses<\/a> as goal-reduction procedures.\n<\/p><p>The early development of logic programming was largely a European phenomenon. In North America, AI researchers such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ed_Feigenbaum\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Ed Feigenbaum\" data-key=\"1e972ded869bfb8e0f62b978d41b2ff0\">Ed Feigenbaum<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rick_Hayes-Roth\" title=\"Rick Hayes-Roth\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14e037037b4062e3a3b49edb6e0c2efb\">Frederick Hayes-Roth<\/a> began to advocate the representation of domain-specific knowledge rather than general-purpose reasoning.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>These efforts led to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cognitive_revolution\" title=\"Cognitive revolution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8d2a60b8baa33d04e53bcc46a31bd1bc\">cognitive revolution<\/a> in psychology and to the phase of AI focused on knowledge representation that resulted in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Expert_systems\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Expert systems\" data-key=\"44411c04edd68e6a954aa2e9e23afff0\">expert systems<\/a> in the 1970s and 80s, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Production_system_(computer_science)\" title=\"Production system (computer science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"33565c94287bb403e1350b7da6ef2672\">production systems<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Frame_language\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Frame language\" data-key=\"53fad2c78f047485fa054d1ff0dc7af5\">frame languages<\/a>, etc. Rather than general problem solvers, AI changed its focus to expert systems that could match human competence on a specific task, such as medical diagnosis.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Expert systems gave us the terminology still in use today where AI systems are divided into a <i>knowledge base<\/i>, with facts about the world and rules, and an <i>inference engine<\/i>, which applies the rules to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_base\" title=\"Knowledge base\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dae3d5f45726413ec5e9e2654dec91e8\">knowledge base<\/a> in order to answer questions and solve problems. In these early systems the knowledge base tended to be a fairly flat structure, essentially assertions about the values of variables used by the rules.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Meanwhile, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Marvin_Minsky\" title=\"Marvin Minsky\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d5677de93e5b6dc185b95ffc880ffe34\">Marvin Minsky<\/a> developed the concept of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Frame_(artificial_intelligence)\" title=\"Frame (artificial intelligence)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5de0ade622122365c91ffa3e5ebb99e7\">frame<\/a> in the mid-1970s.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> A frame is similar to an object class: It is an abstract description of a category describing things in the world, problems, and potential solutions. Frames were originally used on systems geared toward human interaction, e.g. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_language_understanding\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Natural language understanding\" data-key=\"8a18ab2d60594427abf27f5ca0823085\">understanding natural language<\/a> and the social settings in which various default expectations such as ordering food in a restaurant narrow the search space and allow the system to choose appropriate responses to dynamic situations.\n<\/p><p>It was not long before the frame communities and the rule-based researchers realized that there was a synergy between their approaches. Frames were good for representing the real world, described as classes, subclasses, slots (data values) with various constraints on possible values. Rules were good for representing and utilizing complex logic such as the process to make a medical diagnosis. Integrated systems were developed that combined frames and rules. One of the most powerful and well known was the 1983 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_Engineering_Environment\" title=\"Knowledge Engineering Environment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3904e932b8a4900690bc6b16e30943c4\">Knowledge Engineering Environment<\/a> (KEE) from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IntelliCorp_(software)\" title=\"IntelliCorp (software)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"daa50e2ed95e37611e84b57f0b6420c0\">Intellicorp<\/a>. KEE had a complete rule engine with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Forward_chaining\" title=\"Forward chaining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"816c7a2d7a6b9a461f4ff5e72cd29fa3\">forward<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backward_chaining\" title=\"Backward chaining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f5efd143343ba959844997778b3ac4b6\">backward chaining<\/a>. It also had a complete frame-based knowledge base with triggers, slots (data values), inheritance, and message passing. Although message passing originated in the object-oriented community rather than AI it was quickly embraced by AI researchers as well in environments such as KEE and in the operating systems for Lisp machines from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Symbolics\" title=\"Symbolics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed29d5fabc71fe2ef1777700ec6de5ae\">Symbolics<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Xerox\" title=\"Xerox\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01872e289c76d5ea02fd933d2d40d2ce\">Xerox<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Texas_Instruments\" title=\"Texas Instruments\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f10c46ac9407316a4cd88b1b9f29546d\">Texas Instruments<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The integration of frames, rules, and object-oriented programming was significantly driven by commercial ventures such as KEE and Symbolics spun off from various research projects. At the same time as this was occurring, there was another strain of research that was less commercially focused and was driven by mathematical logic and automated theorem proving.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2021)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> One of the most influential languages in this research was the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/KL-ONE\" title=\"KL-ONE\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bf43b88d5cde7f0f519300c8936ec806\">KL-ONE<\/a> language of the mid-'80s. KL-ONE was a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Frame_language\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Frame language\" data-key=\"53fad2c78f047485fa054d1ff0dc7af5\">frame language<\/a> that had a rigorous semantics, formal definitions for concepts such as an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Is-a\" title=\"Is-a\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ec2665fea1b418ba8bed1e5881d4d085\">Is-A relation<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> KL-ONE and languages that were influenced by it such as Loom had an automated reasoning engine that was based on formal logic rather than on IF-THEN rules. This reasoner is called the classifier. A classifier can analyze a set of declarations and infer new assertions, for example, redefine a class to be a subclass or superclass of some other class that wasn't formally specified. In this way the classifier can function as an inference engine, deducing new facts from an existing knowledge base. The classifier can also provide consistency checking on a knowledge base (which in the case of KL-ONE languages is also referred to as an Ontology).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Another area of knowledge representation research was the problem of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Commonsense_reasoning\" title=\"Commonsense reasoning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0997a9bcf171a85e9d4fb631fb9bc768\">common-sense reasoning<\/a>. One of the first realizations learned from trying to make software that can function with human natural language was that humans regularly draw on an extensive foundation of knowledge about the real world that we simply take for granted but that is not at all obvious to an artificial agent. Basic principles of common-sense physics, causality, intentions, etc. An example is the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Frame_problem\" title=\"Frame problem\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51f6d2eccfe1f077362bc8264e5cf325\">frame problem<\/a>, that in an event driven logic there need to be axioms that state things maintain position from one moment to the next unless they are moved by some external force. In order to make a true artificial intelligence agent that can <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_language_user_interface\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Natural language user interface\" data-key=\"e7c60f04f9da60566224f74c5bf313bb\">converse with humans using natural language<\/a> and can process basic statements and questions about the world, it is essential to represent this kind of knowledge.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2021)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> One of the most ambitious programs to tackle this problem was Doug Lenat's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyc\" title=\"Cyc\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"db8ad97a96ff39f5d7c763a3ef3e0b7c\">Cyc<\/a> project. Cyc established its own Frame language and had large numbers of analysts document various areas of common-sense reasoning in that language. The knowledge recorded in Cyc included common-sense models of time, causality, physics, intentions, and many others.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The starting point for knowledge representation is the <i>knowledge representation hypothesis<\/i> first formalized by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Brian_Cantwell_Smith\" title=\"Brian Cantwell Smith\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b7debcc1c643b3d6e10ef7cb1f727fe2\">Brian C. Smith<\/a> in 1985:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>Any mechanically embodied intelligent process will be comprised of structural ingredients that a) we as external observers naturally take to represent a propositional account of the knowledge that the overall process exhibits, and b) independent of such external semantic attribution, play a formal but causal and essential role in engendering the behavior that manifests that knowledge.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Currently, one of the most active areas of knowledge representation research are projects associated with the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantic_Web\" title=\"Semantic Web\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d9ae7ad3bff2f083332c721eff5ad88f\">Semantic Web<\/a>.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2021)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> The Semantic Web seeks to add a layer of semantics (meaning) on top of the current Internet. Rather than indexing web sites and pages via keywords, the Semantic Web creates large <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ontology_(information_science)\" title=\"Ontology (information science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6cd018caae9a0c95e80b08c71758343\">ontologies<\/a> of concepts. Searching for a concept will be more effective than traditional text only searches. Frame languages and automatic classification play a big part in the vision for the future Semantic Web. The automatic classification gives developers technology to provide order on a constantly evolving network of knowledge. Defining ontologies that are static and incapable of evolving on the fly would be very limiting for Internet-based systems. The classifier technology provides the ability to deal with the dynamic environment of the Internet.\n<\/p><p>Recent projects funded primarily by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Defense_Advanced_Research_Projects_Agency\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency\" data-key=\"b292921b789d71e25707a4ab51522280\">Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency<\/a> (DARPA) have integrated frame languages and classifiers with markup languages based on XML. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Resource_Description_Framework\" title=\"Resource Description Framework\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f84df3c8186c49293d7c93180e1489de\">Resource Description Framework<\/a> (RDF) provides the basic capability to define classes, subclasses, and properties of objects. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_Ontology_Language\" title=\"Web Ontology Language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4556d5da6276c12ca0c34d72be5fe7f5\">Web Ontology Language<\/a> (OWL) provides additional levels of semantics and enables integration with classification engines.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Berners-Lee_34\u201343_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Berners-Lee_34\u201343-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Overview\">Overview<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Knowledge-representation is a field of artificial intelligence that focuses on designing computer representations that capture information about the world that can be used for solving complex problems.\n<\/p><p>The justification for knowledge representation is that conventional <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Procedural_code\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Procedural code\" data-key=\"ebfd777524ae01019da25757691698ac\">procedural code<\/a> is not the best formalism to use to solve complex problems. Knowledge representation makes complex software easier to define and maintain than procedural code and can be used in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Expert_systems\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Expert systems\" data-key=\"44411c04edd68e6a954aa2e9e23afff0\">expert systems<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>For example, talking to experts in terms of business rules rather than code lessens the semantic gap between users and developers and makes development of complex systems more practical.\n<\/p><p>Knowledge representation goes hand in hand with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_reasoning\" title=\"Automated reasoning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9de14c9c0d69a0cb33e3fcbd45499d1f\">automated reasoning<\/a> because one of the main purposes of explicitly representing knowledge is to be able to reason about that knowledge, to make inferences, assert new knowledge, etc. Virtually all <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_representation_language\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Knowledge representation language\" data-key=\"d82c80a21b2bfa53c6ffc33609a61176\">knowledge representation languages<\/a> have a reasoning or inference engine as part of the system.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>A key trade-off in the design of a knowledge representation formalism is that between expressivity and practicality. The ultimate knowledge representation formalism in terms of expressive power and compactness is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/First_Order_Logic\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"First Order Logic\" data-key=\"24af0bf6ccbc8e816dacaa43c2e27e41\">First Order Logic<\/a> (FOL). There is no more powerful formalism than that used by mathematicians to define general propositions about the world. However, FOL has two drawbacks as a knowledge representation formalism: ease of use and practicality of implementation. First order logic can be intimidating even for many software developers. Languages that do not have the complete formal power of FOL can still provide close to the same expressive power with a user interface that is more practical for the average developer to understand. The issue of practicality of implementation is that FOL in some ways is too expressive. With FOL it is possible to create statements (e.g. quantification over infinite sets) that would cause a system to never terminate if it attempted to verify them.\n<\/p><p>Thus, a subset of FOL can be both easier to use and more practical to implement. This was a driving motivation behind rule-based expert systems. IF-THEN rules provide a subset of FOL but a very useful one that is also very intuitive. The history of most of the early AI knowledge representation formalisms; from databases to semantic nets to theorem provers and production systems can be viewed as various design decisions on whether to emphasize expressive power or computability and efficiency.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In a key 1993 paper on the topic, Randall Davis of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology\" title=\"Massachusetts Institute of Technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6d082af902828b7c6c2395cc18da224\">MIT<\/a> outlined five distinct roles to analyze a knowledge representation framework:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>\"A knowledge representation (KR) is most fundamentally a surrogate, a substitute for the thing itself, used to enable an entity to determine consequences by thinking rather than acting,\" <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_18-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> i.e., \"by reasoning about the world rather than taking action in it.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_18-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>\"It is a set of ontological commitments\",<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_18-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> i.e., \"an answer to the question: In what terms should I think about the world?\" <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_18-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>\"It is a fragmentary theory of intelligent reasoning, expressed in terms of three components: (i) the representation's fundamental conception of intelligent reasoning; (ii) the set of inferences the representation sanctions; and (iii) the set of inferences it recommends.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_18-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>\"It is a medium for pragmatically efficient computation\",<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_18-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> i.e., \"the computational environment in which thinking is accomplished. One contribution to this pragmatic efficiency is supplied by the guidance a representation provides for organizing information\" <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_18-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> so as \"to facilitate making the recommended inferences.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_18-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>\"It is a medium of human expression\",<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_18-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> i.e., \"a language in which we say things about the world.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_18-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Knowledge representation and reasoning are a key enabling technology for the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantic_Web\" title=\"Semantic Web\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d9ae7ad3bff2f083332c721eff5ad88f\">Semantic Web<\/a>. Languages based on the Frame model with automatic classification provide a layer of semantics on top of the existing Internet. Rather than searching via text strings as is typical today, it will be possible to define logical queries and find pages that map to those queries.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Berners-Lee_34\u201343_14-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Berners-Lee_34\u201343-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> The automated reasoning component in these systems is an engine known as the classifier. Classifiers focus on the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Subsumption_relation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Subsumption relation\" data-key=\"8c17bcb3a1016b18b2b3f8221c9af54a\">subsumption<\/a> relations in a knowledge base rather than rules. A classifier can infer new classes and dynamically change the ontology as new information becomes available. This capability is ideal for the ever-changing and evolving information space of the Internet.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The Semantic Web integrates concepts from knowledge representation and reasoning with markup languages based on XML. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Resource_Description_Framework\" title=\"Resource Description Framework\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f84df3c8186c49293d7c93180e1489de\">Resource Description Framework<\/a> (RDF) provides the basic capabilities to define knowledge-based objects on the Internet with basic features such as Is-A relations and object properties. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_Ontology_Language\" title=\"Web Ontology Language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4556d5da6276c12ca0c34d72be5fe7f5\">Web Ontology Language<\/a> (OWL) adds additional semantics and integrates with automatic classification reasoners.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Characteristics\">Characteristics<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In 1985, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ronald_J._Brachman\" title=\"Ronald J. Brachman\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"761196ca97b7209890740b07ad42990f\"> Ron Brachman<\/a> categorized the core issues for knowledge representation as follows:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Primitives. What is the underlying framework used to represent knowledge? <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantic_network\" title=\"Semantic network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"64a11922fbc4867fa40750caf3480c27\">Semantic networks<\/a> were one of the first knowledge representation primitives. Also, data structures and algorithms for general fast search. In this area, there is a strong overlap with research in data structures and algorithms in computer science. In early systems, the Lisp programming language, which was modeled after the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lambda_calculus\" title=\"Lambda calculus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"484f16801cc3264bf3cfeaa210fa377a\">lambda calculus<\/a>, was often used as a form of functional knowledge representation. Frames and Rules were the next kind of primitive. Frame languages had various mechanisms for expressing and enforcing constraints on frame data. All data in frames are stored in slots. Slots are analogous to relations in entity-relation modeling and to object properties in object-oriented modeling. Another technique for primitives is to define languages that are modeled after <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/First_Order_Logic\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"First Order Logic\" data-key=\"24af0bf6ccbc8e816dacaa43c2e27e41\">First Order Logic<\/a> (FOL). The most well known example is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Prolog\" title=\"Prolog\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fa2833d010677a23881b973b47826430\">Prolog<\/a>, but there are also many special-purpose theorem-proving environments. These environments can validate logical models and can deduce new theories from existing models. Essentially they automate the process a logician would go through in analyzing a model. Theorem-proving technology had some specific practical applications in the areas of software engineering. For example, it is possible to prove that a software program rigidly adheres to a formal logical specification.<\/li>\n<li>Meta-representation. This is also known as the issue of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reflection_(computer_programming)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Reflection (computer programming)\" data-key=\"286018871c8d02381216850d9944818a\">reflection<\/a> in computer science. It refers to the capability of a formalism to have access to information about its own state. An example would be the meta-object protocol in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smalltalk\" title=\"Smalltalk\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"35720316361402c3cc59477a157424dc\">Smalltalk<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CLOS\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"CLOS\" data-key=\"6cfeb75725364a1b455e52eb5862a302\">CLOS<\/a> that gives developers run time access to the class objects and enables them to dynamically redefine the structure of the knowledge base even at run time. Meta-representation means the knowledge representation language is itself expressed in that language. For example, in most Frame based environments all frames would be instances of a frame class. That class object can be inspected at run time, so that the object can understand and even change its internal structure or the structure of other parts of the model. In rule-based environments, the rules were also usually instances of rule classes. Part of the meta protocol for rules were the meta rules that prioritized rule firing.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Completeness_(logic)\" title=\"Completeness (logic)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b44738e9a820d0f457b1b70cc727a40b\">Incompleteness<\/a>. Traditional logic requires additional axioms and constraints to deal with the real world as opposed to the world of mathematics. Also, it is often useful to associate degrees of confidence with a statement. I.e., not simply say \"Socrates is Human\" but rather \"Socrates is Human with confidence 50%\". This was one of the early innovations from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Expert_system\" title=\"Expert system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6a738b57cf1f26d8d60f3adb61e3384\">expert systems<\/a> research which migrated to some commercial tools, the ability to associate certainty factors with rules and conclusions. Later research in this area is known as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fuzzy_logic\" title=\"Fuzzy logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b5089e9114f91c54ad40c5615094874\">fuzzy logic<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Definitions and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Universals\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Universals\" data-key=\"c15c8294b7381bbfc3ab21bfd05e3b6a\">universals<\/a> vs. facts and defaults. Universals are general statements about the world such as \"All humans are mortal\". Facts are specific examples of universals such as \"Socrates is a human and therefore mortal\". In logical terms definitions and universals are about <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Universal_quantification\" title=\"Universal quantification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"85e230ee65e0ddafa39fd23499a73bd5\">universal quantification<\/a> while facts and defaults are about <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Existential_quantification\" title=\"Existential quantification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"36eac4bfff9feb0cdf02d45ce1e186e2\">existential quantifications<\/a>. All forms of knowledge representation must deal with this aspect and most do so with some variant of set theory, modeling universals as sets and subsets and definitions as elements in those sets.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Non-monotonic_logic\" title=\"Non-monotonic logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6c13bba29e69b618970cbd7fe0b603ec\">Non-monotonic reasoning<\/a>. Non-monotonic reasoning allows various kinds of hypothetical reasoning. The system associates facts asserted with the rules and facts used to justify them and as those facts change updates the dependent knowledge as well. In rule based systems this capability is known as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Truth_maintenance_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Truth maintenance system\" data-key=\"516fd5a85c3dd28cc79cb46ae41539ca\">truth maintenance system<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Functional_completeness\" title=\"Functional completeness\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd011bccc8f1a8818f59dade11130d66\">Expressive adequacy<\/a>. The standard that Brachman and most AI researchers use to measure expressive adequacy is usually First Order Logic (FOL). Theoretical limitations mean that a full implementation of FOL is not practical. Researchers should be clear about how expressive (how much of full FOL expressive power) they intend their representation to be.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Reasoning efficiency. This refers to the run time efficiency of the system. The ability of the knowledge base to be updated and the reasoner to develop new inferences in a reasonable period of time. In some ways, this is the flip side of expressive adequacy. In general, the more powerful a representation, the more it has expressive adequacy, the less efficient its <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_reasoning\" title=\"Automated reasoning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9de14c9c0d69a0cb33e3fcbd45499d1f\">automated reasoning<\/a> engine will be. Efficiency was often an issue, especially for early applications of knowledge representation technology. They were usually implemented in interpreted environments such as Lisp, which were slow compared to more traditional platforms of the time.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Ontology_engineering\">Ontology engineering<\/span><\/h2>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main articles: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ontology_engineering\" title=\"Ontology engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a7301add05a4401a3cf8a4206c33f8ab\">Ontology engineering<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ontology_language\" title=\"Ontology language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"af996a1192f3157b936a98d48aa0f6e6\">Ontology language<\/a><\/div>\n<p>In the early years of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge-based_systems\" title=\"Knowledge-based systems\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bffcea858c3df76f05800f5f4b7ee0bd\">knowledge-based systems<\/a> the knowledge-bases were fairly small. The knowledge-bases that were meant to actually solve real problems rather than do proof of concept demonstrations needed to focus on well defined problems. So for example, not just medical diagnosis as a whole topic, but medical diagnosis of certain kinds of diseases.\n<\/p><p>As knowledge-based technology scaled up, the need for larger knowledge bases and for modular knowledge bases that could communicate and integrate with each other became apparent. This gave rise to the discipline of ontology engineering, designing and building large knowledge bases that could be used by multiple projects. One of the leading research projects in this area was the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyc\" title=\"Cyc\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"db8ad97a96ff39f5d7c763a3ef3e0b7c\">Cyc<\/a> project. Cyc was an attempt to build a huge encyclopedic knowledge base that would contain not just expert knowledge but common-sense knowledge. In designing an artificial intelligence agent, it was soon realized that representing common-sense knowledge, knowledge that humans simply take for granted, was essential to make an AI that could interact with humans using natural language. Cyc was meant to address this problem. The language they defined was known as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CycL\" title=\"CycL\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"271556a01d4479b450d28292055ec508\">CycL<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>After CycL, a number of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ontology_language\" title=\"Ontology language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"af996a1192f3157b936a98d48aa0f6e6\">ontology languages<\/a> have been developed. Most are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Declarative_language\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Declarative language\" data-key=\"88dd948600cb98be63f0552d0e089546\">declarative languages<\/a>, and are either <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Frame_language\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Frame language\" data-key=\"53fad2c78f047485fa054d1ff0dc7af5\">frame languages<\/a>, or are based on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/First-order_logic\" title=\"First-order logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0440e828c0aa870ff198a30aba920282\">first-order logic<\/a>. Modularity\u2014the ability to define boundaries around specific domains and problem spaces\u2014is essential for these languages because as stated by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tom_Gruber\" title=\"Tom Gruber\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42ad27588527775abf2bab7165be027b\">Tom Gruber<\/a>, \"Every ontology is a treaty- a social agreement among people with common motive in sharing.\" There are always many competing and differing views that make any general-purpose ontology impossible. A general-purpose ontology would have to be applicable in any domain and different areas of knowledge need to be unified.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-25\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>There is a long history of work attempting to build ontologies for a variety of task domains, e.g., an ontology for liquids,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-26\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup> the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lumped_element_model\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Lumped element model\" data-key=\"8307cb22e5e7a63a73efe99e9d31c4bb\">lumped element model<\/a> widely used in representing electronic circuits (e.g.,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup>), as well as ontologies for time, belief, and even programming itself. Each of these offers a way to see some part of the world.\n<\/p><p>The lumped element model, for instance, suggests that we think of circuits in terms of components with connections between them, with signals flowing instantaneously along the connections. This is a useful view, but not the only possible one. A different ontology arises if we need to attend to the electrodynamics in the device: Here signals propagate at finite speed and an object (like a resistor) that was previously viewed as a single component with an I\/O behavior may now have to be thought of as an extended medium through which an electromagnetic wave flows.\n<\/p><p>Ontologies can of course be written down in a wide variety of languages and notations (e.g., logic, LISP, etc.); the essential information is not the form of that language but the content, i.e., the set of concepts offered as a way of thinking about the world. Simply put, the important part is notions like connections and components, not the choice between writing them as predicates or LISP constructs.\n<\/p><p>The commitment made selecting one or another ontology can produce a sharply different view of the task at hand. Consider the difference that arises in selecting the lumped element view of a circuit rather than the electrodynamic view of the same device. As a second example, medical diagnosis viewed in terms of rules (e.g., <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MYCIN\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"MYCIN\" data-key=\"44771f0a2fc43201e554cb520104e81c\">MYCIN<\/a>) looks substantially different from the same task viewed in terms of frames (e.g., INTERNIST). Where MYCIN sees the medical world as made up of empirical associations connecting symptom to disease, INTERNIST sees a set of prototypes, in particular prototypical diseases, to be matched against the case at hand.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alphabet_of_human_thought\" title=\"Alphabet of human thought\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00c387fd101dccca083eae37b441fd51\">Alphabet of human thought<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Belief_revision\" title=\"Belief revision\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e9c074365d370fd02c83e831818f51a1\">Belief revision<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chunking_(psychology)\" title=\"Chunking (psychology)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"673d2856f54ad043aaa28a2084fa6595\">Chunking (psychology)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Commonsense_knowledge_(artificial_intelligence)\" title=\"Commonsense knowledge (artificial intelligence)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"16b81fa933cef3a57fa57bbf1cdeff04\">Commonsense knowledge base<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conceptual_graph\" title=\"Conceptual graph\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d57f713babf99ed6061091295e08d52\">Conceptual graph<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DATR\" title=\"DATR\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6617e4fb6d53889b0bdce01f53fd0d82\">DATR<\/a>, a language for lexical knowledge representation<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/FO(.)\" title=\"FO(.)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"95cdb9717c2155afe77040f58cd74def\">FO(.)<\/a>, a KR language based on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/First-order_logic\" title=\"First-order logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0440e828c0aa870ff198a30aba920282\">First-order logic<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logic_programming\" title=\"Logic programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e6c0943d2bbff45f5ba0d111f9a594b7\">Logic programming<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logico-linguistic_modeling\" title=\"Logico-linguistic modeling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dec30a413e1386188d714770cd451af6\">Logico-linguistic modeling<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_graph\" title=\"Knowledge graph\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2cf094fb66cbb67506c8816ebe34f2ad\">Knowledge graph<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_management\" title=\"Knowledge management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f2fb2a531340ab3802bff82a8cdaff7\">Knowledge management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mind_map\" title=\"Mind map\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c33e529161a6efd850ce10a0a53efbce\">Mind map<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantic_technology\" title=\"Semantic technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"69f453de5528324adcae34ff440e9b18\">Semantic technology<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Valuation-based_system\" title=\"Valuation-based system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"06d1cd7bb47d387e849fff419694b23e\">Valuation-based system<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSchankAbelson1977\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Schank, Roger; Abelson, Robert (1977). <i>Scripts, Plans, Goals, and Understanding: An Inquiry Into Human Knowledge Structures<\/i>. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Scripts%2C+Plans%2C+Goals%2C+and+Understanding%3A+An+Inquiry+Into+Human+Knowledge+Structures&amp;rft.pub=Lawrence+Erlbaum+Associates%2C+Inc.&amp;rft.date=1977&amp;rft.aulast=Schank&amp;rft.aufirst=Roger&amp;rft.au=Abelson%2C+Robert&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge+representation+and+reasoning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDoranMichie1966\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Doran, J. E.; Michie, D. (1966-09-20). \"Experiments with the Graph Traverser program\". <i>Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A<\/i>. <b>294<\/b> (1437): 235\u2013259. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/1966RSPSA.294..235D\" target=\"_blank\">1966RSPSA.294..235D<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098%2Frspa.1966.0205\" target=\"_blank\">10.1098\/rspa.1966.0205<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:21698093\" target=\"_blank\">21698093<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Proc.+R.+Soc.+Lond.+A&amp;rft.atitle=Experiments+with+the+Graph+Traverser+program&amp;rft.volume=294&amp;rft.issue=1437&amp;rft.pages=235-259&amp;rft.date=1966-09-20&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A21698093%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspa.1966.0205&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1966RSPSA.294..235D&amp;rft.aulast=Doran&amp;rft.aufirst=J.+E.&amp;rft.au=Michie%2C+D.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge+representation+and+reasoning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGreen\" class=\"citation conference cs1\">Green, Cordell. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ijcai.org\/Proceedings\/69\/Papers\/023.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Application of Theorem Proving to Problem Solving<\/i><\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. IJCAI 1969.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=conference&amp;rft.btitle=Application+of+Theorem+Proving+to+Problem+Solving&amp;rft.aulast=Green&amp;rft.aufirst=Cordell&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ijcai.org%2FProceedings%2F69%2FPapers%2F023.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge+representation+and+reasoning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Hewitt, C., 2009. Inconsistency robustness in logic programs. arXiv preprint arXiv:0904.3036.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKowalski1986\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Kowalski, Robert (1986). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1145\/324634.325168\" target=\"_blank\">\"The limitation of logic\"<\/a>. <i>Proceedings of the 1986 ACM fourteenth annual conference on Computer science - CSC '86<\/i>. pp.&#160;7\u201313. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145%2F324634.325168\" target=\"_blank\">10.1145\/324634.325168<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>0-89791-177-6<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:17211581\" target=\"_blank\">17211581<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=The+limitation+of+logic&amp;rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+1986+ACM+fourteenth+annual+conference+on+Computer+science+-+CSC+%2786&amp;rft.pages=7-13&amp;rft.date=1986&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A17211581%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F324634.325168&amp;rft.isbn=0-89791-177-6&amp;rft.aulast=Kowalski&amp;rft.aufirst=Robert&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdl.acm.org%2Fdoi%2Fpdf%2F10.1145%2F324634.325168&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge+representation+and+reasoning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-6\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFNilsson1995\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Nilsson, Nils (1995). \"Eye on the Prize\". <i>AI Magazine<\/i>. <b>16<\/b>: 2.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=AI+Magazine&amp;rft.atitle=Eye+on+the+Prize&amp;rft.volume=16&amp;rft.pages=2&amp;rft.date=1995&amp;rft.aulast=Nilsson&amp;rft.aufirst=Nils&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge+representation+and+reasoning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-7\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHayes-RothWatermanLenat1983\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Hayes-Roth, Frederick; Waterman, Donald; Lenat, Douglas (1983). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/buildingexpertsy00temd\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Building Expert Systems<\/i><\/a>. 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Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cs.umd.edu\/~golbeck\/LBSC690\/SemanticWeb.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on April 24, 2013.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&amp;rft.atitle=The+Semantic+Web+%E2%80%93+A+new+form+of+Web+content+that+is+meaningful+to+computers+will+unleash+a+revolution+of+new+possibilities&amp;rft.volume=284&amp;rft.issue=5&amp;rft.pages=34-43&amp;rft.date=2001-05-17&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0501-34&amp;rft.aulast=Berners-Lee&amp;rft.aufirst=Tim&amp;rft.au=Hendler%2C+James&amp;rft.au=Lassila%2C+Ora&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.umd.edu%2F~golbeck%2FLBSC690%2FSemanticWeb.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge+representation+and+reasoning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-15\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKnublauchOberleTetlowWallace2006\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Knublauch, Holger; Oberle, Daniel; Tetlow, Phil; Wallace, Evan (2006-03-09). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2001\/sw\/BestPractices\/SE\/ODSD\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Semantic Web Primer for Object-Oriented Software Developers\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/W3C\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"W3C\" data-key=\"9ac7cb7a1dd566b78bc8d5b6ab1ccd27\">W3C<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180106172902\/http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2001\/sw\/BestPractices\/SE\/ODSD\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2018-01-06<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2008-07-30<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=A+Semantic+Web+Primer+for+Object-Oriented+Software+Developers&amp;rft.pub=W3C&amp;rft.date=2006-03-09&amp;rft.aulast=Knublauch&amp;rft.aufirst=Holger&amp;rft.au=Oberle%2C+Daniel&amp;rft.au=Tetlow%2C+Phil&amp;rft.au=Wallace%2C+Evan&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2001%2Fsw%2FBestPractices%2FSE%2FODSD%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge+representation+and+reasoning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-16\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHayes-RothWatermanLenat1983\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Hayes-Roth, Frederick; Waterman, Donald; Lenat, Douglas (1983). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/buildingexpertsy00temd\/page\/6\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Building Expert Systems<\/i><\/a>. Addison-Wesley. pp.&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/buildingexpertsy00temd\/page\/6\" target=\"_blank\">6\u20137<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-201-10686-2<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Building+Expert+Systems&amp;rft.pages=6-7&amp;rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&amp;rft.date=1983&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-201-10686-2&amp;rft.aulast=Hayes-Roth&amp;rft.aufirst=Frederick&amp;rft.au=Waterman%2C+Donald&amp;rft.au=Lenat%2C+Douglas&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbuildingexpertsy00temd%2Fpage%2F6&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge+representation+and+reasoning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLevesqueBrachman1985\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Levesque, Hector; Brachman, Ronald (1985). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/readingsinknowle00brac\/page\/49\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Fundamental Tradeoff in Knowledge Representation and Reasoning\"<\/a>. In Ronald Brachman and Hector J. Levesque (ed.). <i>Readings in Knowledge Representation<\/i>. Morgan Kaufmann. p.&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/readingsinknowle00brac\/page\/49\" target=\"_blank\">49<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-934613-01-9<\/bdi>. <q>The good news in reducing KR service to theorem proving is that we now have a very clear, very specific notion of what the KR system should do; the bad new is that it is also clear that the services can not be provided... deciding whether or not a sentence in FOL is a theorem... is unsolvable.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=A+Fundamental+Tradeoff+in+Knowledge+Representation+and+Reasoning&amp;rft.btitle=Readings+in+Knowledge+Representation&amp;rft.pages=49&amp;rft.pub=Morgan+Kaufmann&amp;rft.date=1985&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-934613-01-9&amp;rft.aulast=Levesque&amp;rft.aufirst=Hector&amp;rft.au=Brachman%2C+Ronald&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Freadingsinknowle00brac%2Fpage%2F49&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge+representation+and+reasoning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:0-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_18-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_18-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_18-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_18-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_18-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_18-5\"><sup><i><b>f<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_18-6\"><sup><i><b>g<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_18-7\"><sup><i><b>h<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_18-8\"><sup><i><b>i<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_18-9\"><sup><i><b>j<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_18-10\"><sup><i><b>k<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDavisShrobeSzolovits1993\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Davis, Randall; Shrobe, Howard; Szolovits, Peter (Spring 1993). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.aaai.org\/ojs\/index.php\/aimagazine\/article\/view\/1029\/947\" target=\"_blank\">\"What Is a Knowledge Representation?\"<\/a>. <i>AI Magazine<\/i>. <b>14<\/b> (1): 17\u201333. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120406094445\/http:\/\/www.aaai.org\/ojs\/index.php\/aimagazine\/article\/view\/1029\/947\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2012-04-06<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2011-03-23<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=AI+Magazine&amp;rft.atitle=What+Is+a+Knowledge+Representation%3F&amp;rft.ssn=spring&amp;rft.volume=14&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=17-33&amp;rft.date=1993&amp;rft.aulast=Davis&amp;rft.aufirst=Randall&amp;rft.au=Shrobe%2C+Howard&amp;rft.au=Szolovits%2C+Peter&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aaai.org%2Fojs%2Findex.php%2Faimagazine%2Farticle%2Fview%2F1029%2F947&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge+representation+and+reasoning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-19\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMacgregor1999\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Macgregor, Robert (August 13, 1999). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131025063241\/http:\/\/www.isi.edu\/isd\/LOOM\/papers\/macgregor\/Loom_Retrospective.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Retrospective on Loom\"<\/a>. <i>isi.edu<\/i>. Information Sciences Institute. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.isi.edu\/isd\/LOOM\/papers\/macgregor\/Loom_Retrospective.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 25 October 2013<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">10 December<\/span> 2013<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=isi.edu&amp;rft.atitle=Retrospective+on+Loom&amp;rft.date=1999-08-13&amp;rft.aulast=Macgregor&amp;rft.aufirst=Robert&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.isi.edu%2Fisd%2FLOOM%2Fpapers%2Fmacgregor%2FLoom_Retrospective.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge+representation+and+reasoning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-20\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKnublauchOberleTetlowWallace2006\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Knublauch, Holger; Oberle, Daniel; Tetlow, Phil; Wallace, Evan (2006-03-09). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2001\/sw\/BestPractices\/SE\/ODSD\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Semantic Web Primer for Object-Oriented Software Developers\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/W3C\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"W3C\" data-key=\"9ac7cb7a1dd566b78bc8d5b6ab1ccd27\">W3C<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180106172902\/http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2001\/sw\/BestPractices\/SE\/ODSD\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2018-01-06<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2008-07-30<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=A+Semantic+Web+Primer+for+Object-Oriented+Software+Developers&amp;rft.pub=W3C&amp;rft.date=2006-03-09&amp;rft.aulast=Knublauch&amp;rft.aufirst=Holger&amp;rft.au=Oberle%2C+Daniel&amp;rft.au=Tetlow%2C+Phil&amp;rft.au=Wallace%2C+Evan&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2001%2Fsw%2FBestPractices%2FSE%2FODSD%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge+representation+and+reasoning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-21\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBrachman1985\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Brachman, Ron (1985). \"Introduction\". In Ronald Brachman and Hector J. Levesque (ed.). <span class=\"cs1-lock-registration\" title=\"Free registration required\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/readingsinknowle00brac\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Readings in Knowledge Representation<\/i><\/a><\/span>. Morgan Kaufmann. pp.&#160;XVI\u2013XVII. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-934613-01-9<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Introduction&amp;rft.btitle=Readings+in+Knowledge+Representation&amp;rft.pages=XVI-XVII&amp;rft.pub=Morgan+Kaufmann&amp;rft.date=1985&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-934613-01-9&amp;rft.aulast=Brachman&amp;rft.aufirst=Ron&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Freadingsinknowle00brac&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge+representation+and+reasoning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-22\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBih2006\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Bih, Joseph (2006). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cse.unr.edu\/~bebis\/CS365\/Papers\/FuzzyLogic.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Paradigm Shift: An Introduction to Fuzzy Logic\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>IEEE Potentials<\/i>. <b>25<\/b>: 6\u201321. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2FMP.2006.1635021\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/MP.2006.1635021<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:15451765\" target=\"_blank\">15451765<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140612022317\/http:\/\/www.cse.unr.edu\/~bebis\/CS365\/Papers\/FuzzyLogic.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 12 June 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 December<\/span> 2013<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=IEEE+Potentials&amp;rft.atitle=Paradigm+Shift%3A+An+Introduction+to+Fuzzy+Logic&amp;rft.volume=25&amp;rft.pages=6-21&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FMP.2006.1635021&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A15451765%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Bih&amp;rft.aufirst=Joseph&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cse.unr.edu%2F~bebis%2FCS365%2FPapers%2FFuzzyLogic.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge+representation+and+reasoning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-23\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFZlatarva1992\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Zlatarva, Nellie (1992). \"Truth Maintenance Systems and their Application for Verifying Expert System Knowledge Bases\". <i>Artificial Intelligence Review<\/i>. <b>6<\/b>: 67\u2013110. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2Fbf00155580\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/bf00155580<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:24696160\" target=\"_blank\">24696160<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Artificial+Intelligence+Review&amp;rft.atitle=Truth+Maintenance+Systems+and+their+Application+for+Verifying+Expert+System+Knowledge+Bases&amp;rft.volume=6&amp;rft.pages=67-110&amp;rft.date=1992&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fbf00155580&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A24696160%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Zlatarva&amp;rft.aufirst=Nellie&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge+representation+and+reasoning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-24\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLevesqueBrachman1985\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Levesque, Hector; Brachman, Ronald (1985). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/readingsinknowle00brac\/page\/41\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Fundamental Tradeoff in Knowledge Representation and Reasoning\"<\/a>. In Ronald Brachman and Hector J. Levesque (ed.). <i>Readings in Knowledge Representation<\/i>. Morgan Kaufmann. pp.&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/readingsinknowle00brac\/page\/41\" target=\"_blank\">41\u201370<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-934613-01-9<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=A+Fundamental+Tradeoff+in+Knowledge+Representation+and+Reasoning&amp;rft.btitle=Readings+in+Knowledge+Representation&amp;rft.pages=41-70&amp;rft.pub=Morgan+Kaufmann&amp;rft.date=1985&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-934613-01-9&amp;rft.aulast=Levesque&amp;rft.aufirst=Hector&amp;rft.au=Brachman%2C+Ronald&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Freadingsinknowle00brac%2Fpage%2F41&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge+representation+and+reasoning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-25\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Russell, Stuart J.; Norvig, Peter (2010), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_Intelligence:_A_Modern_Approach\" title=\"Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9dbb28c25594c66d5bac1148dc06e5f6\">Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach<\/a> (3rd ed.), Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-13-604259-7, p. 437-439<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-26\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Hayes P, Naive physics I: Ontology for liquids. University of Essex report, 1978, Essex, UK.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-27\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Davis R, Shrobe H E, Representing Structure and Behavior of Digital Hardware, IEEE Computer, Special Issue on Knowledge Representation, 16(10):75-82.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ronald_J._Brachman\" title=\"Ronald J. Brachman\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"761196ca97b7209890740b07ad42990f\">Ronald J. Brachman<\/a>; <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20040110031608\/http:\/\/citeseer.nj.nec.com\/context\/177306\/0\" target=\"_blank\">What IS-A is and isn't. An Analysis of Taxonomic Links in Semantic Networks<\/a>; IEEE Computer, 16 (10); October 1983<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ronald_J._Brachman\" title=\"Ronald J. Brachman\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"761196ca97b7209890740b07ad42990f\">Ronald J. Brachman<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hector_J._Levesque\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hector J. Levesque\" data-key=\"d683137bc61ede5b6a6e2f6c997094a0\">Hector J. Levesque<\/a> <i>Knowledge Representation and Reasoning<\/i>, Morgan Kaufmann, 2004 <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;978-1-55860-932-7<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ronald_J._Brachman\" title=\"Ronald J. Brachman\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"761196ca97b7209890740b07ad42990f\">Ronald J. Brachman<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hector_J._Levesque\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hector J. Levesque\" data-key=\"d683137bc61ede5b6a6e2f6c997094a0\">Hector J. Levesque<\/a> (eds) <i>Readings in Knowledge Representation<\/i>, Morgan Kaufmann, 1985, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-934613-01-X<\/li>\n<li>Chein, M., Mugnier, M.-L. (2009),<i><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.lirmm.fr\/gbkrbook\/\" target=\"_blank\">Graph-based Knowledge Representation: Computational Foundations of Conceptual Graphs<\/a><\/i>, Springer, 2009,<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;978-1-84800-285-2.<\/li>\n<li>Randall Davis, Howard Shrobe, and Peter Szolovits; <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/citeseer.ist.psu.edu\/davis93what.html\" target=\"_blank\">What Is a Knowledge Representation?<\/a> AI Magazine, 14(1):17-33,1993<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ronald_Fagin\" title=\"Ronald Fagin\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"081bd890b6d07cfabea2364233db1f39\">Ronald Fagin<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Joseph_Y._Halpern\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Joseph Y. Halpern\" data-key=\"b0b411545a2b97bd4a0c7b5394a46917\">Joseph Y. Halpern<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Yoram_Moses\" title=\"Yoram Moses\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a671003f78ccf81b00c726227484174\">Yoram Moses<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Moshe_Y._Vardi\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Moshe Y. Vardi\" data-key=\"f8451ef55809a44ee9b110f3d68a49be\">Moshe Y. Vardi<\/a> <i>Reasoning About Knowledge<\/i>, MIT Press, 1995, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-262-06162-7<\/li>\n<li>Jean-Luc Hainaut, Jean-Marc Hick, Vincent Englebert, Jean Henrard, Didier Roland: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20070211062250\/http:\/\/www.informatik.uni-trier.de\/~ley\/db\/conf\/er\/HainautHEHR96.html\" target=\"_blank\">Understanding Implementations of IS-A Relations<\/a>. ER 1996: 42-57<\/li>\n<li>Hermann Helbig: <i><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/14.139.206.50:8080\/jspui\/bitstream\/1\/2412\/1\/Helbig,%20Hermann%20-%20Knowledge%20Representation%20and%20the%20Semantics%20of%20Natural%20Language.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Knowledge Representation and the Semantics of Natural Language<\/a><\/i>, Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York 2006<\/li>\n<li>Frank van Harmelen, Vladimir Lifschitz and Bruce Porter: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dai.fmph.uniba.sk\/~sefranek\/kri\/handbook\/handbook_of_kr.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Handbook of Knowledge Representation<\/a> 2007.<\/li>\n<li>Arthur B. Markman: <i>Knowledge Representation<\/i> Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1998<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_F._Sowa\" title=\"John F. Sowa\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"775c4a7479a275442f9d81cf1af575ee\">John F. Sowa<\/a>: <i>Knowledge Representation<\/i>: Logical, Philosophical, and Computational Foundations. Brooks\/Cole: New York, 2000<\/li>\n<li>Adrian Walker, Michael McCord, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_F._Sowa\" title=\"John F. Sowa\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"775c4a7479a275442f9d81cf1af575ee\">John F. Sowa<\/a>, and Walter G. Wilson: <i>Knowledge Systems and Prolog<\/i>, Second Edition, Addison-Wesley, 1990<\/li>\n<li>Mary-Anne Williams and Hans Rott: \"Frontiers in Belief Revision, Kluwer\", 2001.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/medg.lcs.mit.edu\/ftp\/psz\/k-rep.html\" target=\"_blank\">What is a Knowledge Representation?<\/a> by Randall Davis and others<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.makhfi.com\/KCM_intro.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Introduction to Knowledge Modeling<\/a> by Pejman Makhfi<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.inf.unibz.it\/~franconi\/dl\/course\/\" target=\"_blank\">Introduction to Description Logics course<\/a> by Enrico Franconi, Faculty of Computer Science, Free University of Bolzano, Italy<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ccl.kuleuven.ac.be\/LKR\/html\/datr.html\" target=\"_blank\">DATR Lexical knowledge representation language<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.isi.edu\/isd\/LOOM\/LOOM-HOME.html\" target=\"_blank\">Loom Project Home Page<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/kr.org\" target=\"_blank\">Principles of Knowledge Representation and Reasoning Incorporated <\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.research.att.com\/sw\/tools\/classic\/tm\/ijcai-95-with-scenario.html\" target=\"_blank\">Description Logic in Practice: A CLASSIC Application<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20031202202839\/http:\/\/www.dfki.uni-kl.de\/ruleml\/\" target=\"_blank\">The Rule Markup Initiative<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/nelements.org\" target=\"_blank\">Nelements KOS<\/a> - a non-free 3d knowledge representation system<\/li><\/ul>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319\" \/><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1450\nCached time: 20240109111906\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 0.532 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.754 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 3880\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 110001\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 4363\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 16\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 8\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 101720\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.330\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 7638529\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 638.465 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>34.35% 219.287 1 Template:Reflist\n16.36% 104.458 9 Template:Cite_book\n13.87% 88.527 1 Template:Commons_category\n13.31% 84.981 1 Template:Sister_project\n12.94% 82.590 1 Template:Side_box\n12.92% 82.471 1 Template:Artificial_intelligence\n12.58% 80.305 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists\n10.24% 65.374 1 Template:Short_description\n 7.66% 48.919 3 Template:Citation_needed\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:16920-0!canonical and timestamp 20240109111905 and revision id 1194520410. Rendering was triggered because: api-parse\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning\" data-key=\"1f39a572a7265863b802980dc3015f78\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110164854\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.203 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.589 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 132563\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 525.157 1 wikipedia:Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning\n100.00% 525.157 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:13965-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110164854 and revision id 51252. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","0d6f53b8041934738836e4f80a4a6a5c_images":[],"0d6f53b8041934738836e4f80a4a6a5c_timestamp":1704907017,"68d5914491fa43799d716e60c5a9f1b1_type":"article","68d5914491fa43799d716e60c5a9f1b1_title":"Inventory control","68d5914491fa43799d716e60c5a9f1b1_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Inventory_control","68d5914491fa43799d716e60c5a9f1b1_plaintext":"\n\nInventory controlFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchEnsuring the correct level of stock\nInventory control or stock control can be broadly defined as \"the activity of checking a shop's stock\".[1] It is the process of ensuring that the right amount of supply is available within a business.[2] However, a more focused definition takes into account the more science-based, methodical practice of not only verifying a business's inventory but also maximising the amount of profit from the least amount of inventory investment without affecting customer satisfaction.[3] Other facets of inventory control include forecasting future demand, supply chain management, production control, financial flexibility, purchasing data, loss prevention and turnover, and customer satisfaction.[4] \nAn extension of inventory control is the inventory control system. This may come in the form of a technological system and its programmed software used for managing various aspects of inventory problems,[5] or it may refer to a methodology (which may include the use of technological barriers) for handling loss prevention in a business.[6][7] The inventory control system allows for companies to assess their current state concerning assets, account balances, and financial reports.[2]\n\n\n\nInventory control management \nAn inventory control system is used to keep inventories in a desired state while continuing to adequately supply customers,[8][9] and its success depends on maintaining clear records on a periodic or perpetual basis.[9][10] \nInventory management software often plays an important role in the modern inventory control system, providing timely and accurate analytical, optimization, and forecasting techniques for complex inventory management problems.[11][12] Typical features of this type of software include:[9][12]\n\ninventory tracking and forecasting tools that use selectable algorithms and review cycles to identify anomalies and other areas of concern\ninventory optimization\npurchase and replenishment tools that include automated and manual replenishment components, inventory calculations, and lot size optimization\nlead time variability management\nsafety stock calculation and forecasting\ninventory cost management\nshelf-life and slow-mover logic\nmultiple location support\nMobile\/Moving Inventory Support\nThrough this functionality, a business may better detail what has sold, how quickly, and at what price, for example. Reports could be used to predict when to stock up on extra products around a holiday or to make decisions about special offers, discontinuing products, and so on. \nInventory control techniques often rely upon barcodes and radio-frequency identification (RFID) tags to provide automatic identification of inventory objects\u2014including but not limited to merchandise, consumables, fixed assets, circulating tools, library books, and capital equipment\u2014which in turn can be processed with inventory management software.[13] A new trend in inventory management is to label inventory and assets with a QR Code, which can then be read with smart-phones to keep track of inventory count and movement.[14] These new systems are especially useful for field service operations, where an employee needs to record inventory transaction or look up inventory stock in the field, away from the computers and hand-held scanners.\nThe control of inventory involves managing the physical quantities as well as the costing of the goods as it flows through the supply chain. In managing the cost prices of the goods throughout the supply chain, several costing methods are employed:\n\nRetail method\nWeighted Average Price method\nFIFO (First In First Out) method\nLIFO (Last In First Out) method\nLPP (Last Purchase Price) method\nBNM (Bottle neck method)\nThe calculation can be done for different periods. If the calculation is done on a monthly basis, then it is referred to the periodic method. In this method, the available stock is calculated by:\nADD Stock at beginning of period\r\n\nADD Stock purchased during the period\r\n\nAVERAGE total cost by total qty to arrive at the Average Cost of Goods for the period.\n\nThis Average Cost Price is applied to all movements and adjustments in that period. \r\n\nEnding stock in qty is arrived at by Applying all the changes in qty to the Available balance. \r\n\nMultiplying the stock balance in qty by the Average cost gives the Stock cost at the end of the period.\n\nUsing the perpetual method, the calculation is done upon every purchase transaction.\nThus, the calculation is the same based on the periodic calculation whether by period (periodic) or by transaction (perpetual).\nThe only difference is the 'periodicity' or scope of the calculation.\n\nPeriodic is done monthly\nPerpetual is done for the duration of the purchase until the next purchase\nIn practice, the daily averaging has been used to closely approximate the perpetual method.\n6. Bottle neck method (depends on proper planning support)\n\nAdvantages and disadvantages \nInventory control systems have advantages and disadvantages, based on what style of system is being run. A purely periodic (physical) inventory control system takes \"an actual physical count and valuation of all inventory on hand ... at the close of an accounting period,\"[15] whereas a perpetual inventory control system takes an initial count of an entire inventory and then closely monitors any additions and deletions as they occur.[15][10] Various advantages and disadvantages, in comparison, include:\n\nPeriodic is technically the more accurate as it considers both counted and valued inventory.[15]\nPeriodic is more time-consuming than perpetual.[15]\nPerpetual can lower the cost of carrying inventory vs. periodic.[10]\nPerpetual is typically more costly to run than periodic.[10]\nPerpetual needs to be verified from time to time against an actual physical count, due to scrap, human error, theft, and other variables.[15][16]\nVs. inventory management \nWhile it is sometimes used interchangeably, inventory management and inventory control deal with different aspects of inventory.\nInventory management is a broader term pertaining to the regulation of all inventory aspects, from what is already present in the warehouse to how the inventory arrived and where the product's final destination will be.[2] This management involves tracking field inventory throughout the supply chain, from sourcing to order fulfilment. It encompasses the entire process of procuring, storing, and profiting off merchandise or services.[2]\nInventory control is the process of managing stock once it arrives at a warehouse, store or other storage location. It is solely concerned with regulating what is already present, and involves planning for sales and stock-outs, optimizing inventory for maximum benefit and preventing the pile-up of dead stock.[17]\n\nBusiness models \nJust-in-time inventory (JIT), vendor managed inventory (VMI) and customer managed inventory (CMI) are a few of the popular models being employed by organizations looking to have greater stock management control.\nJIT is a model that attempts to replenish inventory for organizations when the inventory is required. The model attempts to avoid excess inventory and its associated costs. As a result, companies receive inventory only when the need for more stock is approaching.\nVMI (vendor managed inventory) and (co-managed inventory) are two business models that adhere to the JIT inventory principles. VMI gives the vendor in a vendor\/customer relationship the ability to monitor, plan and control inventory for their customers. Customers relinquish the order making responsibilities in exchange for timely inventory replenishment that increases organizational efficiency.\nCMI allows the customer to order and control their inventory from their vendors\/suppliers. Both VMI and CMI benefit the vendor as well as the customer. Vendors see a significant increase in sales due to increased inventory turns and cost savings realized by their customers, while customers realize similar benefits.\n\nSee also \n\nAutomated identification and data capture&#160;\u2013 Methods of automatically identifying objects by computer systemPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets \nDocument automation&#160;\u2013 Design of systems for electronic documents\nEconomic lot scheduling problem&#160;\u2013 Problem in operations management and inventory theory\nEconomic order quantity&#160;\u2013 Production scheduling model\nInventory theory&#160;\u2013 Mathematical study concerned with the design of inventory systemsPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback \nNewsvendor model&#160;\u2013 Mathematical model to assist inventory levels\nScan-based trading&#160;\u2013 inventory systemPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback \nStorage management system&#160;\u2013 Data storage techniquePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets \nStock management&#160;\u2013 Function of understanding stock mix of a company and the different demands on that stockPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets \nSupply chain management&#160;\u2013 Management of the flow of goods and services\nVendor-managed inventory&#160;\u2013 Inventory management method\nWarehouse management system&#160;\u2013 Software designed to support and optimize warehouse and distribution center management\n\nReferences \n\n\n^ \"stock control\". Macmillan Dictionary. Macmillan Publishers Limited. Retrieved 21 June 2018 . \n\n^ a b c d Schwarz, Lisa (18 September 2018). \"Essential Guide to Inventory Control\". \n\n^ Lewis, C. (2012). \"Chapter 1: Demand forecasting and inventory control\". Demand Forecasting and Inventory Control. Routledge. p.&#160;3\u201320. ISBN&#160;9781136346835. \n\n^ Axs\u00e4ter, S. (2015). \"Chapter 1: Introduction\". Inventory Control. Springer. p.&#160;1\u20136. ISBN&#160;9783319157290. \n\n^ Axs\u00e4ter, S. (2015). \"Chapter 2: Forecasting\". Inventory Control. Springer. p.&#160;7\u201335. ISBN&#160;9783319157290. \n\n^ Hayes, R. (2014). Retail Security and Loss Prevention. Butterworth-Heinemann. p.&#160;30. ISBN&#160;9781483296005. \n\n^ Wesley, R.L.; Wanat, J.A. (2016). A Guide to Internal Loss Prevention. Elsevier. pp.&#160;81\u20133. ISBN&#160;9781483135731. \n\n^ Chorafas, D.N., ed. (1965). \"Chapter 13: Specifications for Inventory Control\". Systems and Simulation. Mathematics in Science and Engineering. Vol.&#160;14. Elsevier. pp.&#160;233\u201352. doi:10.1016\/S0076-5392(09)60019-9. ISBN&#160;9780123749185. \n\n^ a b c Axs\u00e4ter, S. (2015). \"Chapter 11: Implementation\". Inventory Control. Springer. p.&#160;223\u201334. ISBN&#160;9783319157290. \n\n^ a b c d Wild, R. (2002). Essentials of Operations Management. Cengage Learning. pp.&#160;332\u20133. ISBN&#160;9781844800520. \n\n^ Azadivar, F.; Rangarajan, A. (2016). \"10.6 Inventory Management in Practice\". In Ravindran, A.R. (ed.). Operations Research and Management Science Handbook. CRC Press. pp.&#160;10-34\u201310-35. ISBN&#160;9781420009712. \n\n^ a b Donath, B.; Mazel, J.; Dubin, C.; Patterson, P., eds. (2002). \"Part II Inventory Management - Chapter 4: Software and Technology\". The IOMA Handbook of Logistics and Inventory Management. John Wiley &amp; Sons. pp.&#160;504\u201338. ISBN&#160;9780471209355. \n\n^ Gulati, R.; Smith, R. (2009). Maintenance and Reliability Best Practices. Industrial Press, Inc. pp.&#160;122\u20134. ISBN&#160;9780831133115. \n\n^ Pantano, E.; Nguyen, B.; Dennis, C.; et&#160;al. (2017). Internet Retailing and Future Perspectives. Routledge. p.&#160;PT301. ISBN&#160;9781317378761. \n\n^ a b c d e Dopson, L.R.; Hayes, D.K. (2015). Food and Beverage Cost Control. John Wiley &amp; Sons. pp.&#160;115\u201317. ISBN&#160;9781118988497. \n\n^ Waller, M.A.; Esper, T.L. (2014). The Definitive Guide to Inventory Management: Principles and Strategies for the Efficient Flow of Inventory Across the Supply Chain. Pearson Education. pp.&#160;150\u20131. ISBN&#160;9780133448825. \n\n^ \"How to Control Inventory Stock Levels?\". SeeBiz. 2021-06-21. Retrieved 2022-05-13 . \n\n\nFurther reading \nSilver, Edward A., David F. Pyke, and Rein Peterson. Inventory Management and Production Planning and Scheduling, 3rd ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 1998. ISBN&#160;0-471-11947-4\nZipkin, Paul H. Foundations of Inventory Management. Boston: McGraw Hill, 2000. ISBN&#160;0-256-11379-3\nAxsaeter, Sven. Inventory Control. Norwell, MA: Kluwer, 2000. ISBN&#160;0-387-33250-2\nPorteus, Evan L. Foundations of Stochastic Inventory Theory. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2002. ISBN&#160;0-8047-4399-1\nSnyder, Lawrence V. Fundamentals of Supply Chain Theory, 2nd ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley &amp; Sons, Inc, 2019. ISBN&#160;978-1-119-02484-2\nRossi, Roberto. Inventory Analytics. Cambridge, UK: Open Book Publishers, 2021. ISBN&#160;978-1-800-64176-1\n\n\n\n\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Inventory_control\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Inventory_control<\/a>\nCategory: Business and data managementHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 20 September 2022, at 16:57.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 2,775 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","68d5914491fa43799d716e60c5a9f1b1_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Inventory_control rootpage-Inventory_control skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Inventory control<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Ensuring the correct level of stock<\/div>\n<p><b>Inventory control<\/b> or <b>stock control<\/b> can be broadly defined as \"the activity of checking a shop's stock\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MacDiction_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MacDiction-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> It is the process of ensuring that the right amount of supply is available within a business.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-imcontrols_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-imcontrols-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> However, a more focused definition takes into account the more science-based, methodical practice of not only verifying a business's inventory but also maximising the amount of profit from the least amount of inventory investment without affecting customer satisfaction.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LewisDemand12_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LewisDemand12-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> Other facets of inventory control include forecasting future demand, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supply_chain_management\" title=\"Supply chain management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9ab29cff9b4cb170ab64c685242c8b0\">supply chain management<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Production_control\" title=\"Production control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"52910a29f58322182b24677bdd33a987\">production control<\/a>, financial flexibility, purchasing data, loss prevention and turnover, and customer satisfaction.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-1_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-1-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>An extension of inventory control is the inventory control system. This may come in the form of a technological system and its programmed software used for managing various aspects of inventory problems,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-2_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-2-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> or it may refer to a methodology (which may include the use of technological barriers) for handling <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Loss_prevention\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Loss prevention\" data-key=\"c37cfd1e02fe32cf4c70ea912872fb20\">loss prevention<\/a> in a business.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HayesRetail14_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HayesRetail14-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WesleyAGuide16_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WesleyAGuide16-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> The inventory control system allows for companies to assess their current state concerning assets, account balances, and financial reports.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-imcontrols_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-imcontrols-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Inventory_control_management\">Inventory control management<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>An inventory control system is used to keep inventories in a desired state while continuing to adequately supply customers,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ChorafasSystems65_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ChorafasSystems65-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-11_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-11-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> and its success depends on maintaining clear records on a periodic or perpetual basis.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-11_9-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-11-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WildEssentials02_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WildEssentials02-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventory_management_software\" title=\"Inventory management software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6ba6892940d566697709847f1ce530d8\">Inventory management software<\/a> often plays an important role in the modern inventory control system, providing timely and accurate analytical, optimization, and forecasting techniques for complex inventory management problems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AzadivarOperations16_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AzadivarOperations16-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DonathIOMA02_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DonathIOMA02-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> Typical features of this type of software include:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-11_9-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-11-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DonathIOMA02_12-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DonathIOMA02-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>inventory tracking and forecasting tools that use selectable algorithms and review cycles to identify anomalies and other areas of concern<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventory_optimization\" title=\"Inventory optimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46ef225e7e40d52d6016f0272514731f\">inventory optimization<\/a><\/li>\n<li>purchase and replenishment tools that include automated and manual replenishment components, inventory calculations, and lot size optimization<\/li>\n<li>lead time variability management<\/li>\n<li>safety stock calculation and forecasting<\/li>\n<li>inventory cost management<\/li>\n<li>shelf-life and slow-mover logic<\/li>\n<li>multiple location support<\/li>\n<li>Mobile\/Moving Inventory Support<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Through this functionality, a business may better detail what has sold, how quickly, and at what <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Price\" title=\"Price\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"407990f1b54f4308cf1bf0fcfe0bc1af\">price<\/a>, for example. Reports could be used to predict when to stock up on extra products around a holiday or to make decisions about <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Special_offer\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Special offer\" data-key=\"8631c8e2d8d01fe69647af4cdf0f806a\">special offers<\/a>, discontinuing products, and so on. \n<\/p><p>Inventory control techniques often rely upon <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Barcode\" title=\"Barcode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1852a2c48f6042c16ca0c8a87abed56\">barcodes<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Radio-frequency_identification\" title=\"Radio-frequency identification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"142e22fc78bf4acc0c1806ea4d00e395\">radio-frequency identification<\/a> (RFID) tags to provide automatic identification of inventory objects\u2014including but not limited to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Merchandise\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Merchandise\" data-key=\"4e67a1d55dca02b3ed79e5ae1d838b5e\">merchandise<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Consumable\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Consumable\" data-key=\"90f04ba6b9b520b2afd23d68ca47fb80\">consumables<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fixed_asset\" title=\"Fixed asset\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f5b34315f53a1826ae82b51aae4a3b3e\">fixed assets<\/a>, circulating tools, library books, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Capital_equipment\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Capital equipment\" data-key=\"23b6ccebd9d90518dd882474e82a17b3\">capital equipment<\/a>\u2014which in turn can be processed with inventory management software.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GulatiMaint09_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GulatiMaint09-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> A new trend in inventory management is to label inventory and assets with a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/QR_Code\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"QR Code\" data-key=\"fe1e6436e7c024095606b74293cbd082\">QR Code<\/a>, which can then be read with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smart-phone\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Smart-phone\" data-key=\"7c83c2b55dc5cd7666e93de7c79bdf6d\">smart-phones<\/a> to keep track of inventory count and movement.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PantanoInternet17_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PantanoInternet17-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> These new systems are especially useful for field service operations, where an employee needs to record inventory transaction or look up inventory stock in the field, away from the computers and hand-held scanners.\n<\/p><p>The control of inventory involves managing the physical quantities as well as the costing of the goods as it flows through the supply chain. In managing the cost prices of the goods throughout the supply chain, several costing methods are employed:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>Retail method<\/li>\n<li>Weighted Average Price method<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/FIFO_and_LIFO_accounting\" title=\"FIFO and LIFO accounting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d2e5b520e324aacfd3128c1db5fd8cc2\">FIFO<\/a> (First In First Out) method<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/FIFO_and_LIFO_accounting\" title=\"FIFO and LIFO accounting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d2e5b520e324aacfd3128c1db5fd8cc2\">LIFO<\/a> (Last In First Out) method<\/li>\n<li>LPP (Last Purchase Price) method<\/li>\n<li>BNM (Bottle neck method)<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>The calculation can be done for different periods. If the calculation is done on a monthly basis, then it is referred to the periodic method. In this method, the available stock is calculated by:\n<\/p><p>ADD Stock at beginning of period<br \/>\n<\/p><p>ADD Stock purchased during the period<br \/>\nAVERAGE total cost by total qty to arrive at the Average Cost of Goods for the period.\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><p>This Average Cost Price is applied to all movements and adjustments in that period. <br \/>\n<\/p><p>Ending stock in qty is arrived at by Applying all the changes in qty to the Available balance. <br \/>\nMultiplying the stock balance in qty by the Average cost gives the Stock cost at the end of the period.\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><p>Using the perpetual method, the calculation is done upon every purchase transaction.\n<\/p><p>Thus, the calculation is the same based on the periodic calculation whether by period (periodic) or by transaction (perpetual).\n<\/p><p>The only difference is the 'periodicity' or scope of the calculation.\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Periodic is done monthly<\/li>\n<li>Perpetual is done for the duration of the purchase until the next purchase<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>In practice, the daily averaging has been used to closely approximate the perpetual method.\n6. Bottle neck method (depends on proper planning support)\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Advantages_and_disadvantages\">Advantages and disadvantages<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Inventory control systems have advantages and disadvantages, based on what style of system is being run. A purely periodic (physical) inventory control system takes \"an actual physical count and valuation of all inventory on hand ... at the close of an accounting period,\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DopsonFood15_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DopsonFood15-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> whereas a perpetual inventory control system takes an initial count of an entire inventory and then closely monitors any additions and deletions as they occur.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DopsonFood15_15-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DopsonFood15-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WildEssentials02_10-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WildEssentials02-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> Various advantages and disadvantages, in comparison, include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Periodic is technically the more accurate as it considers both counted and valued inventory.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DopsonFood15_15-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DopsonFood15-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Periodic is more time-consuming than perpetual.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DopsonFood15_15-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DopsonFood15-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Perpetual can lower the cost of carrying inventory vs. periodic.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WildEssentials02_10-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WildEssentials02-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Perpetual is typically more costly to run than periodic.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WildEssentials02_10-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WildEssentials02-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Perpetual needs to be verified from time to time against an actual physical count, due to scrap, human error, theft, and other variables.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DopsonFood15_15-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DopsonFood15-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WallerTheDef14_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WallerTheDef14-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Vs._inventory_management\">Vs. inventory management<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>While it is sometimes used interchangeably, inventory management and inventory control deal with different aspects of inventory.\n<\/p><p>Inventory management is a broader term pertaining to the regulation of all inventory aspects, from what is already present in the warehouse to how the inventory arrived and where the product's final destination will be.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-imcontrols_2-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-imcontrols-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> This management involves tracking field inventory throughout the supply chain, from sourcing to order fulfilment. It encompasses the entire process of procuring, storing, and profiting off merchandise or services.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-imcontrols_2-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-imcontrols-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Inventory control is the process of managing stock once it arrives at a warehouse, store or other storage location. It is solely concerned with regulating what is already present, and involves planning for sales and stock-outs, optimizing inventory for maximum benefit and preventing the pile-up of dead stock.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Business_models\">Business models<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Just-in-time_manufacturing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Just-in-time manufacturing\" data-key=\"53f045cdf1b7297943c97f687e14f556\">Just-in-time inventory<\/a> (JIT), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vendor_managed_inventory\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Vendor managed inventory\" data-key=\"d282ef4a974e5c917c018f5cb9bcdce7\">vendor managed inventory<\/a> (VMI) and (CMI) are a few of the popular models being employed by organizations looking to have greater stock management control.\n<\/p><p>JIT is a model that attempts to replenish inventory for organizations when the inventory is required. The model attempts to avoid excess inventory and its associated costs. As a result, companies receive inventory only when the need for more stock is approaching.\n<\/p><p>VMI (vendor managed inventory) and (co-managed inventory) are two business models that adhere to the JIT inventory principles. VMI gives the vendor in a vendor\/customer relationship the ability to monitor, plan and control inventory for their customers. Customers relinquish the order making responsibilities in exchange for timely inventory replenishment that increases organizational efficiency.\n<\/p><p>CMI allows the customer to order and control their inventory from their vendors\/suppliers. Both VMI and CMI benefit the vendor as well as the customer. Vendors see a significant increase in sales due to increased inventory turns and cost savings realized by their customers, while customers realize similar benefits.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"div-col\" style=\"column-width: 22em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_identification_and_data_capture\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Automated identification and data capture\" data-key=\"6a095044168dde4006e55605a3f7de37\">Automated identification and data capture<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Methods of automatically identifying objects by computer system<span style=\"display:none\" class=\"category-annotation-with-redirected-description\">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets<\/span><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Document_automation\" title=\"Document automation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"20ee72738e1b69bef62898c10122f938\">Document automation<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Design of systems for electronic documents<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Economic_lot_scheduling_problem\" title=\"Economic lot scheduling problem\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"010af2642af9f5fcc98ae6ed8a71edb9\">Economic lot scheduling problem<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Problem in operations management and inventory theory<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Economic_order_quantity\" title=\"Economic order quantity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5ed9237e8432a705dbdc45132e983e49\">Economic order quantity<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Production scheduling model<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventory_theory\" title=\"Inventory theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b4d26ddf97c219b85b8ddf897c1e48ee\">Inventory theory<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Mathematical study concerned with the design of inventory systems<span style=\"display:none\" class=\"category-wikidata-fallback-annotation\">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback<\/span><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Newsvendor_model\" title=\"Newsvendor model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bc31bb7a6a084e72f53da010477632e7\">Newsvendor model<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Mathematical model to assist inventory levels<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scan-based_trading\" title=\"Scan-based trading\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"84eaf2ef6825e0563775e9b9161188eb\">Scan-based trading<\/a>&#160;\u2013 inventory system<span style=\"display:none\" class=\"category-wikidata-fallback-annotation\">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback<\/span><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Storage_management_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Storage management system\" data-key=\"466823bd9b86587b701c65363693f283\">Storage management system<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Data storage technique<span style=\"display:none\" class=\"category-annotation-with-redirected-description\">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets<\/span><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stock_management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Stock management\" data-key=\"95ee989c342fb4969c0ef7e4ab3da248\">Stock management<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Function of understanding stock mix of a company and the different demands on that stock<span style=\"display:none\" class=\"category-annotation-with-redirected-description\">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets<\/span><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supply_chain_management\" title=\"Supply chain management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9ab29cff9b4cb170ab64c685242c8b0\">Supply chain management<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Management of the flow of goods and services<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vendor-managed_inventory\" title=\"Vendor-managed inventory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"18f173e4ab573c37e0fde78e9e6c2b27\">Vendor-managed inventory<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Inventory management method<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Warehouse_management_system\" title=\"Warehouse management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4d3d157e8aa6d091a9d57df3cc86d375\">Warehouse management system<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Software designed to support and optimize warehouse and distribution center management<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-MacDiction-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-MacDiction_1-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.macmillandictionary.com\/dictionary\/british\/stock-control\" target=\"_blank\">\"stock control\"<\/a>. <i>Macmillan Dictionary<\/i>. Macmillan Publishers Limited<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 June<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Macmillan+Dictionary&amp;rft.atitle=stock+control&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.macmillandictionary.com%2Fdictionary%2Fbritish%2Fstock-control&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-imcontrols-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-imcontrols_2-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-imcontrols_2-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-imcontrols_2-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-imcontrols_2-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSchwarz2018\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Schwarz, Lisa (18 September 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.netsuite.com\/portal\/resource\/articles\/inventory-management\/what-are-inventory-management-controls.shtml\" target=\"_blank\">\"Essential Guide to Inventory Control\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Essential+Guide+to+Inventory+Control&amp;rft.date=2018-09-18&amp;rft.aulast=Schwarz&amp;rft.aufirst=Lisa&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.netsuite.com%2Fportal%2Fresource%2Farticles%2Finventory-management%2Fwhat-are-inventory-management-controls.shtml&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LewisDemand12-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-LewisDemand12_3-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLewis,_C.2012\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Lewis, C. (2012). \"Chapter 1: Demand forecasting and inventory control\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=NOOmR2D88Q0C\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Demand Forecasting and Inventory Control<\/i><\/a>. Routledge. p.&#160;3\u201320. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781136346835<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+Demand+forecasting+and+inventory+control&amp;rft.btitle=Demand+Forecasting+and+Inventory+Control&amp;rft.pages=3-20&amp;rft.pub=Routledge&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.isbn=9781136346835&amp;rft.au=Lewis%2C+C.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNOOmR2D88Q0C&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-1-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-1_4-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAxs\u00e4ter,_S.2015\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Axs\u00e4ter, S. (2015). \"Chapter 1: Introduction\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=v9YjCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Inventory Control<\/i><\/a>. Springer. p.&#160;1\u20136. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9783319157290<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+Introduction&amp;rft.btitle=Inventory+Control&amp;rft.pages=1-6&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.isbn=9783319157290&amp;rft.au=Axs%C3%A4ter%2C+S.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dv9YjCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-2-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-2_5-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAxs\u00e4ter,_S.2015\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Axs\u00e4ter, S. (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=v9YjCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA7\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 2: Forecasting\"<\/a>. <i>Inventory Control<\/i>. Springer. p.&#160;7\u201335. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9783319157290<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+2%3A+Forecasting&amp;rft.btitle=Inventory+Control&amp;rft.pages=7-35&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.isbn=9783319157290&amp;rft.au=Axs%C3%A4ter%2C+S.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dv9YjCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA7&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HayesRetail14-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-HayesRetail14_6-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHayes,_R.2014\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Hayes, R. (2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=MEGjBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA30\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Retail Security and Loss Prevention<\/i><\/a>. Butterworth-Heinemann. p.&#160;30. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781483296005<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Retail+Security+and+Loss+Prevention&amp;rft.pages=30&amp;rft.pub=Butterworth-Heinemann&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft.isbn=9781483296005&amp;rft.au=Hayes%2C+R.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMEGjBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA30&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WesleyAGuide16-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-WesleyAGuide16_7-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWesley,_R.L.Wanat,_J.A.2016\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Wesley, R.L.; Wanat, J.A. (2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=pA4SBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA81\" target=\"_blank\"><i>A Guide to Internal Loss Prevention<\/i><\/a>. Elsevier. pp.&#160;81\u20133. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781483135731<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=A+Guide+to+Internal+Loss+Prevention&amp;rft.pages=81-3&amp;rft.pub=Elsevier&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft.isbn=9781483135731&amp;rft.au=Wesley%2C+R.L.&amp;rft.au=Wanat%2C+J.A.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpA4SBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA81&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ChorafasSystems65-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ChorafasSystems65_8-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFChorafas,_D.N.1965\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Chorafas, D.N., ed. (1965). \"Chapter 13: Specifications for Inventory Control\". <i>Systems and Simulation<\/i>. Mathematics in Science and Engineering. Vol.&#160;14. Elsevier. pp.&#160;233\u201352. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2FS0076-5392%2809%2960019-9\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/S0076-5392(09)60019-9<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780123749185<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+13%3A+Specifications+for+Inventory+Control&amp;rft.btitle=Systems+and+Simulation&amp;rft.series=Mathematics+in+Science+and+Engineering&amp;rft.pages=233-52&amp;rft.pub=Elsevier&amp;rft.date=1965&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0076-5392%2809%2960019-9&amp;rft.isbn=9780123749185&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-11-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-11_9-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-11_9-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-11_9-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAxs\u00e4ter,_S.2015\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Axs\u00e4ter, S. (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=v9YjCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA223\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 11: Implementation\"<\/a>. <i>Inventory Control<\/i>. Springer. p.&#160;223\u201334. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9783319157290<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+11%3A+Implementation&amp;rft.btitle=Inventory+Control&amp;rft.pages=223-34&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.isbn=9783319157290&amp;rft.au=Axs%C3%A4ter%2C+S.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dv9YjCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA223&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WildEssentials02-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-WildEssentials02_10-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-WildEssentials02_10-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-WildEssentials02_10-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-WildEssentials02_10-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWild,_R.2002\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Wild, R. (2002). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=B5j4D0U6QA0C&pg=PA333\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Essentials of Operations Management<\/i><\/a>. Cengage Learning. pp.&#160;332\u20133. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781844800520<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Essentials+of+Operations+Management&amp;rft.pages=332-3&amp;rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.isbn=9781844800520&amp;rft.au=Wild%2C+R.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DB5j4D0U6QA0C%26pg%3DPA333&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AzadivarOperations16-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-AzadivarOperations16_11-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAzadivar,_F.Rangarajan,_A.2016\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Azadivar, F.; Rangarajan, A. (2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=JSCHFC9zaD4C&pg=SA10-PA34\" target=\"_blank\">\"10.6 Inventory Management in Practice\"<\/a>. In Ravindran, A.R. (ed.). <i>Operations Research and Management Science Handbook<\/i>. CRC Press. pp.&#160;10-34\u201310-35. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781420009712<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=10.6+Inventory+Management+in+Practice&amp;rft.btitle=Operations+Research+and+Management+Science+Handbook&amp;rft.pages=10-34-10-35&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft.isbn=9781420009712&amp;rft.au=Azadivar%2C+F.&amp;rft.au=Rangarajan%2C+A.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJSCHFC9zaD4C%26pg%3DSA10-PA34&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DonathIOMA02-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-DonathIOMA02_12-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-DonathIOMA02_12-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDonath,_B.Mazel,_J.Dubin,_C.Patterson,_P.2002\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Donath, B.; Mazel, J.; Dubin, C.; Patterson, P., eds. (2002). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=G8E5bMwTrBQC&pg=PA505\" target=\"_blank\">\"Part II Inventory Management - Chapter 4: Software and Technology\"<\/a>. <i>The IOMA Handbook of Logistics and Inventory Management<\/i>. John Wiley &amp; Sons. pp.&#160;504\u201338. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780471209355<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Part+II+Inventory+Management+-+Chapter+4%3A+Software+and+Technology&amp;rft.btitle=The+IOMA+Handbook+of+Logistics+and+Inventory+Management&amp;rft.pages=504-38&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.isbn=9780471209355&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DG8E5bMwTrBQC%26pg%3DPA505&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GulatiMaint09-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-GulatiMaint09_13-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGulati,_R.Smith,_R.2009\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Gulati, R.; Smith, R. (2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=igFCp-nz1n8C&pg=PA122\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Maintenance and Reliability Best Practices<\/i><\/a>. Industrial Press, Inc. pp.&#160;122\u20134. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780831133115<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Maintenance+and+Reliability+Best+Practices&amp;rft.pages=122-4&amp;rft.pub=Industrial+Press%2C+Inc&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.isbn=9780831133115&amp;rft.au=Gulati%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Smith%2C+R.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DigFCp-nz1n8C%26pg%3DPA122&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PantanoInternet17-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-PantanoInternet17_14-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPantano,_E.Nguyen,_B.Dennis,_C.2017\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Pantano, E.; Nguyen, B.; Dennis, C.; et&#160;al. (2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=kmyuDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT301\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Internet Retailing and Future Perspectives<\/i><\/a>. Routledge. p.&#160;PT301. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781317378761<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Internet+Retailing+and+Future+Perspectives&amp;rft.pages=PT301&amp;rft.pub=Routledge&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft.isbn=9781317378761&amp;rft.au=Pantano%2C+E.&amp;rft.au=Nguyen%2C+B.&amp;rft.au=Dennis%2C+C.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkmyuDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT301&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DopsonFood15-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-DopsonFood15_15-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-DopsonFood15_15-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-DopsonFood15_15-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-DopsonFood15_15-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-DopsonFood15_15-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDopson,_L.R.Hayes,_D.K.2015\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Dopson, L.R.; Hayes, D.K. (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=yxotCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA115\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Food and Beverage Cost Control<\/i><\/a>. John Wiley &amp; Sons. pp.&#160;115\u201317. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781118988497<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Food+and+Beverage+Cost+Control&amp;rft.pages=115-17&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.isbn=9781118988497&amp;rft.au=Dopson%2C+L.R.&amp;rft.au=Hayes%2C+D.K.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyxotCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA115&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WallerTheDef14-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-WallerTheDef14_16-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWaller,_M.A.Esper,_T.L.2014\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Waller, M.A.; Esper, T.L. (2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=cq8_AwAAQBAJ&pg=150\" target=\"_blank\"><i>The Definitive Guide to Inventory Management: Principles and Strategies for the Efficient Flow of Inventory Across the Supply Chain<\/i><\/a>. Pearson Education. pp.&#160;150\u20131. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780133448825<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Definitive+Guide+to+Inventory+Management%3A+Principles+and+Strategies+for+the+Efficient+Flow+of+Inventory+Across+the+Supply+Chain&amp;rft.pages=150-1&amp;rft.pub=Pearson+Education&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft.isbn=9780133448825&amp;rft.au=Waller%2C+M.A.&amp;rft.au=Esper%2C+T.L.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dcq8_AwAAQBAJ%26pg%3D150&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.seebiz.com\/blog\/how-to-control-inventory-stock-levels\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"How to Control Inventory Stock Levels?\"<\/a>. <i>SeeBiz<\/i>. 2021-06-21<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2022-05-13<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=SeeBiz&amp;rft.atitle=How+to+Control+Inventory+Stock+Levels%3F&amp;rft.date=2021-06-21&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.seebiz.com%2Fblog%2Fhow-to-control-inventory-stock-levels%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li>Silver, Edward A., David F. Pyke, and Rein Peterson. Inventory Management and Production Planning and Scheduling, 3rd ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 1998. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-471-11947-4<\/li>\n<li>Zipkin, Paul H. Foundations of Inventory Management. Boston: McGraw Hill, 2000. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-256-11379-3<\/li>\n<li>Axsaeter, Sven. Inventory Control. Norwell, MA: Kluwer, 2000. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-387-33250-2<\/li>\n<li>Porteus, Evan L. Foundations of Stochastic Inventory Theory. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2002. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-8047-4399-1<\/li>\n<li>Snyder, Lawrence V. Fundamentals of Supply Chain Theory, 2nd ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley &amp; Sons, Inc, 2019. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;978-1-119-02484-2<\/li>\n<li>Rossi, Roberto. Inventory Analytics. Cambridge, UK: Open Book Publishers, 2021. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;978-1-800-64176-1<\/li><\/ul>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw2367\nCached time: 20240102170313\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 0.375 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.472 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 4060\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 39323\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 1723\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 14\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 62552\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.243\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 24961351\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 0\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 437.008 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>39.76% 173.736 12 Template:Annotated_link\n35.27% 154.141 1 Template:Reflist\n16.26% 71.042 3 Template:Cite_web\n13.84% 60.479 14 Template:Cite_book\n10.43% 45.595 1 Template:Short_description\n 9.10% 39.765 6 Template:ISBN\n 5.70% 24.892 2 Template:Pagetype\n 4.69% 20.513 6 Template:Catalog_lookup_link\n 2.85% 12.460 10 Template:Main_other\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:2759248-0!canonical and timestamp 20240102170312 and revision id 1183346043. Rendering was triggered because: page-view\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventory_control\" data-key=\"29ef56ddbe09d7c185cf3436effd130b\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110034759\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.177 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.363 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 46525\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 336.451 1 wikipedia:Inventory_control\n100.00% 336.451 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10657-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110034759 and revision id 49440. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Inventory_control\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Inventory_control<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","68d5914491fa43799d716e60c5a9f1b1_images":[],"68d5914491fa43799d716e60c5a9f1b1_timestamp":1704907017,"13e0b826fa1770fe4bea72e3cb942f0f_type":"article","13e0b826fa1770fe4bea72e3cb942f0f_title":"Internet of things","13e0b826fa1770fe4bea72e3cb942f0f_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Internet_of_things","13e0b826fa1770fe4bea72e3cb942f0f_plaintext":"\n\nInternet of thingsFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_of_things?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Internet_of_things\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Internet_of_things<\/a>\nCategories: Automation and artificial intelligenceSoftware and hardware termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 12 June 2022, at 14:33.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 9,865 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","13e0b826fa1770fe4bea72e3cb942f0f_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Internet_of_things rootpage-Internet_of_things skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Internet of things<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_of_things?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_of_things\" data-key=\"08e522f905854fe34747cc25ffb62f63\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171657\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.087 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.156 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 100\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 151.310 1 wikipedia:Internet_of_things\n100.00% 151.310 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10701-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171657 and revision id 48269. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Internet_of_things\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Internet_of_things<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","13e0b826fa1770fe4bea72e3cb942f0f_images":[],"13e0b826fa1770fe4bea72e3cb942f0f_timestamp":1704907017,"4671d3cbb4201e1698d0fb44369dc1ea_type":"article","4671d3cbb4201e1698d0fb44369dc1ea_title":"Environmental monitoring","4671d3cbb4201e1698d0fb44369dc1ea_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Environmental_monitoring","4671d3cbb4201e1698d0fb44369dc1ea_plaintext":"\n\nEnvironmental monitoringFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchMonitoring of the quality of the environment\nPart of a series onPollution A rosette sampler used for ocean monitoring\nAir\nAir quality index\nAtmospheric dispersion modeling\nChlorofluorocarbon\nCombustion\nExhaust gas\nHaze\nGlobal dimming\nGlobal distillation\nOzone depletion\nParticulates\nPersistent organic pollutant\nSmog\nSoot\nVolatile organic compound\nWaste\n\nBiological\nBiological hazard\nGenetic\nIntroduced species (Invasive species)\n\nDigital\nInformation\n\nElectromagnetic\nLight\nEcological\nOverillumination\nRadio spectrum\n\nNatural\nOzone\nRadium and radon in the environment\nVolcanic ash\nWildfire\n\nNoise\nTransportation\nMarine mammals and sonar\nNoise control\n\nRadiation\nActinides\nBioremediation\nDepleted uranium\nNuclear fission\nNuclear fallout\nPlutonium\nPoisoning\nRadioactivity\nUranium\nRadioactive waste\n\nSoil\nAgricultural\nLand degradation\nBioremediation\nDefecation\nElectrical resistance heating\nSoil guideline values\nPhytoremediation\n\nSolid waste\nBiodegradable waste\nBrown waste\nElectronic waste\nFood waste\nGreen waste\nHazardous waste\nIndustrial waste\nLitter\nMining\nMunicipal solid waste\nNanomaterials\nPlastic\nPackaging waste\nPost-consumer waste\nWaste management\n\nSpace\nRockets, satellites, spacecraft\n\nThermal\nUrban heat island\n\nVisual\nAir travel\nAdvertising clutter\nOverhead power lines\nTraffic signs\nVandalism\n\nWar\nChemical warfare\nHerbicidal warfare (Agent Orange)\nNuclear holocaust (Nuclear fallout - nuclear famine - nuclear winter)\nScorched earth\nUnexploded ordnance\nWar and environmental law\n\nWater\nAgricultural wastewater\nBiosolids\nDiseases\nEutrophication\nFirewater\nFreshwater\nGroundwater\nHypoxia\nIndustrial wastewater\nMarine\nMonitoring\nNonpoint source\nNutrient\nOcean acidification\nOil spill\nPharmaceuticals\nFreshwater salinization\nSeptic tanks\nSewage\nShipping\nSludge\nStagnation\nSulfur water\nSurface runoff\nTurbidity\nUrban runoff\nWater quality\nWastewater\n\nTopics\nPollutants\nHeavy metals\nPaint\n\nMisc\nArea source\nDebris\nDust\nGarbology\nLegacy pollution\nMidden\nPoint source\nWaste\nLists\n\nDiseases\nLaw by country\nMost polluted cities\nLeast polluted cities by PM2.5\nTreaties\nCategories\n\nBy country\n\n &#160;Environment portal\n &#160;Ecology portalvte\nEnvironmental monitoring describes the processes and activities that need to take place to characterize and monitor the quality of the environment. Environmental monitoring is used in the preparation of environmental impact assessments, as well as in many circumstances in which human activities carry a risk of harmful effects on the natural environment.\nAll monitoring strategies and programs have reasons and justifications which are often designed to establish the current status of an environment or to establish trends in environmental parameters. In all cases, the results of monitoring will be reviewed, analyzed statistically, and published. The design of a monitoring program must therefore have regard to the final use of the data before monitoring starts.\nEnvironmental monitoring includes monitoring of air quality, soils and water quality.\n\n\nAir quality monitoring \nAir quality monitoring station\n\nFurther information: Air pollution measurement, Air quality index, Continuous emissions monitoring system, Particulate matter sampler, and Portable emissions measurement system\nAir pollutants are atmospheric substances\u2014both naturally occurring and anthropogenic\u2014which may potentially have a negative impact on the environment and organism health. With the evolution of new chemicals and industrial processes has come the introduction or elevation of pollutants in the atmosphere, as well as environmental research and regulations, increasing the demand for air quality monitoring.[1]\nAir quality monitoring is challenging to enact as it requires the effective integration of multiple environmental data sources, which often originate from different environmental networks and institutions.[2] These challenges require specialized observation equipment and tools to establish air pollutant concentrations, including sensor networks, geographic information system (GIS) models, and the Sensor Observation Service (SOS), a web service for querying real-time sensor data.[2] Air dispersion models that combine topographic, emissions, and meteorological data to predict air pollutant concentrations are often helpful in interpreting air monitoring data. Additionally, consideration of anemometer data in the area between sources and the monitor often provides insights on the source of the air contaminants recorded by an air pollution monitor.\nAir quality monitors are operated by citizens,[3][4][5] regulatory agencies,[6][7] non-governmental organisations [8] and researchers[9] to investigate air quality and the effects of air pollution. Interpretation of ambient air monitoring data often involves a consideration of the spatial and temporal representativeness[10] of the data gathered, and the health effects associated with exposure to the monitored levels.[11] If the interpretation reveals concentrations of multiple chemical compounds, a unique \"chemical fingerprint\" of a particular air pollution source may emerge from analysis of the data.[12]\n\nAir sampling \nPassive or \"diffusive\" air sampling depends on meteorological conditions such as wind to diffuse air pollutants to a sorbent medium. Passive samplers, such as diffusion tubes, have the advantage of typically being small, quiet, and easy to deploy, and they are particularly useful in air quality studies that determine key areas for future continuous monitoring.[13]\nAir pollution can also be assessed by biomonitoring with organisms that bioaccumulate air pollutants, such as lichens, mosses, fungi, and other biomass.[14][15] One of the benefits of this type of sampling is how quantitative information can be obtained via measurements of accumulated compounds, representative of the environment from which they came. However, careful considerations must be made in choosing the particular organism, how it's dispersed, and relevance to the pollutant.[15]\nOther sampling methods include the use of a denuder,[16][17] needle trap devices, and microextraction techniques.[18]\n\nSoil monitoring \nCollecting a soil sample in Mexico for pathogen testing\n\nFurther information: Environmental soil science\nSoil monitoring involves the collection and\/or analysis of soil and its associated quality, constituents, and physical status to determine or guarantee its fitness for use. Soil faces many threats, including compaction, contamination, organic material loss, biodiversity loss, slope stability issues, erosion, salinization, and acidification. Soil monitoring helps characterize these threats and other potential risks to the soil, surrounding environments, animal health, and human health.[19]\nAssessing these threats and other risks to soil can be challenging due to a variety of factors, including soil's heterogeneity and complexity, scarcity of toxicity data, lack of understanding of a contaminant's fate, and variability in levels of soil screening.[19] This requires a risk assessment approach and analysis techniques that prioritize environmental protection, risk reduction, and, if necessary, remediation methods.[19] Soil monitoring plays a significant role in that risk assessment, not only aiding in the identification of at-risk and affected areas but also in the establishment of base background values of soil.[19]\nSoil monitoring has historically focused on more classical conditions and contaminants, including toxic elements (e.g., mercury, lead, and arsenic) and persistent organic pollutants (POPs).[19] Historically, testing for these and other aspects of soil, however, has had its own set of challenges, as sampling in most cases is of a destructive in nature, requiring multiple samples over time. Additionally, procedural and analytical errors may be introduced due to variability among references and methods, particularly over time.[20] However, as analytical techniques evolve and new knowledge about ecological processes and contaminant effects disseminate, the focus of monitoring will likely broaden over time and the quality of monitoring will continue to improve.[19]\n\nSoil sampling \nThe two primary types of soil sampling are grab sampling and composite sampling. Grab sampling involves the collection of an individual sample at a specific time and place, while composite sampling involves the collection of a homogenized mixture of multiple individual samples at either a specific place over different times or multiple locations at a specific time.[21] Soil sampling may occur both at shallow ground levels or deep in the ground, with collection methods varying by level collected from. Scoops, augers, core barrel, and solid-tube samplers, and other tools are used at shallow ground levels, whereas split-tube, solid-tube, or hydraulic methods may be used in deep ground.[22]\n\nMonitoring programs \nA portable X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analyzer can be used in the field for testing soils for metal contamination.\n\nSoil contamination monitoring \nFurther information: Soil contamination\nSoil contamination monitoring helps researchers identify patterns and trends in contaminant deposition, movement, and effect. Human-based pressures such as tourism, industrial activity, urban sprawl, construction work, and inadequate agriculture\/forestry practices can contribute to and make worse soil contamination and lead to the soil becoming unfit for its intended use. Both inorganic and organic pollutants may make their way to the soil, having a wide variety of detrimental effects. Soil contamination monitoring is therefore important to identify risk areas, set baselines, and identify contaminated zones for remediation. Monitoring efforts may range from local farms to nationwide efforts, such as those made by China in the late 2000s,[19] providing details such as the nature of contaminants, their quantity, effects, concentration patterns, and remediation feasibility.[23] Monitoring and analytical equipment will ideally will have high response times, high levels of resolution and automation, and a certain degree of self-sufficiency.[24] Chemical techniques may be used to measure toxic elements and POPs using chromatography and spectrometry, geophysical techniques may assess physical properties of large terrains, and biological techniques may use specific organisms to gauge not only contaminant level but also byproducts of contaminant biodegradation. These techniques and others are increasingly becoming more efficient, and laboratory instrumentation is becoming more precise, resulting in more meaningful monitoring outcomes.[25]\n\nSoil erosion monitoring \nFurther information: Soil erosion\nSoil erosion monitoring helps researchers identify patterns and trends in soil and sediment movement. Monitoring programs have varied over the years, from long-term academic research on university plots to reconnaissance-based surveys of biogeoclimatic areas. In most methods, however, the general focus is on identifying and measuring all the dominant erosion processes in a given area.[26] Additionally, soil erosion monitoring may attempt to quantify the effects of erosion on crop productivity, though challenging \"because of the many complexities in the relationship between soils and plants and their management under a variable climate.\"[27]\n\nSoil salinity monitoring \nFurther information: Soil salinity\nSoil salinity monitoring helps researchers identify patterns and trends in soil salt content. Both the natural process of seawater intrusion and the human-induced processes of inappropriate soil and water management can lead to salinity problems in soil, with up to one billion hectares of land affected globally (as of 2013).[28] Salinity monitoring at the local level may look closely at the root zone to gauge salinity impact and develop management options, whereas at the regional and national level salinity monitoring may help with identifying areas at-risk and aiding policymakers in tackling the issue before it spreads.[28] The monitoring process itself may be performed using technologies such as remote sensing and geographic information systems (GIS) to identify salinity via greenness, brightness, and whiteness at the surface level. Direct analysis of soil up close, including the use of electromagnetic induction techniques, may also be used to monitor soil salinity.[28]\n\nWater quality monitoring \nElectrofishing survey methods use a mild electric shock to temporarily stun fish for capture, identification and counting. The fish are then returned to the water unharmed.\n\nDesign of environmental monitoring programmes \nWater quality monitoring is of little use without a clear and unambiguous definition of the reasons for the monitoring and the objectives that it will satisfy. Almost all monitoring (except perhaps remote sensing) is in some part invasive of the environment under study and extensive and poorly planned monitoring carries a risk of damage to the environment. This may be a critical consideration in wilderness areas or when monitoring very rare organisms or those that are averse to human presence. Some monitoring techniques, such as gill netting fish to estimate populations, can be very damaging, at least to the local population and can also degrade public trust in scientists carrying out the monitoring.\nAlmost all mainstream environmentalism monitoring projects form part of an overall monitoring strategy or research field, and these field and strategies are themselves derived from the high levels objectives or aspirations of an organisation. Unless individual monitoring projects fit into a wider strategic framework, the results are unlikely to be published and the environmental understanding produced by the monitoring will be lost.[29][30]\n\nParameters \nsee also Freshwater environmental quality parameters\n\nChemical \nAnalyzing water samples for pesticides\n\nThe range of chemical parameters that have the potential to affect any ecosystem is very large and in all monitoring programmes it is necessary to target a suite of parameters based on local knowledge and past practice for an initial review. The list can be expanded or reduced based on developing knowledge and the outcome of the initial surveys.\nFreshwater environments have been extensively studied for many years and there is a robust understanding of the interactions between chemistry and the environment across much of the world. However, as new materials are developed and new pressures come to bear, revisions to monitoring programmes will be required. In the last 20 years acid rain, synthetic hormone analogues, halogenated hydrocarbons, greenhouse gases and many others have required changes to monitoring strategies.\n\nBiological \nIn ecological monitoring, the monitoring strategy and effort is directed at the plants and animals in the environment under review and is specific to each individual study.\nHowever, in more generalised environmental monitoring, many animals act as robust indicators of the quality of the environment that they are experiencing or have experienced in the recent past.[31] One of the most familiar examples is the monitoring of numbers of Salmonid fish such as brown trout or Atlantic salmon in river systems and lakes to detect slow trends in adverse environmental effects. The steep decline in salmonid fish populations was one of the early indications of the problem that later became known as acid rain.\nIn recent years much more attention has been given to a more holistic approach in which the ecosystem health is assessed and used as the monitoring tool itself.[32] It is this approach that underpins the monitoring protocols of the Water Framework Directive in the European Union.\n\nRadiological \nRadiation monitoring involves the measurement of radiation dose or radionuclide contamination for reasons related to the assessment or control of exposure to ionizing radiation or radioactive substances, and the interpretation of the results.[33] The 'measurement' of dose often means the measurement of a dose equivalent quantity as a proxy (i.e. substitute) for a dose quantity that cannot be measured directly. Also, sampling may be involved as a preliminary step to measurement of the content of radionuclides in environmental media. The methodological and technical details of the design and operation of monitoring programmes and systems for different radionuclides, environmental media and types of facility are given in IAEA Safety Guide RS\u2013G-1.8[34] and in IAEA Safety Report No. 64.[35]\nRadiation monitoring is often carried out using networks of fixed and deployable sensors such as the US Environmental Protection Agency's Radnet and the SPEEDI network in Japan. Airborne surveys are also made by organizations like the Nuclear Emergency Support Team.\n\nMicrobiological \nBacteria and viruses are the most commonly monitored groups of microbiological organisms and even these are only of great relevance where water in the aquatic environment is subsequently used as drinking water or where water contact recreation such as swimming or canoeing is practised.\nAlthough pathogens are the primary focus of attention, the principal monitoring effort is almost always directed at much more common indicator species such as Escherichia coli,[36] supplemented by overall coliform bacteria counts. The rationale behind this monitoring strategy is that most human pathogens originate from other humans via the sewage stream. Many sewage treatment plants have no sterilisation final stage and therefore discharge an effluent which, although having a clean appearance, still contains many millions of bacteria per litre, the majority of which are relatively harmless coliform bacteria. Counting the number of harmless (or less harmful) sewage bacteria allows a judgement to be made about the probability of significant numbers of pathogenic bacteria or viruses being present. Where E. coli or coliform levels exceed pre-set trigger values, more intensive monitoring including specific monitoring for pathogenic species is then initiated.\n\nPopulations \nMonitoring strategies can produce misleading answers when relaying on counts of species or presence or absence of particular organisms if there is no regard to population size. Understanding the populations dynamics of an organism being monitored is critical.\nAs an example if presence or absence of a particular organism within a 10&#160;km square is the measure adopted by a monitoring strategy, then a reduction of population from 10,000 per square to 10 per square will go unnoticed despite the very significant impact experienced by the organism.\n\nMonitoring programmes \nAll scientifically reliable environmental monitoring is performed in line with a published programme. The programme may include the overall objectives of the organisation, references to the specific strategies that helps deliver the objective and details of specific projects or tasks within those strategies the key feature of any programme is the listing of what is being monitored and how that monitoring is to take place and the time-scale over which it should all happen. Typically, and often as an appendix, a monitoring programme will provide a table of locations, dates and sampling methods that are proposed and which, if undertaken in full, will deliver the published monitoring programme.\nThere are a number of commercial software packages which can assist with the implementation of the programme, monitor its progress and flag up inconsistencies or omissions but none of these can provide the key building block which is the programme itself.\n\nEnvironmental monitoring data management systems \nGiven the multiple types and increasing volumes and importance of monitoring data, commercial software Environmental Data Management Systems (EDMS) or E-MDMS are increasingly in common use by regulated industries. They provide a means of managing all monitoring data in a single central place. Quality validation, compliance checking, verifying all data has been received, and sending alerts are generally automated. Typical interrogation functionality enables comparison of data sets both temporarily and spatially. They will also generate regulatory and other reports.\nOne formal certification scheme exists specifically for environmental data management software. This is provided by the Environment Agency in the U.K. under its Monitoring Certification Scheme (MCERTS).[37][38][39]\n\nSampling methods \nThere are a wide range of sampling methods which depend on the type of environment, the material being sampled and the subsequent analysis of the sample. At its simplest a sample can be filling a clean bottle with river water and submitting it for conventional chemical analysis. At the more complex end, sample data may be produced by complex electronic sensing devices taking sub-samples over fixed or variable time periods.\nSampling methods include judgmental sampling, simple random sampling, stratified sampling, systematic and grid sampling, adaptive cluster sampling, grab samples, semi-continuous monitoring and continuous, passive sampling, remote surveillance, remote sensing, biomonitoring and other sampling methods.\n\nJudgmental sampling \nIn judgmental sampling, the selection of sampling units (i.e., the number and location and\/or timing of collecting samples) is based on knowledge of the feature or condition under investigation and on professional judgment. Judgmental sampling is distinguished from probability-based sampling in that inferences are based on professional judgment, not statistical scientific theory. Therefore, conclusions about the target population are limited and depend entirely on the validity and accuracy of professional judgment; probabilistic statements about parameters are not possible. As described in subsequent chapters, expert judgment may also be used in conjunction with other sampling designs to produce effective sampling for defensible decisions.[40]\n\nSimple random sampling \nIn simple random sampling, particular sampling units (for example, locations and\/or times) are selected using random numbers, and all possible selections of a given number of units are equally likely. For example, a simple random sample of a set of drums can be taken by numbering all the drums and randomly selecting numbers from that list or by sampling an area by using pairs of random coordinates. This method is easy to understand, and the equations for determining sample size are relatively straightforward. Simple random sampling is most useful when the population of interest is relatively homogeneous; i.e., no major patterns of contamination or \u201chot spots\u201d are expected. The main advantages of this design are:\n\nIt provides statistically unbiased estimates of the mean, proportions, and variability.\nIt is easy to understand and easy to implement.\nSample size calculations and data analysis are very straightforward.\nIn some cases, implementation of a simple random sample can be more difficult than some other types of designs (for example, grid samples) because of the difficulty of precisely identifying random geographic locations. Additionally, simple random sampling can be more costly than other plans if difficulties in obtaining samples due to location causes an expenditure of extra effort.[40]\n\nStratified sampling \nIn stratified sampling, the target population is separated into non-overlapping strata, or subpopulations that are known or thought to be more homogeneous (relative to the environmental medium or the contaminant), so that there tends to be less variation among sampling units in the same stratum than among sampling units in different strata. Strata may be chosen on the basis of spatial or temporal proximity of the units, or on the basis of preexisting information or professional judgment about the site or process. Advantages of this sampling design are that it has potential for achieving greater precision in estimates of the mean and variance, and that it allows computation of reliable estimates for population subgroups of special interest. Greater precision can be obtained if the measurement of interest is strongly correlated with the variable used to make the strata.[40]\n\nSystematic and grid sampling \nIn systematic and grid sampling, samples are taken at regularly spaced intervals over space or time. An initial location or time is chosen at random, and then the remaining sampling locations are defined so that all locations are at regular intervals over an area (grid) or time (systematic). Examples Systematic Grid Sampling - Square Grid Systematic Grid Sampling - Triangular Grids of systematic grids include square, rectangular, triangular, or radial grids.\nCressie, 1993. In random systematic sampling, an initial sampling location (or time) is chosen at random and the remaining sampling sites are specified so that they are located according to a regular pattern. Random systematic sampling is used to search for hot spots and to infer means, percentiles, or other parameters and is also useful for estimating spatial patterns or trends over time. This design provides a practical and easy method for designating sample locations and ensures uniform coverage of a site, unit, or process.[40]\nRanked set sampling is an innovative design that can be highly useful and cost efficient in obtaining better estimates of mean concentration levels in soil and other environmental media by explicitly incorporating the professional judgment of a field investigator or a field screening measurement method to pick specific sampling locations in the field. Ranked set sampling uses a two-phase sampling design that identifies sets of field locations, utilizes inexpensive measurements to rank locations within each set, and then selects one location from each set for sampling. In ranked set sampling, m sets (each of size r) of field locations are identified using simple random sampling. The locations are ranked independently within each set using professional judgment or inexpensive, fast, or surrogate measurements. One sampling unit from each set is then selected (based on the observed ranks) for subsequent measurement using a more accurate and reliable (hence, more expensive) method for the contaminant of interest. Relative to simple random sampling, this design results in more representative samples and so leads to more precise estimates of the population parameters. Ranked set sampling is useful when the cost of locating and ranking locations in the field is low compared to laboratory measurements. It is also appropriate when an inexpensive auxiliary variable (based on expert knowledge or measurement) is available to rank population units with respect to the variable of interest. To use this design effectively, it is important that the ranking method and analytical method are strongly correlated.[40]\n\nAdaptive cluster sampling \nIn adaptive cluster sampling, samples are taken using simple random sampling, and additional samples are taken at locations where measurements exceed some threshold value. Several additional rounds of sampling and analysis may be needed. Adaptive cluster sampling tracks the selection probabilities for later phases of sampling so that an unbiased estimate of the population mean can be calculated despite oversampling of certain areas. An example application of adaptive cluster sampling is delineating the borders of a plume of contamination. Adaptive sampling is useful for estimating or searching for rare characteristics in a population and is appropriate for inexpensive, rapid measurements. It enables delineating the boundaries of hot spots, while also using all data collected with appropriate weighting to give unbiased estimates of the population mean.[40][41]\n\nGrab samples \nCollecting a grab sample on a stream\n\nGrab samples are samples taken of a homogeneous material, usually water, in a single vessel. Filling a clean bottle with river water is a very common example. Grab samples provide a good snap-shot view of the quality of the sampled environment at the point of sampling and at the time of sampling. Without additional monitoring, the results cannot be extrapolated to other times or to other parts of the river, lake or ground-water.[41]:\u200a3\u200a \nIn order to enable grab samples or rivers to be treated as representative, repeat transverse and longitudinal transect surveys taken at different times of day and times of year are required to establish that the grab-sample location is as representative as is reasonably possible. For large rivers such surveys should also have regard to the depth of the sample and how to best manage the sampling locations at times of flood and drought.[41]:\u200a8\u20139\u200a \nIn lakes grab samples are relatively simple to take using depth samplers which can be lowered to a pre-determined depth and then closed trapping a fixed volume of water from the required depth. In all but the shallowest lakes, there are major changes in the chemical composition of lake water at different depths, especially during the summer months when many lakes stratify into a warm, well oxygenated upper layer (epilimnion) and a cool de-oxygenated lower layer (hypolimnion).\nIn the open seas marine environment grab samples can establish a wide range of base-line parameters such as salinity and a range of cation and anion concentrations. However, where changing conditions are an issue such as near river or sewage discharges, close to the effects of volcanism or close to areas of freshwater input from melting ice, a grab sample can only give a very partial answer when taken on its own.\n\nSemi-continuous monitoring and continuous \nAn automated sampling station and data logger (to record temperature, specific conductance, and dissolved oxygen levels)\n\nThere is a wide range of specialized sampling equipment available that can be programmed to take samples at fixed or variable time intervals or in response to an external trigger. For example, an autosampler can be programmed to start taking samples of a river at 8-minute intervals when the rainfall intensity rises above 1&#160;mm \/ hour. The trigger in this case may be a remote rain gauge communicating with the sampler by using cell phone or meteor burst[42] technology. Samplers can also take individual discrete samples at each sampling occasion or bulk up samples into composite so that in the course of one day, such a sampler might produce 12 composite samples each composed of 6 sub-samples taken at 20-minute intervals.\nContinuous or quasi-continuous monitoring involves having an automated analytical facility close to the environment being monitored so that results can, if required, be viewed in real time. Such systems are often established to protect important water supplies such as in the River Dee regulation system but may also be part of an overall monitoring strategy on large strategic rivers where early warning of potential problems is essential. Such systems routinely provide data on parameters such as pH, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, turbidity and ammonia using sondes.[43] It is also possible to operate gas liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry technologies (GLC\/MS) to examine a wide range of potential organic pollutants. In all examples of automated bank-side analysis there is a requirement for water to be pumped from the river into the monitoring station. Choosing a location for the pump inlet is equally as critical as deciding on the location for a river grab sample. The design of the pump and pipework also requires careful design to avoid artefacts being introduced through the action of pumping the water. Dissolved oxygen concentration is difficult to sustain through a pumped system and GLC\/MS facilities can detect micro-organic contaminants from the pipework and glands.\n\nPassive sampling \nMain article: Passive sampling\nThe use of passive samplers greatly reduces the cost and the need of infrastructure on the sampling location. Passive samplers are semi-disposable and can be produced at a relatively low cost, thus they can be employed in great numbers, allowing for a better cover and more data being collected. Due to being small the passive sampler can also be hidden, and thereby lower the risk of vandalism. Examples of passive sampling devices are the diffusive gradients in thin films (DGT) sampler, Chemcatcher, polar organic chemical integrative sampler (POCIS), semipermeable membrane devices (SPMDs), stabilized liquid membrane devices (SLMDs), and an air sampling pump.\n\nRemote surveillance \nAlthough on-site data collection using electronic measuring equipment is common-place, many monitoring programmes also use remote surveillance and remote access to data in real time. This requires the on-site monitoring equipment to be connected to a base station via either a telemetry network, land-line, cell phone network or other telemetry system such as Meteor burst. The advantage of remote surveillance is that many data feeds can come into a single base station for storing and analysis. It also enable trigger levels or alert levels to be set for individual monitoring sites and\/or parameters so that immediate action can be initiated if a trigger level is exceeded. The use of remote surveillance also allows for the installation of very discrete monitoring equipment which can often be buried, camouflaged or tethered at depth in a lake or river with only a short whip aerial protruding. Use of such equipment tends to reduce vandalism and theft when monitoring in locations easily accessible by the public.\n\nRemote sensing \nMain article: Remote sensing\nEnvironmental remote sensing uses UAV, aircraft or satellites to monitor the environment using multi-channel sensors.\nThere are two kinds of remote sensing. Passive sensors detect natural radiation that is emitted or reflected by the object or surrounding area being observed. Reflected sunlight is the most common source of radiation measured by passive sensors and in environmental remote sensing, the sensors used are tuned to specific wavelengths from far infrared through visible light frequencies to the far ultraviolet. The volumes of data that can be collected are very large and require dedicated computational support. The output of data analysis from remote sensing are false colour images which differentiate small differences in the radiation characteristics of the environment being monitored. With a skilful operator choosing specific channels it is possible to amplify differences which are imperceptible to the human eye. In particular it is possible to discriminate subtle changes in chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b concentrations in plants and show areas of an environment with slightly different nutrient regimes.\nActive remote sensing emits energy and uses a passive sensor to detect and measure the radiation that is reflected or backscattered from the target. LIDAR is often used to acquire information about the topography of an area, especially when the area is large and manual surveying would be prohibitively expensive or difficult.\nRemote sensing makes it possible to collect data on dangerous or inaccessible areas. Remote sensing applications include monitoring deforestation in areas such as the Amazon Basin, the effects of climate change on glaciers and Arctic and Antarctic regions, and depth sounding of coastal and ocean depths.\nOrbital platforms collect and transmit data from different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, which in conjunction with larger scale aerial or ground-based sensing and analysis, provides information to monitor trends such as El Ni\u00f1o and other natural long and short term phenomena. Other uses include different areas of the earth sciences such as natural resource management, land use planning and conservation.[44]\n\nBiomonitoring \nMain article: Aquatic biomonitoring\nThe use of living organisms as monitoring tools has many advantages. Organisms living in the environment under study are constantly exposed to the physical, biological and chemical influences of that environment. Organisms that have a tendency to accumulate chemical species can often accumulate significant quantities of material from very low concentrations in the environment. Mosses have been used by many investigators to monitor heavy metal concentrations because of their tendency to selectively adsorb heavy metals.[45][46]\nSimilarly, eels have been used to study halogenated organic chemicals, as these are adsorbed into the fatty deposits within the eel.[47]\n\nOther sampling methods \nEcological sampling requires careful planning to be representative and as noninvasive as possible. For grasslands and other low growing habitats the use of a quadrat \u2013 a 1-metre square frame \u2013 is often used with the numbers and types of organisms growing within each quadrat area counted[48]\nSediments and soils require specialist sampling tools to ensure that the material recovered is representative. Such samplers are frequently designed to recover a specified volume of material and may also be designed to recover the sediment or soil living biota as well[49] such as the Ekman grab sampler.\n\nData interpretations \nThe interpretation of environmental data produced from a well designed monitoring programme is a large and complex topic addressed by many publications. Regrettably it is sometimes the case that scientists approach the analysis of results with a pre-conceived outcome in mind and use or misuse statistics to demonstrate that their own particular point of view is correct.\nStatistics remains a tool that is equally easy to use or to misuse to demonstrate the lessons learnt from environmental monitoring.\n\nEnvironmental quality indices \nSince the start of science-based environmental monitoring, a number of quality indices have been devised to help classify and clarify the meaning of the considerable volumes of data involved. Stating that a river stretch is in \"Class B\" is likely to be much more informative than stating that this river stretch has a mean BOD of 4.2, a mean dissolved oxygen of 85%, etc. In the UK the Environment Agency formally employed a system called General Quality Assessment (GQA) which classified rivers into six quality letter bands from A to F based on chemical criteria[50] and on biological criteria.[51] The Environment Agency and its devolved partners in Wales (Countryside Council for Wales, CCW) and Scotland (Scottish Environmental Protection Agency, SEPA) now employ a system of biological, chemical and physical classification for rivers and lakes that corresponds with the EU Water Framework Directive.[52]\n\nSee also \nAgricultural burning\nAgricultural waste\nBiodiversity Monitoring Switzerland\nCarbon monitoring\nCarbon profiling\nCitizen science, research projects that non-scientists can take part in\nCrowdmapping\nEnvironmental technology\nProject Grab Bag\nUnmanned aerial vehicle \u00a7&#160;Applications: drones can be used for various types of environmental monitoring\nReferences \n\n\n^ Forbes, P.B.C. (2015). \"Chapter 1: Perspectives on the Monitoring of Air Pollutants\". In Barcelo, D. (ed.). Monitoring of Air Pollutants: Sampling, Sample Preparation and Analytical Techniques. Comprehensive Analytical Chemistry. Vol.&#160;70. Elsevier. pp.&#160;3\u20139. ISBN&#160;9780444635532. Retrieved 31 May 2018 . \n\n^ a b Rada, E.C.; Ragazzi, M.; Brini, M.; et&#160;al. (2016). \"Chapter 1: Perspectives of Low-Cost Sensors Adoption for Air Quality Monitoring\". In Ragazzi, M. (ed.). Air Quality: Monitoring, Measuring, and Modeling Environmental Hazards. CRC Press. ISBN&#160;9781315341859. Retrieved 31 May 2018 . \n\n^ Williams, R.; Kilaru, V.; Snyder, E.; et&#160;al. (June 2014). \"Air Sensor Guidebook\" (PDF) . U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. p.&#160;65. Retrieved 31 May 2018 . \n\n^ \"GO3 Project\". GO3 Foundation. Archived from the original on 29 May 2018. Retrieved 31 May 2018 . \n\n^ \"Louisiana Bucket Brigade\". Louisiana Bucket Brigade. 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(2006). \"Chapter 28: Soil Erosion and Sediment Redistribution in River Catchments: Summary, Outlook and Future Requirements\". Soil Erosion and Sediment Redistribution in River Catchments: Measurement, Modelling And Management. CABI International. pp.&#160;297\u2013318. ISBN&#160;9780851990507. Retrieved 30 May 2018 . \n\n^ Pierce, F.J.; Lai, R. (1994). \"Chapter 10: Monitoring soil erosion's impact on crop productivity\". In Lai, R. (ed.). Soil Erosion Research Methods. Soil and Water Conservation Society and St. Lucie Press. ISBN&#160;9781351415965. Retrieved 30 May 2018 . \n\n^ a b c Shahid, S.A. (2013). \"Chapter 1: Developments in Soil Salinity Assessment, Modeling, Mapping, and Monitoring from Regional to Submicroscopic Scales\". In Shahid, S.A.; Abdelfattah, M.A.; Taha, F.K. (eds.). Developments in Soil Salinity Assessment and Reclamation: Innovative Thinking and Use of Marginal Soil and Water Resources in Irrigated Agriculture. Springer Science+Business Media. pp.&#160;3\u201344. ISBN&#160;9789400756847. Retrieved 30 May 2018 . \n\n^ United Nations Environment Programme. Mineral Resources Forum. \"General guideline for an environmental monitoring programme.\" \n\n^ Stribling J. B. &amp; Davie S.R., \"Design of an environmental monitoring programme for the Lake Allatoona\/Upper Etowah river watershed.\" Proceedings of the 2005 Georgia Water Resources Conference, April 25\u201327, 2005. \n\n^ Hart, C.W.; Fuller, Samuel F.J. (1974). Pollution Ecology of Freshwater Invertebrates. New York: Academic Press. ISBN&#160;0-12-328450-3. \n\n^ Wrona, Frederick J. &amp; Cash, Kevin J. (May 1996). \"The ecosystem approach to environmental assessment: moving from theory to practice\". Journal of Aquatic Ecosystem Health. Springer. 5 (2): 89\u201397. doi:10.1007\/BF00662797. \n\n^ International Atomic Energy Agency (2007). IAEA Safety Glossary: Terminology Used in Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection (PDF) . Vienna: IAEA. ISBN&#160;978-92-0-100707-0. \n\n^ International Atomic Energy Agency (2005). Environmental and Source Monitoring for Purposes of Radiation Protection, IAEA Safety Standards Series No. RS\u2013G-1.8 (PDF) . Vienna: IAEA. \n\n^ International Atomic Energy Agency (2010). Programmes and Systems for Source and Environmental Radiation Monitoring. Safety Reports Series No. 64. Vienna: IAEA. p.&#160;234. ISBN&#160;978-92-0-112409-8. \n\n^ \"A Guide to Environmental DNA (eDNA) by Biomeme\". Biomeme. \n\n^ Environment Agency (December 2017). \"MCERTS: Quality and performance standards for environmental data management software\". GOV.UK. p.&#160;55. Retrieved 31 May 2018 . \n\n^ Environment Agency (9 February 2017). \"Monitoring emissions to air, land and water (MCERTS)\". GOV.UK. Retrieved 31 May 2018 . \n\n^ \"MCERTS Certified Products\". CSA Group. Retrieved 31 May 2018 . \n\n^ a b c d e f \"Guidance on Choosing a Sampling Design for Environmental Data Collection for Use in Developing a Quality Assurance Project Plan EPA QA\/G-5S\" (PDF) . United States Environmental Protection Agency. October 2002. Retrieved 21 April 2017 . This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. \n\n^ a b c Nollet, Leo M.L., ed. (2000). Handbook of Water Analysis. New York: Marcel Dekker. ISBN&#160;0-8247-8433-2. \n\n^ \nShaw, Elizabeth M. (1984). \"Book reviews: 'Proceedings of the International Symposium on Hydrometeorology' edited by A.I. Johnson &amp; R.A. Clark\" (PDF) . Hydrological Sciences Journal. 29 (4): 462\u2013463. ISSN&#160;0262-6667. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-21. Retrieved 2009-10-22 . \n\n^ Environment Agency (29 September 2015). \"The Sonde of Music\". Environment Agency Creating a Better Place Blog. Retrieved 7 November 2023 . \n\n^ Short, Nicholas M. Sr. \"Remote Sensing Tutorial.\" Archived 2009-10-27 at the Wayback Machine U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Greenbelt, MD. 2009-09-23. \n\n^ Pott, U. &amp; Turpin, D. H. (1998). \"Assessment of Atmospheric Heavy Metals by Moss Monitoring with Isothecium Stoloniferum Brid. in the Fraser Valley, B.C., Canada.\" Water, Air, &amp; Soil Pollution. Vol. 101, Nos. 1\u20134, January 1998, ISSN&#160;0049-6979. \n\n^ Bragazzaa, Marchesinia, Alberb, Bonettic, Lorenzonic, Achillid, Buffonid, De Marcoe, Franchif, Pisonf, Giaquintag, Palmierih Spezzano (2000). \"Monitoring of heavy metal deposition in Northern Italy by moss analysis.\" Environmental Pollution, Vol. 108, No. 2, pp 201\u2013208. \n\n^ C. Belpaire and G. Goemans, \"Eels: contaminant cocktails pinpointing environmental contamination.\" ICES J. Mar. Sci. 64: 1423\u20131436. \n\n^ Offwell Woodland &amp; Wildlife Trust. Devon, UK. \"Ecological Sampling Methods.\" Accessed 2009-10-21. \n\n^ Csuros, Csaba; Csuros, Maria (2002). Environmental sampling and analysis for metals. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. p.&#160;219. ISBN&#160;978-1-56670-572-1. \n\n^ Environment Agency, UK. Chemistry classification method Archived 2014-10-27 at the Wayback Machine \n\n^ Environment Agency. General quality assessment of rivers \u2013 biology Archived 2014-10-27 at the Wayback Machine \n\n^ European Union Water Framework Directive, EU WFD \n\n\n\r\n\n\nvteAquatic ecosystemsAquatic ecosystems&#160;\u2013 general and freshwater componentsGeneral\nAcoustic ecology\nAdaptation\nAgent-based models\nAlgal bloom\nAnoxic waters\nAquatic animals (Insects\nMammals)\nAquatic plants\nAquatic science\nBenthos\nBiodiversity research\nBioluminescence\nBiomass\nBiomonitoring\nCascade effect\nColored dissolved organic matter\nCamouflage and mimicry\nDead zone\nEcohydrology\nEcosystems\nEutrophication\nFisheries science\nFood chain\nFood web\nGIS and aquatic science\nHydrobiology\nHypoxia\nIsotope analysis\nMacrobenthos\nMeiobenthos\nMicrobial ecology\nMicrobial food web\nMicrobial loop\nNekton\nNeuston\nParticle\nPelagic zone\nPhotic zone\nPhytoplankton\nPlankton\nPleuston\nPredation\nProductivity\nRamsar Convention\nRespiration\nSchooling\nSediment trap\nSiltation\nSpawning\nSubstrate\nThermal pollution\nToxicology\nTrophic level\nWater column\nZooplankton\nMore...\n Freshwater\nBiology\nBiomes\nEcosystems\nfreshwater\nlake\nriver\nFish\nHyporheic zone\nLimnology\nLake stratification\nMacrophyte\nPond\nFish pond\nRheotaxis\nStream bed\nStream pool\nTrophic state index\nUpland and lowland\nWater garden\nWetland\nbrackish marsh\nfreshwater marsh\nswamp\nbog\nfen\nEnvironmental quality\nMore...\nEcoregions\nFreshwater (List)\nMarine (List)\nThe Everglades\nMaharashtra\nThe North Pacific Subtropical Gyre\nThe San Francisco Estuary\nAquatic ecosystems&#160;\u2013 marine componentsMarine\nMarine biology\nMarine chemistry\nDeep scattering layer\nDiel vertical migration\nEcosystems\nlarge marine\nmarine)\nf-ratio\nFood web\nIron fertilization\nMarine snow\nOcean nourishment\nOceanic physical-biological process\nPrimary production\nOcean turbidity\nPhotophore\nThorson's rule\nUpwelling\nViral shunt\nWhale fall\nMore...\n Marine\r\nlife\nBacteriophages\nCensus\nFish\ncoastal\ncoral reef\ndeep sea\ndemersal\npelagic\nDeep sea communities\nDeep sea creature\nDeep-water coral\nInvertebrates\nLarvae\nMammals\nMarine life\nMicroorganisms\nParadox of the plankton\nProkaryotes\nProtists\nReptiles\nSeabirds\nSeashore wildlife\nVertebrates\nViruses\nWild fisheries\nMarine\r\nhabitats\nCoastal habitats\nCoastal biogeomorphology\nBay mud\nCold seeps\nCoral reefs\nDavidson Seamount\nEstuaries\nIntertidal ecology\nIntertidal wetlands\nKelp forests\nHydrothermal vents\nLagoons\nMangroves\nMarine biomes\nMudflats\nOyster reefs\nRocky shores\nSalt marshes\nSalt pannes and pools\nSeagrass meadows\nSponge grounds\nSponge reefs\nTide pools\nIssues\nCoral bleaching\nEcological values of mangroves\nFisheries and climate change\nHERMIONE\nHuman impact on marine life\nMarine conservation\nMarine conservation activism\nMarine pollution\nMarine Protected Area\n &#160;Oceans portal\nvtePollutionAir\nAcid rain\nAir quality index\nAtmospheric dispersion modeling\nChlorofluorocarbon\nCombustion\nBiofuel\nBiomass\nJoss paper\nOpen burning of waste\nConstruction\nRenovation\nDemolition\nExhaust gas\nDiesel exhaust\nHaze\nSmoke\nIndoor air\nInternal combustion engine\nGlobal dimming\nGlobal distillation\nMining\nOzone depletion\nParticulates\nAsbestos\nMetal working\nOil refining\nWood dust\nWelding\nPersistent organic pollutant\nSmelting\nSmog\nAerosol\nSoot\nBlack carbon\nVolatile organic compound\nWaste\nBiological\nBiological hazard\nGenetic pollution\nIntroduced species\nInvasive species\nDigital\nInformation pollution\nElectromagnetic\nLight\nEcological light pollution\nOverillumination\nRadio spectrum pollution\nNatural\nOzone\nRadium and radon in the environment\nVolcanic ash\nWildfire\nNoise\nTransportation\nLand\nWater\nAir\nRail\nSustainable transport\nUrban\nSonar\nMarine mammals and sonar\nIndustrial\nMilitary\nAbstract\nNoise control\nRadiation\nActinides\nBioremediation\nNuclear fission\nNuclear fallout\nPlutonium\nPoisoning\nRadioactivity\nUranium\nElectromagnetic radiation and health\nRadioactive waste\nSoil\nAgricultural pollution\nHerbicides\nManure waste\nPesticides\nLand degradation\nBioremediation\nOpen defecation\nElectrical resistance heating\nSoil guideline values\nPhytoremediation\nSolid waste\nBiodegradable waste\nBrown waste\nElectronic waste\nBattery recycling\nFood waste\nGreen waste\nHazardous waste\nBiomedical waste\nChemical waste\nConstruction waste\nLead poisoning\nMercury poisoning\nToxic waste\nIndustrial waste\nLead smelting\nLitter\nMining\nCoal mining\nGold mining\nSurface mining\nDeep sea mining\nMining waste\nUranium mining\nMunicipal solid waste\nGarbage\nNanomaterials\nPlastic pollution\nMicroplastics\nPackaging waste\nPost-consumer waste\nWaste management\nLandfill\nThermal treatment\n Space\nSatellite\nVisual\nAir travel\nClutter (advertising)\nTraffic signs\nOverhead power lines\nVandalism\nWar\nChemical warfare\nHerbicidal warfare (Agent Orange)\nNuclear holocaust (Nuclear fallout - nuclear famine - nuclear winter)\nScorched earth\nUnexploded ordnance\nWar and environmental law\nWater\nAgricultural wastewater\nBiological pollution\nDiseases\nEutrophication\nFirewater\nFreshwater\nGroundwater\nHypoxia\nIndustrial wastewater\nMarine\ndebris\nMonitoring\nNonpoint source pollution\nNutrient pollution\nOcean acidification\nOil exploitation\nOil exploration\nOil spill\nPharmaceuticals\nSewage\nSeptic tanks\nPit latrine\nShipping\nStagnation\nSulfur water\nSurface runoff\nThermal\nTurbidity\nUrban runoff\nWater quality\nTopics\nPollutants\nHeavy metals\nPaint\nMisc\nArea source\nDebris\nDust\nGarbology\nLegacy pollution\nMidden\nPoint source\nWaste\nResponses\nCleaner production\nIndustrial ecology\nPollution haven hypothesis\nPollutant release and transfer register\nPolluter pays principle\nPollution control\nWaste minimisation\nZero waste\nLists\nDiseases\nLaw by country\nMost polluted cities\nLeast polluted cities by PM2.5\nMost polluted countries\nTreaties\n Categories (by country) Commons WikiProject Environment WikiProject Ecology &#160;Environment portal &#160;Ecology portal\nAuthority control databases National\nLatvia \nCzech Republic \nOther\nNARA \n\n\n\n\n\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Environmental_monitoring\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Environmental_monitoring<\/a>\nCategory: Environmental industryHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 19 September 2022, at 23:21.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 3,378 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","4671d3cbb4201e1698d0fb44369dc1ea_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Environmental_monitoring rootpage-Environmental_monitoring skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Environmental monitoring<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Monitoring of the quality of the environment<\/div>\n<table class=\"sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist\" style=\"\"><tbody><tr><td class=\"sidebar-pretitle\">Part of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Pollution\" title=\"Category:Pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6d82cf2156083627fa9778cdb77911e\">series<\/a> on<\/td><\/tr><tr><th class=\"sidebar-title-with-pretitle\" style=\"padding-bottom:0; background:#fadcc5; color:#fadcc5\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pollution\" title=\"Pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1f7d7e67c530bb165af7535f3eec1145\"><span style=\"color:#000000;\">Pollution<\/span><\/a><\/th><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-image\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\/Frameless\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Rosette_sampler_EPA.gif\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"29d75d2489f4559ca6c8c667826b875f\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/0\/03\/Rosette_sampler_EPA.gif\/150px-Rosette_sampler_EPA.gif\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"150\" height=\"225\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><div class=\"sidebar-caption\">A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rosette_sampler\" title=\"Rosette sampler\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8fa1cb854233a2ded8bcbbbbf5b44988\">rosette sampler<\/a> used for ocean monitoring<\/div><\/td><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.1em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Air_pollution\" title=\"Air pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff93abe12fa3d63865b44e344db1d1bb\">Air<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Air_quality_index\" title=\"Air quality index\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"df76e0a73a43819f452de47299a9ab0a\">Air quality index<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Atmospheric_dispersion_modeling\" title=\"Atmospheric dispersion modeling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"32d9f7bd6af757db9ce26bb1a4b0623f\">Atmospheric dispersion modeling<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chlorofluorocarbon\" title=\"Chlorofluorocarbon\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c40308d0d98ddfb7cca9d20f9730ae7\">Chlorofluorocarbon<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Combustion\" title=\"Combustion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fa5e9c0adb42af5379a9313e70295263\">Combustion<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Exhaust_gas\" title=\"Exhaust gas\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"25032ce8f75807484fb497874b0fc776\">Exhaust gas<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Haze\" title=\"Haze\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7c8809600a3ed2864ec9d482b82f8547\">Haze<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Global_dimming\" title=\"Global dimming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea7a123dbb540f75c9baf920345a5cbc\">Global dimming<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Global_distillation\" title=\"Global distillation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2116803806472c8f8f7ea5658284113c\">Global distillation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ozone_depletion\" title=\"Ozone depletion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d640e7ce227b6ed3b35c3ddd09d99dbf\">Ozone depletion<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Particulates\" title=\"Particulates\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"071797f440b2db7389d539b3c5b1089a\">Particulates<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Persistent_organic_pollutant\" title=\"Persistent organic pollutant\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"212403a5dc3a1fe0de0524231d5bad9e\">Persistent organic pollutant<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smog\" title=\"Smog\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eee5bac1d0b2c8d1e7412413026194b6\">Smog<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soot\" title=\"Soot\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6409342b6a37dffdfd57178ab50b0480\">Soot<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Volatile_organic_compound\" title=\"Volatile organic compound\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"05d177224420a3de7b2d626ee19e83e8\">Volatile organic compound<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Waste\" title=\"Waste\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bcc0e1d9489f708dbaa04840fcf47d7\">Waste<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.1em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biological_pollution\" title=\"Biological pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14e16668c4b302f7f2078a1c1706cd8d\">Biological<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biological_hazard\" title=\"Biological hazard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48ba76740039dcd7d880e53683329477\">Biological hazard<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genetic_pollution\" title=\"Genetic pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8cb85ab9c1576e19f14d3e9f3cf309ec\">Genetic<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Introduced_species\" title=\"Introduced species\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6c8d1f4c11de22f6e03bebaf71b61e4\">Introduced species<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Invasive_species\" title=\"Invasive species\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"db52c6ad2e1c2be3297ee2b6ed736d33\">Invasive species<\/a>)<\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.1em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;\">Digital<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_pollution\" title=\"Information pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef776da082e2634e962ed53649dadf0f\">Information<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.1em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electromagnetic_radiation_and_health\" title=\"Electromagnetic radiation and health\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c98a9677d9c8a4ba49a251fc77a879c1\">Electromagnetic<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Light_pollution\" title=\"Light pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"57e165e7d1131f24c5279cbd26d0bc5f\">Light<\/a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ecological_light_pollution\" title=\"Ecological light pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"61e645acc42ddc2b7b60ae2b6d4eef0d\">Ecological<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Overillumination\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Overillumination\" data-key=\"b073865ddae91e87b4db01dc1fb0c10d\">Overillumination<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Radio_spectrum_pollution\" title=\"Radio spectrum pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9862ad2afcd62f87295e5b82e7da1626\">Radio spectrum<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.1em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;\">Natural<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ozone\" title=\"Ozone\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cc226fa4bae5671d1659136fa4e8af95\">Ozone<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Radium_and_radon_in_the_environment\" title=\"Radium and radon in the environment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"014e1ffaa20ad6d672b12cf55df2b99e\">Radium and radon in the environment<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Volcanic_ash\" title=\"Volcanic ash\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9501532105afffe55881df0449318566\">Volcanic ash<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wildfire\" title=\"Wildfire\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a7e0736598ad86eb14034b9b8c34d6f1\">Wildfire<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.1em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Noise_pollution\" title=\"Noise pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0e8b0de9adc566183b2d23dd3741f6ea\">Noise<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_effects_of_transport\" title=\"Environmental effects of transport\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a7de8c05a158301b985fb7255f69451a\">Transportation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Marine_mammals_and_sonar\" title=\"Marine mammals and sonar\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6018e5d545f1d394cc93f0dcea6cfb64\">Marine mammals and sonar<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Noise_control\" title=\"Noise control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00d1210ba540595a6c48f4a631b668c3\">Noise control<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.1em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Radioactive_contamination\" title=\"Radioactive contamination\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2481d0d8af5a584325ff1a2b2326dc9e\">Radiation<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Actinides_in_the_environment\" title=\"Actinides in the environment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bf867f43dc97c88ba499be2720891f59\">Actinides<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bioremediation_of_radioactive_waste\" title=\"Bioremediation of radioactive waste\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2906ad64e83fcd2ad25322d63c55ddff\">Bioremediation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Depleted_uranium\" title=\"Depleted uranium\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96071fed64182be1b49e09623448eec4\">Depleted uranium<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nuclear_fission_product\" title=\"Nuclear fission product\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"80174d9d5f9f43d2276b3e6cec8bdfe8\">Nuclear fission<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nuclear_fallout\" title=\"Nuclear fallout\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cb5938076d8275166f89b9eec4b8d94c\">Nuclear fallout<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Plutonium_in_the_environment\" title=\"Plutonium in the environment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aba3d9cbf37882268473f7c2bcef7625\">Plutonium<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Acute_radiation_syndrome\" title=\"Acute radiation syndrome\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3f97ddbe1f7b332080798edc21ef702\">Poisoning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_radioactivity\" title=\"Environmental radioactivity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a87fe43d7dddb7baeb57f6c873adc534\">Radioactivity<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Uranium_in_the_environment\" title=\"Uranium in the environment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f1c5480fd8e743196aace575fdaaa3c2\">Uranium<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Radioactive_waste\" title=\"Radioactive waste\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46478d5963dc8d5ca184aa599ad2e915\">Radioactive waste<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.1em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_contamination\" title=\"Soil contamination\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1ffa53bc2835f564b612afecd087c8d\">Soil<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Agricultural_pollution\" title=\"Agricultural pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14e64fea6542ed30271dd35447f53a62\">Agricultural<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Land_degradation\" title=\"Land degradation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a12c87e060e1fdcb7d0a58f7b7162e73\">Land degradation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bioremediation\" title=\"Bioremediation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4de2061ce303d62b32c192bfadba8a5d\">Bioremediation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Open_defecation\" title=\"Open defecation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aa8661526b2a7b61104c3d0faceb7312\">Defecation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electrical_resistance_heating\" title=\"Electrical resistance heating\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f79cdbd2dc7595c1bd85f075559dc0cc\">Electrical resistance heating<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_guideline_value\" title=\"Soil guideline value\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01e29c2b1feb4862a79725e8c229748b\">Soil guideline values<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Phytoremediation\" title=\"Phytoremediation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d4dd20d7e939e56b0b5391c0e52821f9\">Phytoremediation<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.1em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;\">Solid waste<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biodegradable_waste\" title=\"Biodegradable waste\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"71f74731b3b9176837695af66f4ce312\">Biodegradable waste<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Brown_waste\" title=\"Brown waste\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"144da1eea96d21d27eb9113b5707dd8e\">Brown waste<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_waste\" title=\"Electronic waste\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3cb14f246ba9622017b88db29416c244\">Electronic waste<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Food_loss_and_waste\" title=\"Food loss and waste\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"498abd2ddaced2eb81350ec8799d64fd\">Food waste<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Green_waste\" title=\"Green waste\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e9216b2f57763910fac28031f8368e18\">Green waste<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hazardous_waste\" title=\"Hazardous waste\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fbae2fc337edd4c158a13cf5c08c5335\">Hazardous waste<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Industrial_waste\" title=\"Industrial waste\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42ae36e613ec53fc64cd06a78b008e53\">Industrial waste<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Litter\" title=\"Litter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"522f1d803a3bc05d9349fbee2a423a78\">Litter<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_effects_of_mining\" title=\"Environmental effects of mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c182d7c7142ed6104ae12aeb02ab7677\">Mining<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Municipal_solid_waste\" title=\"Municipal solid waste\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d11bbfbb0ab2f34a3e4b8cf01f61478f\">Municipal solid waste<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pollution_from_nanomaterials\" title=\"Pollution from nanomaterials\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2e4d5475838220095cb3d15d14036122\">Nanomaterials<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Plastic_pollution\" title=\"Plastic pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0e6647b8470677923fb503366bf3c087\">Plastic<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Packaging_waste\" title=\"Packaging waste\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1e5b16d8557e228e1fa8bd120f7bf9a\">Packaging waste<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Post-consumer_waste\" title=\"Post-consumer waste\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73de772477992c4036da31ecee5e2a95\">Post-consumer waste<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Waste_management\" title=\"Waste management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e7b9a72b8840376189c4b89eea0ef856\">Waste management<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.1em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Space_debris\" title=\"Space debris\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d5ec058c814498d430c353f1a6973022\">Space<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Space_debris\" title=\"Space debris\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d5ec058c814498d430c353f1a6973022\">Rockets, satellites, spacecraft<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.1em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thermal_pollution\" title=\"Thermal pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b87329c9fa7aefbb0d6e32e24d30e39\">Thermal<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Urban_heat_island\" title=\"Urban heat island\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8f38b8d43780e908377262f3e1d283d\">Urban heat island<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.1em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Visual_pollution\" title=\"Visual pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"893894a89eca37957ba851642aa3d69f\">Visual<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Air_travel\" title=\"Air travel\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"da78e358f49380c8c6000a7281bc8f83\">Air travel<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Clutter_(advertising)\" title=\"Clutter (advertising)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"61d6cc6edc2db869ad80c61ba2117d41\">Advertising clutter<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Overhead_power_line\" title=\"Overhead power line\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6d9de18bf77aba19c2ad95e5aeb796bd\">Overhead power lines<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Traffic_sign\" title=\"Traffic sign\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"95f77252c7b33ff99d508bd0fd85e76f\">Traffic signs<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vandalism\" title=\"Vandalism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c08614c84c346d61e78184241c5685c\">Vandalism<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.1em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_impact_of_war\" title=\"Environmental impact of war\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d161a01d50861053b06955806294f72a\">War<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chemical_warfare\" title=\"Chemical warfare\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5ffb4804a8bfa99566df729806a94f9e\">Chemical warfare<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Herbicidal_warfare\" title=\"Herbicidal warfare\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"feb7cee9405d1fc129dc285c95aa883a\">Herbicidal warfare<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Agent_Orange\" title=\"Agent Orange\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b9e437c58fbb0ddf3f1ec6b1be91638c\">Agent Orange<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nuclear_holocaust\" title=\"Nuclear holocaust\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8e46713ca4e4929d8437bab0e34d9a3\">Nuclear holocaust<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nuclear_fallout\" title=\"Nuclear fallout\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cb5938076d8275166f89b9eec4b8d94c\">Nuclear fallout<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nuclear_famine\" title=\"Nuclear famine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c8f96db6815a03ccb4bf8254c9b9bcce\">nuclear famine<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nuclear_winter\" title=\"Nuclear winter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fb67f846731350f0a92c8f061e769317\">nuclear winter<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scorched_earth\" title=\"Scorched earth\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fdda2645eed6a20aa9d1b2507eab5e1e\">Scorched earth<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unexploded_ordnance\" title=\"Unexploded ordnance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d32f084973946aa8462d1ae2cbc0ad06\">Unexploded ordnance<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/War_and_environmental_law\" title=\"War and environmental law\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed548d6570248f8548e7998cfd107a63\">War and environmental law<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.1em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Water_pollution\" title=\"Water pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"54531d0ebbab4e201a6153717e38b877\">Water<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Agricultural_wastewater_treatment\" title=\"Agricultural wastewater treatment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"504e72bd5f617d707302d6cd2584da9f\">Agricultural wastewater<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biosolids\" title=\"Biosolids\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"99c012d39ae31ba85062b2e6a5f1a737\">Biosolids<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Waterborne_diseases\" title=\"Waterborne diseases\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f9475f33c6afd355a086cc0548659e3\">Diseases<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Eutrophication\" title=\"Eutrophication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2e5039eca84457fe344148f69b0144d5\">Eutrophication<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Firewater_(fire_fighting)\" title=\"Firewater (fire fighting)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8003a210efdf41227e05c7d28aa6bbe\">Firewater<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Freshwater_environmental_quality_parameters\" title=\"Freshwater environmental quality parameters\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"41f2b35e91a480b0be749488a8f295f5\">Freshwater<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Groundwater_pollution\" title=\"Groundwater pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d625dea89026b5b9ca3353fcca0e1742\">Groundwater<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hypoxia_(environmental)\" title=\"Hypoxia (environmental)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd89f980db00a26674504897d05b7c36\">Hypoxia<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Industrial_wastewater_treatment\" title=\"Industrial wastewater treatment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"71e52ed2b497a2a9987f1ed3a1e7ebcd\">Industrial wastewater<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Marine_pollution\" title=\"Marine pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2afa6f89276d17d3150e9ac83d026b36\">Marine<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a class=\"mw-selflink selflink\">Monitoring<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nonpoint_source_pollution\" title=\"Nonpoint source pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b6167cf1118b35fb0a555d185047dbce\">Nonpoint source<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nutrient_pollution\" title=\"Nutrient pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"71a37f5d360ef8074710e53ef0913d7d\">Nutrient<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ocean_acidification\" title=\"Ocean acidification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6d54bc4baa2b463fc0c08a68e7520436\">Ocean acidification<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oil_spill\" title=\"Oil spill\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ada744f30f0244382ef1e8762e728d4d\">Oil spill<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_impact_of_pharmaceuticals_and_personal_care_products\" title=\"Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e082dbc7f5bdd318bc1242c24581dba\">Pharmaceuticals<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Freshwater_salinization\" title=\"Freshwater salinization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a5c6814594bfc2c29492792be502ca0c\">Freshwater salinization<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Septic_tank\" title=\"Septic tank\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e8c4a8032f66b075e3ce3a9477713a56\">Septic tanks<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sewage\" title=\"Sewage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a2b6f66b753d63387d8dfc30977453f\">Sewage<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_effects_of_shipping\" title=\"Environmental effects of shipping\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"10478e0e18ed4d44c53c16a29fd2810b\">Shipping<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sludge\" title=\"Sludge\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6076bc16144f4489cb1363aecaec9a35\">Sludge<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Water_stagnation\" title=\"Water stagnation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e37d37034ed801480a6c88ec039ca5a4\">Stagnation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sulfur_water\" title=\"Sulfur water\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1c16e86d513e75176f0ff4e8794d13a3\">Sulfur water<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Surface_runoff\" title=\"Surface runoff\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"995da15aacfd924fa620a148320eccb3\">Surface runoff<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Turbidity\" title=\"Turbidity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3d055ab047e4cc58980abb8c7df0bfb\">Turbidity<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Urban_runoff\" title=\"Urban runoff\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5e6c3443d5c5b22e460aaa5c9b60c86b\">Urban runoff<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Water_quality\" title=\"Water quality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"779fe26ba1dc26d6e5a4018e9fcb49b6\">Water quality<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wastewater\" title=\"Wastewater\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fb6976477fd99bce8c6f1b0865e7478e\">Wastewater<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.1em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;\">Topics<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pollutant\" title=\"Pollutant\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6925459872f1bf88a6184bdffecd5e8\">Pollutants<\/a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heavy_metals\" title=\"Heavy metals\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3ac86d769a2df3f6711d73649d10286b\">Heavy metals<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Paint\" title=\"Paint\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"77311817e2948874a3f91936867bf239\">Paint<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.1em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;\">Misc<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Area_source_pollution\" title=\"Area source pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1048001466288f16f666b47f76910c78\">Area source<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Debris\" title=\"Debris\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"19d081b7e7215c8970a0c0f2308df4be\">Debris<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dust\" title=\"Dust\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1122ab1c4a2ff7d39946d82cf7622b6\">Dust<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Garbology\" title=\"Garbology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f8a71df9776b1a6184a2920b66f3119a\">Garbology<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Legacy_pollution\" title=\"Legacy pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"febb4586aa7725c796a977678f129f57\">Legacy pollution<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Midden\" title=\"Midden\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3db93db728391dae1de383e25ec56159\">Midden<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Point_source_pollution\" title=\"Point source pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"13f22b16ad1ef79f3f509968b95fe0ab\">Point source<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Waste\" title=\"Waste\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bcc0e1d9489f708dbaa04840fcf47d7\">Waste<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Lists\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_pollution-related_diseases\" title=\"List of pollution-related diseases\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ba01848dab031b030441e5282edc688\">Diseases<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_environmental_laws_by_country\" title=\"List of environmental laws by country\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7d219f518d8e05b8e5ee4ff0e769594c\">Law by country<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_most-polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration\" title=\"List of most-polluted cities by particulate matter concentration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"35a233cdcba1b3001496c504f628b12e\">Most polluted cities<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_least_polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration\" title=\"List of least polluted cities by particulate matter concentration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4ff8ef7123eec0cab81d2276a521d336\">Least polluted cities by PM2.5<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_international_environmental_agreements\" title=\"List of international environmental agreements\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ec0da1303d02d55dbb2cb3fd59656d2f\">Treaties<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Categories\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Pollution_by_country\" title=\"Category:Pollution by country\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"10791f6c3a5e2b46b2bd92afc36088a6\">By country<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-below\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;\">\n<ul><li><span class=\"noviewer\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"86192eb2ed19a42da2aa00c93999bacc\"><img alt=\"icon\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/b\/bf\/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg\/16px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"16\" height=\"14\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span>&#160;<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Portal:Environment\" title=\"Portal:Environment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f32e209cb3fb00ec6c45392c9ac94c6c\">Environment portal<\/a><\/li>\n<li><span class=\"mw-image-border noviewer\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"icon\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/6\/6a\/Earth_Day_Flag.png\/16px-Earth_Day_Flag.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"16\" height=\"11\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/span><\/span>&#160;<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Portal:Ecology\" title=\"Portal:Ecology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3a75e8eea341fc23e3311f654021d373\">Ecology portal<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/td><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-navbar\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p><b>Environmental monitoring<\/b> describes the processes and activities that need to take place to characterize and monitor the quality of the environment. Environmental monitoring is used in the preparation of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_impact_assessment\" title=\"Environmental impact assessment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"22131ac74a6b3f2c36b036b90d29a84f\">environmental impact assessments<\/a>, as well as in many circumstances in which human activities carry a risk of harmful effects on the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_environment\" title=\"Natural environment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6df22bcb227fd5b784896598d50389d7\">natural environment<\/a>.\nAll monitoring strategies and programs have reasons and justifications which are often designed to establish the current status of an environment or to establish trends in environmental parameters. In all cases, the results of monitoring will be reviewed, analyzed <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistics\" title=\"Statistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b33a2c126f998dcb96c31a065f1cf984\">statistically<\/a>, and published. The design of a monitoring program must therefore have regard to the final use of the data before monitoring starts.\n<\/p><p>Environmental monitoring includes monitoring of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Air_pollution\" title=\"Air pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff93abe12fa3d63865b44e344db1d1bb\">air quality<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil\" title=\"Soil\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07af34ab9a16e0916f7657b56bc1e474\">soils<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Water_quality\" title=\"Water quality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"779fe26ba1dc26d6e5a4018e9fcb49b6\">water quality<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"toclimit-3\"><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Air_quality_monitoring\">Air quality monitoring<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Perugia,_2012_-_Air_quality_monitoring_station.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"347ad9dba107ea2e9e2aefe43b5e04dc\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/9e\/Perugia%2C_2012_-_Air_quality_monitoring_station.jpg\/220px-Perugia%2C_2012_-_Air_quality_monitoring_station.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"330\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Air quality monitoring station<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Air_pollution_measurement\" title=\"Air pollution measurement\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b23a1020e5f47b30378e8e80ea0a813\">Air pollution measurement<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Air_quality_index\" title=\"Air quality index\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"df76e0a73a43819f452de47299a9ab0a\">Air quality index<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Continuous_emissions_monitoring_system\" title=\"Continuous emissions monitoring system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3b4d3c12ff01cfba5a1841f0f1883f11\">Continuous emissions monitoring system<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Particulate_matter_sampler\" title=\"Particulate matter sampler\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5bacfe747d2304b88b56051e46d5c24a\">Particulate matter sampler<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Portable_emissions_measurement_system\" title=\"Portable emissions measurement system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"52eea6c49c8b2b2acfcb5255ac33f485\">Portable emissions measurement system<\/a><\/div>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Air_pollution\" title=\"Air pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff93abe12fa3d63865b44e344db1d1bb\">Air pollutants<\/a> are atmospheric substances\u2014both naturally occurring and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_impact_on_the_environment\" title=\"Human impact on the environment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1cc67a4cf7f17c0a5c3ced4a2edb85f8\">anthropogenic<\/a>\u2014which may potentially have a negative impact on the environment and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Organism\" title=\"Organism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cef8762a7bb2e7279ba72134c53b5c13\">organism<\/a> health. With the evolution of new chemicals and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Industrial_processes\" title=\"Industrial processes\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b1d1d815adcc1eaef9537cc278d24b9a\">industrial processes<\/a> has come the introduction or elevation of pollutants in the atmosphere, as well as environmental research and regulations, increasing the demand for air quality monitoring.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ForbesPerspect15_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ForbesPerspect15-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Air quality monitoring is challenging to enact as it requires the effective integration of multiple environmental data sources, which often originate from different environmental networks and institutions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RadaPerspect16_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RadaPerspect16-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> These challenges require specialized observation equipment and tools to establish air pollutant concentrations, including sensor networks, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geographic_information_system\" title=\"Geographic information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3f7f83dfa8233daf8b51ca1a9a13ac28\">geographic information system<\/a> (GIS) models, and the Sensor Observation Service (SOS), a web service for querying real-time sensor data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RadaPerspect16_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RadaPerspect16-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Atmospheric_dispersion_modeling\" title=\"Atmospheric dispersion modeling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"32d9f7bd6af757db9ce26bb1a4b0623f\">Air dispersion models<\/a> that combine topographic, emissions, and meteorological data to predict air pollutant concentrations are often helpful in interpreting air monitoring data. Additionally, consideration of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anemometer\" title=\"Anemometer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6d6a9c1597b6df28b1be98f1d022ac2d\">anemometer<\/a> data in the area between sources and the monitor often provides insights on the source of the air contaminants recorded by an air pollution monitor.\n<\/p><p>Air quality monitors are operated by citizens,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WilliamsAir14_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WilliamsAir14-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GO3Home_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GO3Home-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LBBHome_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LBBHome-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> regulatory agencies,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EPAList16_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EPAList16-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IrelandEPANational17_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IrelandEPANational17-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> non-governmental organisations <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> and researchers<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> to investigate air quality and the effects of air pollution. Interpretation of ambient air monitoring data often involves a consideration of the spatial and temporal representativeness<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> of the data gathered, and the health effects associated with exposure to the monitored levels.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> If the interpretation reveals concentrations of multiple chemical compounds, a unique \"chemical fingerprint\" of a particular air pollution source may emerge from analysis of the data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EPAReceptor_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EPAReceptor-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Air_sampling\">Air sampling<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Passive or \"diffusive\" air sampling depends on meteorological conditions such as wind to diffuse air pollutants to a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sorbent\" title=\"Sorbent\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6c21aeb165a53383034db67d7ddb5a92\">sorbent<\/a> medium. Passive samplers, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Diffusion_tube\" title=\"Diffusion tube\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42b81fa1de06d5159c3d7d8d8093fde9\">diffusion tubes<\/a>, have the advantage of typically being small, quiet, and easy to deploy, and they are particularly useful in air quality studies that determine key areas for future continuous monitoring.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PienaarPassive15_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PienaarPassive15-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Air pollution can also be assessed by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biomonitoring\" title=\"Biomonitoring\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"99ec7ea21b74b4378fe945f94e813ded\">biomonitoring<\/a> with organisms that <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bioaccumulation\" title=\"Bioaccumulation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cb77fbd7b9523306b127361251c7b15d\">bioaccumulate<\/a> air pollutants, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lichen\" title=\"Lichen\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8b766c43ba30a5fb68bcf48586ab0c6\">lichens<\/a>, mosses, fungi, and other biomass.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ForbesBiomon15_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ForbesBiomon15-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> One of the benefits of this type of sampling is how quantitative information can be obtained via measurements of accumulated compounds, representative of the environment from which they came. However, careful considerations must be made in choosing the particular organism, how it's dispersed, and relevance to the pollutant.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ForbesBiomon15_15-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ForbesBiomon15-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Other sampling methods include the use of a ,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ForbesDenuders15_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ForbesDenuders15-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NOAAMerc_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NOAAMerc-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup> needle trap devices, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microextraction_by_packed_sorbent\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Microextraction by packed sorbent\" data-key=\"a9e9d3afed1c5b8a1941ae0c43641f79\">microextraction<\/a> techniques.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GrandyNovel15_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GrandyNovel15-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Soil_monitoring\">Soil monitoring<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Soil_samples_(15083707144).jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1728941f76de9b099dfb092d6266476\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/5\/59\/Soil_samples_%2815083707144%29.jpg\/220px-Soil_samples_%2815083707144%29.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"293\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Collecting a soil sample in Mexico for pathogen testing<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_soil_science\" title=\"Environmental soil science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"54f1467244d2162ffd3e71dabed4e30d\">Environmental soil science<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Soil monitoring involves the collection and\/or analysis of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil\" title=\"Soil\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07af34ab9a16e0916f7657b56bc1e474\">soil<\/a> and its associated <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_quality\" title=\"Soil quality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e96b35dad6a2da45dc88edcda572757\">quality<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil#Composition\" title=\"Soil\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92579759fa691d2c6c93302515d740eb\">constituents<\/a>, and physical status to determine or guarantee its fitness for use. Soil faces many threats, including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_compaction_(agriculture)\" title=\"Soil compaction (agriculture)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"69d33858c54fafee85cf8b1117cf82f6\">compaction<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_contamination\" title=\"Soil contamination\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1ffa53bc2835f564b612afecd087c8d\">contamination<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_organic_matter\" title=\"Soil organic matter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"806d25e8a8ab4e6b9e2f1ec96bf0bee2\">organic material<\/a> loss, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_biodiversity\" title=\"Soil biodiversity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a5f0b8bf6918deafa4f53abea423fa8\">biodiversity<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biodiversity_loss\" title=\"Biodiversity loss\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7da8cdf24bb4ac06785eccf0b8ad8d0f\">loss<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Slope_stability\" title=\"Slope stability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2360144820198aff0c21d243f6436dc4\">slope stability<\/a> issues, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_erosion\" title=\"Soil erosion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5f1bac63af24988c8d3434efa3db2d2e\">erosion<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_salinity\" title=\"Soil salinity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9c4f2f5b29fbeabd8d136db52b1fe8e4\">salinization<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_acidification\" title=\"Soil acidification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07c6250fae4e62fb55921c425a9ffca1\">acidification<\/a>. Soil monitoring helps characterize these threats and other potential risks to the soil, surrounding environments, animal health, and human health.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CachadaSoil17_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CachadaSoil17-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Assessing these threats and other risks to soil can be challenging due to a variety of factors, including soil's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity\" title=\"Homogeneity and heterogeneity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"45849e882314b485dd488f487ff2c92b\">heterogeneity<\/a> and complexity, scarcity of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Toxicity\" title=\"Toxicity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bf1493c55260ac89cbc289c48f5d047b\">toxicity<\/a> data, lack of understanding of a contaminant's fate, and variability in levels of soil screening.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CachadaSoil17_19-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CachadaSoil17-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> This requires a risk assessment approach and analysis techniques that prioritize environmental protection, risk reduction, and, if necessary, remediation methods.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CachadaSoil17_19-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CachadaSoil17-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> Soil monitoring plays a significant role in that risk assessment, not only aiding in the identification of at-risk and affected areas but also in the establishment of base background values of soil.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CachadaSoil17_19-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CachadaSoil17-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Soil monitoring has historically focused on more classical conditions and contaminants, including toxic elements (e.g., <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mercury_(element)\" title=\"Mercury (element)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a5de447275d55881acc7a43b155a6d03\">mercury<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lead\" title=\"Lead\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"16836599a94bcaa7594a6d4378aed7f9\">lead<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Arsenic\" title=\"Arsenic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86d8ce09585fca3e5e709dcb9b89a13e\">arsenic<\/a>) and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Persistent_organic_pollutant\" title=\"Persistent organic pollutant\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"212403a5dc3a1fe0de0524231d5bad9e\">persistent organic pollutants<\/a> (POPs).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CachadaSoil17_19-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CachadaSoil17-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> Historically, testing for these and other aspects of soil, however, has had its own set of challenges, as sampling in most cases is of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Destructive_testing\" title=\"Destructive testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37bdbef328a7f338ccc808ac3c6691a1\">destructive<\/a> in nature, requiring multiple samples over time. Additionally, procedural and analytical errors may be introduced due to variability among references and methods, particularly over time.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DuboisSampling93_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DuboisSampling93-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> However, as analytical techniques evolve and new knowledge about ecological processes and contaminant effects disseminate, the focus of monitoring will likely broaden over time and the quality of monitoring will continue to improve.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CachadaSoil17_19-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CachadaSoil17-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Soil_sampling\">Soil sampling<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The two primary types of soil sampling are grab sampling and composite sampling. Grab sampling involves the collection of an individual sample at a specific time and place, while composite sampling involves the collection of a homogenized mixture of multiple individual samples at either a specific place over different times or multiple locations at a specific time.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HarterWater08_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HarterWater08-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup> Soil sampling may occur both at shallow ground levels or deep in the ground, with collection methods varying by level collected from. Scoops, augers, core barrel, and solid-tube samplers, and other tools are used at shallow ground levels, whereas split-tube, solid-tube, or hydraulic methods may be used in deep ground.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ByrnesField08_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ByrnesField08-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Monitoring_programs\">Monitoring programs<\/span><\/h3>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:20180221-OSEC-LSC-0055_(39518128545).jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"bc344878b80d11071c155c03aaecac33\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/d\/d2\/20180221-OSEC-LSC-0055_%2839518128545%29.jpg\/220px-20180221-OSEC-LSC-0055_%2839518128545%29.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"147\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>A portable <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/X-ray_fluorescence\" title=\"X-ray fluorescence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"856c8bdcb1034681dbf2ccd5e7f1676c\">X-ray fluorescence<\/a> (XRF) analyzer can be used in the field for testing soils for metal contamination.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Soil_contamination_monitoring\">Soil contamination monitoring<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_contamination\" title=\"Soil contamination\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1ffa53bc2835f564b612afecd087c8d\">Soil contamination<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Soil contamination monitoring helps researchers identify patterns and trends in contaminant deposition, movement, and effect. Human-based pressures such as tourism, industrial activity, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Urban_sprawl\" title=\"Urban sprawl\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07629d7f692c8fd124637ffd1cec76e7\">urban sprawl<\/a>, construction work, and inadequate agriculture\/forestry practices can contribute to and make worse <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_contamination\" title=\"Soil contamination\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1ffa53bc2835f564b612afecd087c8d\">soil contamination<\/a> and lead to the soil becoming unfit for its intended use. Both inorganic and organic pollutants may make their way to the soil, having a wide variety of detrimental effects. Soil contamination monitoring is therefore important to identify risk areas, set baselines, and identify contaminated zones for remediation. Monitoring efforts may range from local farms to nationwide efforts, such as those made by China in the late 2000s,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CachadaSoil17_19-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CachadaSoil17-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> providing details such as the nature of contaminants, their quantity, effects, concentration patterns, and remediation feasibility.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MirsalSoil13_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MirsalSoil13-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup> Monitoring and analytical equipment will ideally will have high response times, high levels of resolution and automation, and a certain degree of self-sufficiency.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KotWasikSome07_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KotWasikSome07-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup> Chemical techniques may be used to measure toxic elements and POPs using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chromatography\" title=\"Chromatography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9fd89dfd6ca6b31e62d96ab8362fb537\">chromatography<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spectrometer\" title=\"Spectrometer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"407611832b25b9df32ec0a38d4bd7b62\">spectrometry<\/a>, geophysical techniques may assess physical properties of large terrains, and biological techniques may use specific organisms to gauge not only contaminant level but also byproducts of contaminant biodegradation. These techniques and others are increasingly becoming more efficient, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f8210956018cb8099c02d4932922f49c\">laboratory<\/a> instrumentation is becoming more precise, resulting in more meaningful monitoring outcomes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AelionSoil09_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AelionSoil09-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Soil_erosion_monitoring\">Soil erosion monitoring<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_erosion\" title=\"Soil erosion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5f1bac63af24988c8d3434efa3db2d2e\">Soil erosion<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Soil erosion monitoring helps researchers identify patterns and trends in soil and sediment movement. Monitoring programs have varied over the years, from long-term academic research on university plots to reconnaissance-based surveys of biogeoclimatic areas. In most methods, however, the general focus is on identifying and measuring all the dominant erosion processes in a given area.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OwensSoil06_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OwensSoil06-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup> Additionally, soil erosion monitoring may attempt to quantify the effects of erosion on crop productivity, though challenging \"because of the many complexities in the relationship between soils and plants and their management under a variable climate.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PierveMontitor94_27-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PierveMontitor94-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Soil_salinity_monitoring\">Soil salinity monitoring<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_salinity\" title=\"Soil salinity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9c4f2f5b29fbeabd8d136db52b1fe8e4\">Soil salinity<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Soil salinity monitoring helps researchers identify patterns and trends in soil salt content. Both the natural process of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Saltwater_intrusion\" title=\"Saltwater intrusion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0b0f7b87ff4c82954c4e7688bd12727\">seawater intrusion<\/a> and the human-induced processes of inappropriate soil and water management can lead to salinity problems in soil, with up to one billion hectares of land affected globally (as of 2013).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ShahidDevelop13_28-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ShahidDevelop13-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup> Salinity monitoring at the local level may look closely at the root zone to gauge salinity impact and develop management options, whereas at the regional and national level salinity monitoring may help with identifying areas at-risk and aiding policymakers in tackling the issue before it spreads.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ShahidDevelop13_28-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ShahidDevelop13-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup> The monitoring process itself may be performed using technologies such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_sensing\" title=\"Remote sensing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0550a7cb05977f16dc64ec22dd5822f\">remote sensing<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geographic_information_systems\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Geographic information systems\" data-key=\"4a32518293ae8dd9d76fafebdb41a97d\">geographic information systems<\/a> (GIS) to identify salinity via greenness, brightness, and whiteness at the surface level. Direct analysis of soil up close, including the use of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electromagnetic_induction\" title=\"Electromagnetic induction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0b70d71029ccb827d5775db103f9190e\">electromagnetic induction<\/a> techniques, may also be used to monitor soil salinity.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ShahidDevelop13_28-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ShahidDevelop13-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Water_quality_monitoring\">Water quality monitoring<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Anglers_using_backpack_electroshocker_to_capture_fish.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"73f13ea7fafadc25658a668c4537d70a\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/4\/45\/Anglers_using_backpack_electroshocker_to_capture_fish.jpg\/220px-Anglers_using_backpack_electroshocker_to_capture_fish.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"165\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electrofishing\" title=\"Electrofishing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"47fc2abf7a23f0b1fe16fc9814d14d0b\">Electrofishing<\/a> survey methods use a mild electric shock to temporarily stun fish for capture, identification and counting. The fish are then returned to the water unharmed.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Design_of_environmental_monitoring_programmes\">Design of environmental monitoring programmes<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Water_quality\" title=\"Water quality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"779fe26ba1dc26d6e5a4018e9fcb49b6\">Water quality<\/a> monitoring is of little use without a clear and unambiguous definition of the reasons for the monitoring and the objectives that it will satisfy. Almost all monitoring (except perhaps <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_sensing\" title=\"Remote sensing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0550a7cb05977f16dc64ec22dd5822f\">remote sensing<\/a>) is in some part invasive of the environment under study and extensive and poorly planned monitoring carries a risk of damage to the environment. This may be a critical consideration in wilderness areas or when monitoring very rare organisms or those that are averse to human presence. Some monitoring techniques, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gillnet\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Gillnet\" data-key=\"d31d3211a4b476beed24506d8f93e560\">gill netting<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fish\" title=\"Fish\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cbe2db3ab3335fb18520a22926a44cb1\">fish<\/a> to estimate populations, can be very damaging, at least to the local population and can also degrade public trust in scientists carrying out the monitoring.\n<\/p><p>Almost all mainstream environmentalism monitoring projects form part of an overall monitoring strategy or research field, and these field and strategies are themselves derived from the high levels objectives or aspirations of an organisation. Unless individual monitoring projects fit into a wider strategic framework, the results are unlikely to be published and the environmental understanding produced by the monitoring will be lost.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-29\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-30\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Parameters\">Parameters<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><i>see also <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Freshwater_environmental_quality_parameters\" title=\"Freshwater environmental quality parameters\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"41f2b35e91a480b0be749488a8f295f5\">Freshwater environmental quality parameters<\/a><\/i>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Chemical\">Chemical<\/span><\/h4>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:EPA_GULF_BREEZE_LABORATORY,_CHEMISTRY_LAB._THE_CHEMIST_IS_TESTING_WATER_SAMPLES_FOR_PESTICIDES_-_NARA_-_546277.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"e16559b78d89202f06cc5a82ee95e755\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/3\/38\/EPA_GULF_BREEZE_LABORATORY%2C_CHEMISTRY_LAB._THE_CHEMIST_IS_TESTING_WATER_SAMPLES_FOR_PESTICIDES_-_NARA_-_546277.jpg\/220px-EPA_GULF_BREEZE_LABORATORY%2C_CHEMISTRY_LAB._THE_CHEMIST_IS_TESTING_WATER_SAMPLES_FOR_PESTICIDES_-_NARA_-_546277.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"149\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Analyzing water samples for pesticides<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>The range of chemical parameters that have the potential to affect any ecosystem is very large and in all monitoring programmes it is necessary to target a suite of parameters based on local knowledge and past practice for an initial review. The list can be expanded or reduced based on developing knowledge and the outcome of the initial surveys.\n<\/p><p>Freshwater environments have been extensively studied for many years and there is a robust understanding of the interactions between chemistry and the environment across much of the world. However, as new materials are developed and new pressures come to bear, revisions to monitoring programmes will be required. In the last 20 years <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Acid_rain\" title=\"Acid rain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c421b66baa6187ee2320005fa8b6a1aa\">acid rain<\/a>, synthetic <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hormone\" title=\"Hormone\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"947295f56751f591b427713a8653daca\">hormone<\/a> analogues, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Haloalkane\" title=\"Haloalkane\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd84acb3cd806440389c9802e55b2fac\">halogenated hydrocarbons<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Greenhouse_gas\" title=\"Greenhouse gas\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4a62342a91d473c5cd5cd896864fd78d\">greenhouse gases<\/a> and many others have required changes to monitoring strategies.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Biological\">Biological<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>In ecological monitoring, the monitoring strategy and effort is directed at the plants and animals in the environment under review and is specific to each individual study.\n<\/p><p>However, in more generalised environmental monitoring, many animals act as robust indicators of the quality of the environment that they are experiencing or have experienced in the recent past.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-31\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup> One of the most familiar examples is the monitoring of numbers of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Salmonid\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Salmonid\" data-key=\"7ecf073f9ed5bf0a3b79fdf5209f7ddc\">Salmonid<\/a> fish such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Brown_trout\" title=\"Brown trout\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"35149329812aa900af3d9ac7e94148c7\">brown trout<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Atlantic_salmon\" title=\"Atlantic salmon\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"095a7189647975360ae1834358213ac2\">Atlantic salmon<\/a> in river systems and lakes to detect slow trends in adverse environmental effects. The steep decline in salmonid fish populations was one of the early indications of the problem that later became known as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Acid_rain\" title=\"Acid rain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c421b66baa6187ee2320005fa8b6a1aa\">acid rain<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>In recent years much more attention has been given to a more holistic approach in which the ecosystem health is assessed and used as the monitoring tool itself.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-32\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup> It is this approach that underpins the monitoring protocols of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Water_Framework_Directive\" title=\"Water Framework Directive\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fb52525b96fd843374c94bf2abb30e48\">Water Framework Directive<\/a> in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Union\" title=\"European Union\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9f4de8ef928bad86853bc083498b760\">European Union<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Radiological\">Radiological<\/span><\/h4>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Radiation_monitoring\" title=\"Radiation monitoring\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bf5692970b4cbd30863a136a92cdbc7\">Radiation monitoring<\/a> involves the measurement of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Radiation_dose\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Radiation dose\" data-key=\"930168d8a538d3626411eee4a2ffbe49\">radiation dose<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Radionuclide\" title=\"Radionuclide\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4afb418f4bec54b659bd7a59d5df7637\">radionuclide<\/a> contamination for reasons related to the assessment or control of exposure to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ionizing_radiation\" title=\"Ionizing radiation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c9c8a741f44f97c559457fd8f300751b\">ionizing radiation<\/a> or radioactive substances, and the interpretation of the results.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-33\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup> The 'measurement' of dose often means the measurement of a dose equivalent quantity as a proxy (i.e. substitute) for a dose quantity that cannot be measured directly. Also, sampling may be involved as a preliminary step to measurement of the content of radionuclides in environmental media. The methodological and technical details of the design and operation of monitoring programmes and systems for different radionuclides, environmental media and types of facility are given in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IAEA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"IAEA\" data-key=\"af46075c4ca712687dc2219089801ab4\">IAEA<\/a> Safety Guide RS\u2013G-1.8<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-34\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup> and in IAEA Safety Report No. 64.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-35\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-35\">[35]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Radiation monitoring is often carried out using networks of fixed and deployable sensors such as the US <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_Protection_Agency\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Environmental Protection Agency\" data-key=\"423c0f946b69c91d37835659bd9297ee\">Environmental Protection Agency<\/a>'s <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/radnet\/\" target=\"_blank\">Radnet<\/a> and the <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110319035119\/http:\/\/www.bousai.ne.jp\/eng\/\" target=\"_blank\">SPEEDI<\/a> network in Japan. Airborne surveys are also made by organizations like the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nuclear_Emergency_Support_Team\" title=\"Nuclear Emergency Support Team\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37c237be4bf4c600e5315c177f5068bb\">Nuclear Emergency Support Team<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Microbiological\">Microbiological<\/span><\/h4>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bacteria\" title=\"Bacteria\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0d4a41314128003854212d9240bb8d56\">Bacteria<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Virus\" title=\"Virus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0c053b17e1b20b7f5dde643374d2314\">viruses<\/a> are the most commonly monitored groups of microbiological organisms and even these are only of great relevance where water in the aquatic environment is subsequently used as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Drinking_water\" title=\"Drinking water\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9671ba78bf65520df6e161ac53ca118\">drinking water<\/a> or where water contact recreation such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_swimming\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Human swimming\" data-key=\"dfa7f4eb74162d673413a3aafdc3a024\">swimming<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Canoe\" title=\"Canoe\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a414b97482d0777c9e5d2557907a8de\">canoeing<\/a> is practised.\n<\/p><p>Although <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pathogen\" title=\"Pathogen\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b7e07b1ddf243781aa837db2568a967\">pathogens<\/a> are the primary focus of attention, the principal monitoring effort is almost always directed at much more common indicator species such as <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Escherichia_coli\" title=\"Escherichia coli\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bcf48f970130ee1ba90ab42148fd709b\">Escherichia coli<\/a><\/i>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-36\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup> supplemented by overall <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Coliform_bacteria\" title=\"Coliform bacteria\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bc7e5a3945ce8d8f1d72764a0e4da43d\">coliform bacteria<\/a> counts. The rationale behind this monitoring strategy is that most human pathogens originate from other humans via the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sewage\" title=\"Sewage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a2b6f66b753d63387d8dfc30977453f\">sewage<\/a> stream. Many <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sewage_treatment\" title=\"Sewage treatment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3355009fe7057bf6763427d82844af92\">sewage treatment<\/a> plants have no <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Disinfection\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Disinfection\" data-key=\"d33af2ee32816778cab3a83d6f3f7d97\">sterilisation<\/a> final stage and therefore discharge an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Effluent\" title=\"Effluent\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aaf1d3504e4a8663af4eb72b0af84e22\">effluent<\/a> which, although having a clean appearance, still contains many millions of bacteria per litre, the majority of which are relatively harmless coliform bacteria. Counting the number of harmless (or less harmful) sewage bacteria allows a judgement to be made about the probability of significant numbers of pathogenic bacteria or viruses being present. Where <i>E. coli<\/i> or coliform levels exceed pre-set trigger values, more intensive monitoring including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bacteriological_water_analysis\" title=\"Bacteriological water analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3445e3d17f876818905dc7facd58449f\">specific monitoring<\/a> for pathogenic species is then initiated.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Populations\">Populations<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Monitoring strategies can produce misleading answers when relaying on counts of species or presence or absence of particular organisms if there is no regard to population size. Understanding the populations dynamics of an organism being monitored is critical.\n<\/p><p>As an example if presence or absence of a particular organism within a 10&#160;km square is the measure adopted by a monitoring strategy, then a reduction of population from 10,000 per square to 10 per square will go unnoticed despite the very significant impact experienced by the organism.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Monitoring_programmes\">Monitoring programmes<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>All scientifically reliable environmental monitoring is performed in line with a published programme. The programme may include the overall objectives of the organisation, references to the specific strategies that helps deliver the objective and details of specific projects or tasks within those strategies the key feature of any programme is the listing of what is being monitored and how that monitoring is to take place and the time-scale over which it should all happen. Typically, and often as an appendix, a monitoring programme will provide a table of locations, dates and sampling methods that are proposed and which, if undertaken in full, will deliver the published monitoring programme.\n<\/p><p>There are a number of commercial <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software\" title=\"Software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce5b1d6b0b754ab3878d8d8ee8d1d94c\">software<\/a> packages which can assist with the implementation of the programme, monitor its progress and flag up inconsistencies or omissions but none of these can provide the key building block which is the programme itself.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Environmental_monitoring_data_management_systems\">Environmental monitoring data management systems<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Given the multiple types and increasing volumes and importance of monitoring data, commercial <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software\" title=\"Software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce5b1d6b0b754ab3878d8d8ee8d1d94c\">software<\/a> Environmental Data Management Systems (EDMS) or E-MDMS are increasingly in common use by regulated industries. They provide a means of managing all monitoring data in a single central place. Quality validation, compliance checking, verifying all data has been received, and sending alerts are generally automated. Typical interrogation functionality enables comparison of data sets both temporarily and spatially. They will also generate regulatory and other reports.\n<\/p><p>One formal certification scheme exists specifically for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_data\" title=\"Environmental data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0e45425714879e66e66837c4c78555d1\">environmental data<\/a> management software. This is provided by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environment_Agency\" title=\"Environment Agency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"17f9fe7cf3c0213c6c0a3bfc9574a0d5\">Environment Agency<\/a> in the U.K. under its (MCERTS).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GOVUK_MCERTS17_37-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GOVUK_MCERTS17-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GOVUK_Monitor17_38-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GOVUK_Monitor17-38\">[38]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CSA_MCERTS_39-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CSA_MCERTS-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Sampling_methods\">Sampling methods<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>There are a wide range of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sample_(material)\" title=\"Sample (material)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4a44ab1352639dbac19591fca854a841\">sampling<\/a> methods which depend on the type of environment, the material being sampled and the subsequent analysis of the sample. At its simplest a sample can be filling a clean bottle with river water and submitting it for conventional chemical analysis. At the more complex end, sample data may be produced by complex electronic sensing devices taking sub-samples over fixed or variable time periods.\n<\/p><p>Sampling methods include judgmental sampling, simple random sampling, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stratified_sampling\" title=\"Stratified sampling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"194eaa8c20ec2be4294e93e1dcfbb85b\">stratified sampling<\/a>, systematic and grid sampling, adaptive <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cluster_sampling\" title=\"Cluster sampling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"072ea568b3acee0f9550801822a02d35\">cluster sampling<\/a>, grab samples, semi-continuous monitoring and continuous, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Passive_sampling\" title=\"Passive sampling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14c3b08d19cbb02bba1746ad61b06d26\">passive sampling<\/a>, remote surveillance, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_sensing\" title=\"Remote sensing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0550a7cb05977f16dc64ec22dd5822f\">remote sensing<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biomonitoring\" title=\"Biomonitoring\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"99ec7ea21b74b4378fe945f94e813ded\">biomonitoring<\/a> and other sampling methods.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Judgmental_sampling\">Judgmental sampling<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>In judgmental sampling, the selection of sampling units (i.e., the number and location and\/or timing of collecting samples) is based on knowledge of the feature or condition under investigation and on professional judgment. Judgmental sampling is distinguished from probability-based sampling in that inferences are based on professional judgment, not statistical scientific theory. Therefore, conclusions about the target population are limited and depend entirely on the validity and accuracy of professional judgment; probabilistic statements about parameters are not possible. As described in subsequent chapters, expert judgment may also be used in conjunction with other sampling designs to produce effective sampling for defensible decisions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EPA_40-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EPA-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Simple_random_sampling\">Simple random sampling<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>In simple random sampling, particular sampling units (for example, locations and\/or times) are selected using random numbers, and all possible selections of a given number of units are equally likely. For example, a simple random sample of a set of drums can be taken by numbering all the drums and randomly selecting numbers from that list or by sampling an area by using pairs of random coordinates. This method is easy to understand, and the equations for determining sample size are relatively straightforward. Simple random sampling is most useful when the population of interest is relatively homogeneous; i.e., no major patterns of contamination or \u201chot spots\u201d are expected. The main advantages of this design are:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>It provides statistically unbiased estimates of the mean, proportions, and variability.<\/li>\n<li>It is easy to understand and easy to implement.<\/li>\n<li>Sample size calculations and data analysis are very straightforward.<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>In some cases, implementation of a simple random sample can be more difficult than some other types of designs (for example, grid samples) because of the difficulty of precisely identifying random geographic locations. Additionally, simple random sampling can be more costly than other plans if difficulties in obtaining samples due to location causes an expenditure of extra effort.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EPA_40-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EPA-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Stratified_sampling\">Stratified sampling<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stratified_sampling\" title=\"Stratified sampling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"194eaa8c20ec2be4294e93e1dcfbb85b\">stratified sampling<\/a>, the target population is separated into non-overlapping strata, or subpopulations that are known or thought to be more homogeneous (relative to the environmental medium or the contaminant), so that there tends to be less variation among sampling units in the same stratum than among sampling units in different strata. Strata may be chosen on the basis of spatial or temporal proximity of the units, or on the basis of preexisting information or professional judgment about the site or process. Advantages of this sampling design are that it has potential for achieving greater precision in estimates of the mean and variance, and that it allows computation of reliable estimates for population subgroups of special interest. Greater precision can be obtained if the measurement of interest is strongly correlated with the variable used to make the strata.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EPA_40-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EPA-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Systematic_and_grid_sampling\">Systematic and grid sampling<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>In systematic and grid sampling, samples are taken at regularly spaced intervals over space or time. An initial location or time is chosen at random, and then the remaining sampling locations are defined so that all locations are at regular intervals over an area (grid) or time (systematic). Examples Systematic Grid Sampling - Square Grid Systematic Grid Sampling - Triangular Grids of systematic grids include square, rectangular, triangular, or radial grids.\nCressie, 1993. In random systematic sampling, an initial sampling location (or time) is chosen at random and the remaining sampling sites are specified so that they are located according to a regular pattern. Random systematic sampling is used to search for hot spots and to infer means, percentiles, or other parameters and is also useful for estimating spatial patterns or trends over time. This design provides a practical and easy method for designating sample locations and ensures uniform coverage of a site, unit, or process.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EPA_40-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EPA-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Ranked set sampling is an innovative design that can be highly useful and cost efficient in obtaining better estimates of mean concentration levels in soil and other environmental media by explicitly incorporating the professional judgment of a field investigator or a field screening measurement method to pick specific sampling locations in the field. Ranked set sampling uses a two-phase sampling design that identifies sets of field locations, utilizes inexpensive measurements to rank locations within each set, and then selects one location from each set for sampling. In ranked set sampling, m sets (each of size r) of field locations are identified using simple random sampling. The locations are ranked independently within each set using professional judgment or inexpensive, fast, or surrogate measurements. One sampling unit from each set is then selected (based on the observed ranks) for subsequent measurement using a more accurate and reliable (hence, more expensive) method for the contaminant of interest. Relative to simple random sampling, this design results in more representative samples and so leads to more precise estimates of the population parameters. Ranked set sampling is useful when the cost of locating and ranking locations in the field is low compared to laboratory measurements. It is also appropriate when an inexpensive auxiliary variable (based on expert knowledge or measurement) is available to rank population units with respect to the variable of interest. To use this design effectively, it is important that the ranking method and analytical method are strongly correlated.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EPA_40-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EPA-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Adaptive_cluster_sampling\">Adaptive cluster sampling<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>In adaptive <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cluster_sampling\" title=\"Cluster sampling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"072ea568b3acee0f9550801822a02d35\">cluster sampling<\/a>, samples are taken using simple random sampling, and additional samples are taken at locations where measurements exceed some threshold value. Several additional rounds of sampling and analysis may be needed. Adaptive cluster sampling tracks the selection probabilities for later phases of sampling so that an unbiased estimate of the population mean can be calculated despite oversampling of certain areas. An example application of adaptive cluster sampling is delineating the borders of a plume of contamination. Adaptive sampling is useful for estimating or searching for rare characteristics in a population and is appropriate for inexpensive, rapid measurements. It enables delineating the boundaries of hot spots, while also using all data collected with appropriate weighting to give unbiased estimates of the population mean.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EPA_40-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EPA-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Nollet_41-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Nollet-41\">[41]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Grab_samples\">Grab samples<\/span><\/h4>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Watersampling.JPG\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"e6297544a95101d9b6ec5e8777f9ab01\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/8\/84\/Watersampling.JPG\/220px-Watersampling.JPG\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"146\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Collecting a grab sample on a stream<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>Grab samples are samples taken of a homogeneous material, usually <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Water\" title=\"Water\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a2ad3a4493078adcc76891200568551\">water<\/a>, in a single vessel. Filling a clean bottle with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/River\" title=\"River\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d485576e742edf8a32c2c8610519dff5\">river<\/a> water is a very common example. Grab samples provide a good snap-shot view of the quality of the sampled environment at the point of sampling and at the time of sampling. Without additional monitoring, the results cannot be extrapolated to other times or to other parts of the river, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lake\" title=\"Lake\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ad443d334e37f612db8ccf88febc467d\">lake<\/a> or ground-water.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Nollet_41-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Nollet-41\">[41]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"reference nowrap\"><span title=\"Page \/ location: 3\">:\u200a3\u200a<\/span><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In order to enable grab samples or rivers to be treated as representative, repeat transverse and longitudinal <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transect\" title=\"Transect\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2c9cfd5daecf78c857e0d9c2d04f175e\">transect<\/a> surveys taken at different times of day and times of year are required to establish that the grab-sample location is as representative as is reasonably possible. For large rivers such surveys should also have regard to the depth of the sample and how to best manage the sampling locations at times of flood and drought.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Nollet_41-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Nollet-41\">[41]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"reference nowrap\"><span title=\"Page \/ location: 8\u20139\">:\u200a8\u20139\u200a<\/span><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In lakes grab samples are relatively simple to take using depth samplers which can be lowered to a pre-determined depth and then closed trapping a fixed volume of water from the required depth. In all but the shallowest lakes, there are major changes in the chemical composition of lake water at different depths, especially during the summer months when many lakes stratify into a warm, well oxygenated upper layer (<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Epilimnion\" title=\"Epilimnion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b179a0cb7a57dc76b733f33c45076012\">epilimnion<\/a><\/i>) and a cool de-oxygenated lower layer <i>(<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hypolimnion\" title=\"Hypolimnion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3eb6e7fec16fe15209b4e92cb7df70d5\">hypolimnion<\/a><\/i>).\n<\/p><p>In the open seas marine environment grab samples can establish a wide range of base-line parameters such as salinity and a range of cation and anion concentrations. However, where changing conditions are an issue such as near river or sewage discharges, close to the effects of volcanism or close to areas of freshwater input from melting ice, a grab sample can only give a very partial answer when taken on its own.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Semi-continuous_monitoring_and_continuous\">Semi-continuous monitoring and continuous<\/span><\/h4>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:WQ_sampling_station_USGS_2004.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"131702a6795c38159f2648b4139badaa\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/f5\/WQ_sampling_station_USGS_2004.jpg\/220px-WQ_sampling_station_USGS_2004.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"147\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>An automated sampling station and data logger (to record temperature, specific conductance, and dissolved oxygen levels)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>There is a wide range of specialized sampling equipment available that can be programmed to take samples at fixed or variable time intervals or in response to an external trigger. For example, an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Autosampler\" title=\"Autosampler\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"45d3a09cb4c386ea8ecd54daee2ce96b\">autosampler<\/a> can be programmed to start taking samples of a river at 8-minute intervals when the rainfall intensity rises above 1&#160;mm \/ hour. The trigger in this case may be a remote rain gauge communicating with the sampler by using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cell_phone\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cell phone\" data-key=\"d6d23a471e755baed9d28001d9eaf653\">cell phone<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Meteor_burst_communications\" title=\"Meteor burst communications\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"63ce92d114282d2dd5948063489bf470\">meteor burst<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-42\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-42\">[42]<\/a><\/sup> technology. Samplers can also take individual discrete samples at each sampling occasion or bulk up samples into composite so that in the course of one day, such a sampler might produce 12 composite samples each composed of 6 sub-samples taken at 20-minute intervals.\n<\/p><p>Continuous or quasi-continuous monitoring involves having an automated analytical facility close to the environment being monitored so that results can, if required, be viewed in real time. Such systems are often established to protect important water supplies such as in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/River_Dee_regulation_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"River Dee regulation system\" data-key=\"290371876a9d1cf9f2a98253f6433e1d\">River Dee regulation system<\/a> but may also be part of an overall monitoring strategy on large strategic rivers where early warning of potential problems is essential. Such systems routinely provide data on parameters such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PH\" title=\"PH\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a76a6eb00bd0e1619bee97643933571\">pH<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dissolved_oxygen\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Dissolved oxygen\" data-key=\"55204d6e27161618f2e52291edf94fc1\">dissolved oxygen<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conductivity_(electrolytic)\" title=\"Conductivity (electrolytic)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"363998998cd4027ca60f926a7e7b3f00\">conductivity<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Turbidity\" title=\"Turbidity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3d055ab047e4cc58980abb8c7df0bfb\">turbidity<\/a> and ammonia using sondes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-43\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-43\">[43]<\/a><\/sup> It is also possible to operate <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gas_liquid_chromatography\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Gas liquid chromatography\" data-key=\"fcb8b76ff87bbffbf4d7e4c9e4f7dbe1\">gas liquid chromatography<\/a> with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mass_spectrometry\" title=\"Mass spectrometry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d9e8497cbfaef220fa14d9ab192c29a9\">mass spectrometry<\/a> technologies (GLC\/MS) to examine a wide range of potential <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Organic_compound\" title=\"Organic compound\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cc5fe96ca1b857a8ef7ca0550295a850\">organic<\/a> pollutants. In all examples of automated bank-side analysis there is a requirement for water to be pumped from the river into the monitoring station. Choosing a location for the pump inlet is equally as critical as deciding on the location for a river grab sample. The design of the pump and pipework also requires careful design to avoid artefacts being introduced through the action of pumping the water. Dissolved oxygen concentration is difficult to sustain through a pumped system and GLC\/MS facilities can detect micro-organic contaminants from the pipework and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gland_(engineering)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Gland (engineering)\" data-key=\"a93e22ff5a89f63e447b5f5e2aeb9107\">glands<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Passive_sampling\">Passive sampling<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Passive_sampling\" title=\"Passive sampling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14c3b08d19cbb02bba1746ad61b06d26\">Passive sampling<\/a><\/div>\n<p>The use of passive samplers greatly reduces the cost and the need of infrastructure on the sampling location. Passive samplers are semi-disposable and can be produced at a relatively low cost, thus they can be employed in great numbers, allowing for a better cover and more data being collected. Due to being small the passive sampler can also be hidden, and thereby lower the risk of vandalism. Examples of passive sampling devices are the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Diffusive_gradients_in_thin_films\" title=\"Diffusive gradients in thin films\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed08956f87e4f65cd604faa7013347b2\">diffusive gradients in thin films<\/a> (DGT) sampler, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chemcatcher\" title=\"Chemcatcher\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd8d6cb81ce97bd96153cf9bfaec08ad\">Chemcatcher<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polar_organic_chemical_integrative_sampler\" title=\"Polar organic chemical integrative sampler\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a4a3be48d23f8f9b738b2e37d249ce0\">polar organic chemical integrative sampler<\/a> (POCIS), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semipermeable_membrane_devices\" title=\"Semipermeable membrane devices\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"45df5e10ab5ec66799bb3b1272a61ff7\">semipermeable membrane devices<\/a> (SPMDs), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stabilized_liquid_membrane_devices\" title=\"Stabilized liquid membrane devices\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8aaa2c80fe4c688d61d0e40149e99ac\">stabilized liquid membrane devices<\/a> (SLMDs), and an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sorbent_tube\" title=\"Sorbent tube\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b2ff65ce963c2c638223fe1fb9f2f028\">air sampling pump<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Remote_surveillance\">Remote surveillance<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Although on-site data collection using electronic measuring equipment is common-place, many monitoring programmes also use remote surveillance and remote access to data in real time. This requires the on-site monitoring equipment to be connected to a base station via either a telemetry network, land-line, cell phone network or other telemetry system such as Meteor burst. The advantage of remote surveillance is that many data feeds can come into a single base station for storing and analysis. It also enable trigger levels or alert levels to be set for individual monitoring sites and\/or parameters so that immediate action can be initiated if a trigger level is exceeded. The use of remote surveillance also allows for the installation of very discrete monitoring equipment which can often be buried, camouflaged or tethered at depth in a lake or river with only a short whip <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Antenna_(radio)\" title=\"Antenna (radio)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"89ed244f033a8b87fa76efcd8b9edfff\">aerial<\/a> protruding. Use of such equipment tends to reduce <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vandalism\" title=\"Vandalism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c08614c84c346d61e78184241c5685c\">vandalism<\/a> and theft when monitoring in locations easily accessible by the public.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Remote_sensing\">Remote sensing<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_sensing\" title=\"Remote sensing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0550a7cb05977f16dc64ec22dd5822f\">Remote sensing<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Environmental remote sensing uses <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unmanned_aerial_vehicle\" title=\"Unmanned aerial vehicle\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"41a4e7c5b9ee75018635018effc8f619\">UAV<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aircraft\" title=\"Aircraft\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6fc19d38e5285f33624093a237e3a2d5\">aircraft<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Satellite\" title=\"Satellite\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6c7daf92a6c446a989a06b6d0441e06f\">satellites<\/a> to monitor the environment using multi-channel sensors.\n<\/p><p>There are two kinds of remote sensing. Passive sensors detect natural radiation that is emitted or reflected by the object or surrounding area being observed. Reflected sunlight is the most common source of radiation measured by passive sensors and in environmental remote sensing, the sensors used are tuned to specific wavelengths from far <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Infrared\" title=\"Infrared\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b2c07d211563e8beacf68339b2123c4\">infrared<\/a> through visible light frequencies to the far <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ultraviolet\" title=\"Ultraviolet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c04581600fb0e327a6ea34d912bd0b22\">ultraviolet<\/a>. The volumes of data that can be collected are very large and require dedicated computational support. The output of data analysis from remote sensing are false colour images which differentiate small differences in the radiation characteristics of the environment being monitored. With a skilful operator choosing specific channels it is possible to amplify differences which are imperceptible to the human eye. In particular it is possible to discriminate subtle changes in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chlorophyll_a\" title=\"Chlorophyll a\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"982812fd60ec4d4d04256db6370e6983\">chlorophyll a<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chlorophyll_b\" title=\"Chlorophyll b\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"97541899c39c2177b97b28892be60aeb\">chlorophyll b<\/a> concentrations in plants and show areas of an environment with slightly different nutrient regimes.\n<\/p><p>Active remote sensing emits energy and uses a passive sensor to detect and measure the radiation that is reflected or backscattered from the target. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/LIDAR\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"LIDAR\" data-key=\"5ea1471a02ea0833e7da3f4ab60df06e\">LIDAR<\/a> is often used to acquire information about the topography of an area, especially when the area is large and manual surveying would be prohibitively expensive or difficult.\n<\/p><p>Remote sensing makes it possible to collect data on dangerous or inaccessible areas. Remote sensing applications include monitoring <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deforestation\" title=\"Deforestation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8a3d0d2d9f415d6371e9cfb5425ff2cb\">deforestation<\/a> in areas such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Amazon_Basin\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Amazon Basin\" data-key=\"085c13f9ff72d77125273dbc1d433fb8\">Amazon Basin<\/a>, the effects of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Climate_change\" title=\"Climate change\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cc6dc1603d12a16d564a3a5cd0add93a\">climate change<\/a> on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Glacier\" title=\"Glacier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"89c2c1f4841c0d3792c2e10fd1a7b174\">glaciers<\/a> and Arctic and Antarctic regions, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Depth_sounding\" title=\"Depth sounding\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"910610864f65c0de25ff3aaf3eef4fa1\">depth sounding<\/a> of coastal and ocean depths.\n<\/p><p>Orbital platforms collect and transmit data from different parts of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electromagnetic_spectrum\" title=\"Electromagnetic spectrum\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d776d699a00c4ea1b23854ace0867792\">electromagnetic spectrum<\/a>, which in conjunction with larger scale aerial or ground-based sensing and analysis, provides information to monitor trends such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/El_Ni%C3%B1o\" title=\"El Ni\u00f1o\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fc9177b517078e8acda2834d304b2939\">El Ni\u00f1o<\/a> and other natural long and short term phenomena. Other uses include different areas of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Earth_science\" title=\"Earth science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8aeec1561e4dfde36260e69852762637\">earth sciences<\/a> such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_resource_management\" title=\"Natural resource management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8403d50aab23f8ff3896755db763f8c3\">natural resource management<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Land_use_planning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Land use planning\" data-key=\"f34a4c61e0081896a01519053bab5f3e\">land use planning<\/a> and conservation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-44\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Biomonitoring\">Biomonitoring<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aquatic_biomonitoring\" title=\"Aquatic biomonitoring\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f421bc4f806192b01fbd7d4a4a9439c9\">Aquatic biomonitoring<\/a><\/div>\n<p>The use of living organisms as monitoring tools has many advantages. Organisms living in the environment under study are constantly exposed to the physical, biological and chemical influences of that environment. Organisms that have a tendency to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bioaccumulation\" title=\"Bioaccumulation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cb77fbd7b9523306b127361251c7b15d\">accumulate<\/a> chemical species can often accumulate significant quantities of material from very low concentrations in the environment. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Moss\" title=\"Moss\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d040f4771b13d86ae6075bb927795d6c\">Mosses<\/a> have been used by many investigators to monitor <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heavy_metal_(chemistry)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Heavy metal (chemistry)\" data-key=\"a194a407385f73368e2f90fc04658202\">heavy metal<\/a> concentrations because of their tendency to selectively adsorb heavy metals.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-45\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-45\">[45]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-46\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-46\">[46]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Similarly, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Eel\" title=\"Eel\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fa6bfef0b85f65eda4beefaefc3701be\">eels<\/a> have been used to study <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Halogenation\" title=\"Halogenation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e875954205690626acd6faf36899a695\">halogenated<\/a> organic chemicals, as these are adsorbed into the fatty deposits within the eel.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-47\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-47\">[47]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Other_sampling_methods\">Other sampling methods<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Ecological sampling requires careful planning to be representative and as noninvasive as possible. For grasslands and other low growing habitats the use of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quadrat\" title=\"Quadrat\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d258f1668f8fa7adeabb7150cd38ffe\">quadrat<\/a> \u2013 a 1-metre square frame \u2013 is often used with the numbers and types of organisms growing within each quadrat area counted<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-48\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-48\">[48]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Sediments and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil\" title=\"Soil\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07af34ab9a16e0916f7657b56bc1e474\">soils<\/a> require specialist sampling tools to ensure that the material recovered is representative. Such samplers are frequently designed to recover a specified volume of material and may also be designed to recover the sediment or soil living biota as well<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-49\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-49\">[49]<\/a><\/sup> such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vagn_Walfrid_Ekman\" title=\"Vagn Walfrid Ekman\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f56d3f0b5652645b906c886bfb825df\">Ekman<\/a> grab sampler.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_interpretations\">Data interpretations<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The interpretation of environmental data produced from a well designed monitoring programme is a large and complex topic addressed by many publications. Regrettably it is sometimes the case that scientists approach the analysis of results with a pre-conceived outcome in mind and use or misuse statistics to demonstrate that their own particular point of view is correct.\n<\/p><p>Statistics remains a tool that is equally easy to use or to misuse to demonstrate the lessons learnt from environmental monitoring.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Environmental_quality_indices\">Environmental quality indices<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Since the start of science-based environmental monitoring, a number of quality indices have been devised to help classify and clarify the meaning of the considerable volumes of data involved. Stating that a river stretch is in \"Class B\" is likely to be much more informative than stating that this river stretch has a mean BOD of 4.2, a mean dissolved oxygen of 85%, etc. In the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/UK\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"UK\" data-key=\"3be4614aa8ee9ecb1c46bbb0c1feed82\">UK<\/a> the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environment_Agency\" title=\"Environment Agency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"17f9fe7cf3c0213c6c0a3bfc9574a0d5\">Environment Agency<\/a> formally employed a system called General Quality Assessment (GQA) which classified rivers into six quality letter bands from A to F based on chemical criteria<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-50\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-50\">[50]<\/a><\/sup> and on biological criteria.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-51\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-51\">[51]<\/a><\/sup> The Environment Agency and its devolved partners in Wales (Countryside Council for Wales, CCW) and Scotland (Scottish Environmental Protection Agency, SEPA) now employ a system of biological, chemical and physical classification for rivers and lakes that corresponds with the EU Water Framework Directive.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-52\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-52\">[52]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Agricultural_burning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Agricultural burning\" data-key=\"ba213db7243be6e04085ee18d87cb19b\">Agricultural burning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Agricultural_waste\" title=\"Agricultural waste\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3ac011eb8164daa44b493d02ddf53e12\">Agricultural waste<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biodiversity_Monitoring_Switzerland\" title=\"Biodiversity Monitoring Switzerland\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe1e8d0d808aa5ae27a93836a54ddb0d\">Biodiversity Monitoring Switzerland<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbon_monitoring\" title=\"Carbon monitoring\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"840bdbdd618bb4171feec4b3ad1a9a0e\">Carbon monitoring<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbon_profiling\" title=\"Carbon profiling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"baffee4f977041e697be8119915909fb\">Carbon profiling<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Citizen_science#Plastics_and_pollution\" title=\"Citizen science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cf71901323763f0ea862f889462b9ae3\">Citizen science<\/a>, research projects that non-scientists can take part in<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Crowdmapping\" title=\"Crowdmapping\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"79adf9138cebc45e7db67122ca6d2b35\">Crowdmapping<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_technology\" title=\"Environmental technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"61351ccfd4561e6a51dbad6a5cc29e61\">Environmental technology<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Project_Grab_Bag\" title=\"Project Grab Bag\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5728aab59bda4ef30c368add92d0b305\">Project Grab Bag<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unmanned_aerial_vehicle#Applications\" title=\"Unmanned aerial vehicle\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d251bc34ea87f2d48e41e0736b7f3b01\">Unmanned aerial vehicle \u00a7&#160;Applications<\/a>: drones can be used for various types of environmental monitoring<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist reflist-columns references-column-width\" style=\"column-width: 30em;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-ForbesPerspect15-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ForbesPerspect15_1-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFForbes,_P.B.C.2015\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Forbes, P.B.C. (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=hESnBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA3\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: Perspectives on the Monitoring of Air Pollutants\"<\/a>. In Barcelo, D. (ed.). <i>Monitoring of Air Pollutants: Sampling, Sample Preparation and Analytical Techniques<\/i>. Comprehensive Analytical Chemistry. Vol.&#160;70. Elsevier. pp.&#160;3\u20139. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780444635532<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+Perspectives+on+the+Monitoring+of+Air+Pollutants&amp;rft.btitle=Monitoring+of+Air+Pollutants%3A+Sampling%2C+Sample+Preparation+and+Analytical+Techniques&amp;rft.series=Comprehensive+Analytical+Chemistry&amp;rft.pages=3-9&amp;rft.pub=Elsevier&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.isbn=9780444635532&amp;rft.au=Forbes%2C+P.B.C.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhESnBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA3&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RadaPerspect16-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-RadaPerspect16_2-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-RadaPerspect16_2-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRada,_E.C.Ragazzi,_M.Brini,_M.2016\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Rada, E.C.; Ragazzi, M.; Brini, M.; et&#160;al. (2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=-nauDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT27\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: Perspectives of Low-Cost Sensors Adoption for Air Quality Monitoring\"<\/a>. In Ragazzi, M. (ed.). <i>Air Quality: Monitoring, Measuring, and Modeling Environmental Hazards<\/i>. CRC Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781315341859<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+Perspectives+of+Low-Cost+Sensors+Adoption+for+Air+Quality+Monitoring&amp;rft.btitle=Air+Quality%3A+Monitoring%2C+Measuring%2C+and+Modeling+Environmental+Hazards&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft.isbn=9781315341859&amp;rft.au=Rada%2C+E.C.&amp;rft.au=Ragazzi%2C+M.&amp;rft.au=Brini%2C+M.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-nauDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT27&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WilliamsAir14-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-WilliamsAir14_3-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWilliams,_R.Kilaru,_V.Snyder,_E.2014\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Williams, R.; Kilaru, V.; Snyder, E.; et&#160;al. (June 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/cfpub.epa.gov\/si\/si_public_file_download.cfm?p_download_id=519616\" target=\"_blank\">\"Air Sensor Guidebook\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. p.&#160;65<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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GO3 Foundation. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/go3project.com\/network2\/index.php\/pages\/home\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 29 May 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=GO%3Csub%3E3%3C%2Fsub%3E+Project&amp;rft.pub=GO3+Foundation&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgo3project.com%2Fnetwork2%2Findex.php%2Fpages%2Fhome&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LBBHome-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-LBBHome_5-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labucketbrigade.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Louisiana Bucket Brigade\"<\/a>. Louisiana Bucket Brigade<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Louisiana+Bucket+Brigade&amp;rft.pub=Louisiana+Bucket+Brigade&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.labucketbrigade.org%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EPAList16-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-EPAList16_6-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www3.epa.gov\/ttnamti1\/files\/ambient\/criteria\/AMTIC%20List%20Dec%202016-2.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"List of Designated Reference and Equivalent Methods\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 17 December 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=List+of+Designated+Reference+and+Equivalent+Methods&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Environmental+Protection+Agency&amp;rft.date=2016-12-17&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww3.epa.gov%2Fttnamti1%2Ffiles%2Fambient%2Fcriteria%2FAMTIC%2520List%2520Dec%25202016-2.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-IrelandEPANational17-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-IrelandEPANational17_7-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFEnvironmental_Protection_Agency_(Ireland)2017\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Environmental Protection Agency (Ireland) (2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.epa.ie\/pubs\/reports\/air\/quality\/epanationalambientprogramme.html\" target=\"_blank\"><i>National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Programme 2017\u20132022<\/i><\/a>. 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CSE, New Delhi<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">7 Oct<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Centre+for+Science+and+Environment&amp;rft.pub=CSE%2C+New+Delhi.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cseindia.org%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-9\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.aaar.org\/publications\/as-t-journal\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"AS&amp;T Journal\"<\/a>. American Association for Aerosol Research<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=AS%26T+Journal&amp;rft.pub=American+Association+for+Aerosol+Research&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aaar.org%2Fpublications%2Fas-t-journal%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-10\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRighini,_G.Cappalletti,_A.Cionno,_I.2013\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Righini, G.; Cappalletti, A.; Cionno, I.; et&#160;al. 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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/air\/aqmportal\/management\/modeling\/receptor.htm\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 3 September 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Air+Quality+Management+Online+Portal&amp;rft.atitle=Receptor+Modeling&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fair%2Faqmportal%2Fmanagement%2Fmodeling%2Freceptor.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PienaarPassive15-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-PienaarPassive15_13-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPienaar,_J.J.Beukes,_J.P.Zyl,_P.G.V.2015\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Pienaar, J.J.; Beukes, J.P.; Zyl, P.G.V.; et&#160;al. (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=hESnBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA13\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 2: Passive Diffusion Sampling Devices for Monitoring Ambient Air Concentrations\"<\/a>. In Barcelo, D. (ed.). <i>Monitoring of Air Pollutants: Sampling, Sample Preparation and Analytical Techniques<\/i>. Comprehensive Analytical Chemistry. Vol.&#160;70. Elsevier. pp.&#160;13\u201352. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780444635532<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+2%3A+Passive+Diffusion+Sampling+Devices+for+Monitoring+Ambient+Air+Concentrations&amp;rft.btitle=Monitoring+of+Air+Pollutants%3A+Sampling%2C+Sample+Preparation+and+Analytical+Techniques&amp;rft.series=Comprehensive+Analytical+Chemistry&amp;rft.pages=13-52&amp;rft.pub=Elsevier&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.isbn=9780444635532&amp;rft.au=Pienaar%2C+J.J.&amp;rft.au=Beukes%2C+J.P.&amp;rft.au=Zyl%2C+P.G.V.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhESnBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA13&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-14\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGarty2001\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Garty, J (2001). \"Biomonitoring Atmospheric Heavy Metals with Lichens: Theory and Application\". <i>Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences<\/i>. <b>20<\/b> (4): 309\u2013371. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080%2F20013591099254\" target=\"_blank\">10.1080\/20013591099254<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:59062166\" target=\"_blank\">59062166<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Critical+Reviews+in+Plant+Sciences&amp;rft.atitle=Biomonitoring+Atmospheric+Heavy+Metals+with+Lichens%3A+Theory+and+Application&amp;rft.volume=20&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=309-371&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F20013591099254&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A59062166%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Garty&amp;rft.aufirst=J&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ForbesBiomon15-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-ForbesBiomon15_15-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ForbesBiomon15_15-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFForbes,_P.B.C.van_der_Wat,_L.Kroukamp,_E.M.2015\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Forbes, P.B.C.; van der Wat, L.; Kroukamp, E.M. (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=hESnBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA53\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 3: Biomonitors\"<\/a>. In Barcelo, D. (ed.). <i>Monitoring of Air Pollutants: Sampling, Sample Preparation and Analytical Techniques<\/i>. Comprehensive Analytical Chemistry. Vol.&#160;70. Elsevier. pp.&#160;53\u2013107. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780444635532<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+3%3A+Biomonitors&amp;rft.btitle=Monitoring+of+Air+Pollutants%3A+Sampling%2C+Sample+Preparation+and+Analytical+Techniques&amp;rft.series=Comprehensive+Analytical+Chemistry&amp;rft.pages=53-107&amp;rft.pub=Elsevier&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.isbn=9780444635532&amp;rft.au=Forbes%2C+P.B.C.&amp;rft.au=van+der+Wat%2C+L.&amp;rft.au=Kroukamp%2C+E.M.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhESnBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA53&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ForbesDenuders15-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ForbesDenuders15_16-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFForbes,_P.B.C.Rohwer,_E.R.2015\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Forbes, P.B.C.; Rohwer, E.R. (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=hESnBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA155\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 5: Denuders\"<\/a>. In Barcelo, D. (ed.). <i>Monitoring of Air Pollutants: Sampling, Sample Preparation and Analytical Techniques<\/i>. Comprehensive Analytical Chemistry. Vol.&#160;70. Elsevier. pp.&#160;155\u2013181. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780444635532<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+5%3A+Denuders&amp;rft.btitle=Monitoring+of+Air+Pollutants%3A+Sampling%2C+Sample+Preparation+and+Analytical+Techniques&amp;rft.series=Comprehensive+Analytical+Chemistry&amp;rft.pages=155-181&amp;rft.pub=Elsevier&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.isbn=9780444635532&amp;rft.au=Forbes%2C+P.B.C.&amp;rft.au=Rohwer%2C+E.R.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhESnBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA155&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NOAAMerc-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-NOAAMerc_17-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.esrl.noaa.gov\/gmd\/obop\/mlo\/programs\/esrl\/hg\/hg.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Elemental, Particulate, and Reactive Gaseous Mercury Monitoring\"<\/a>. NOAA Earth System Research Laboratory, Global Monitoring Division<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Elemental%2C+Particulate%2C+and+Reactive+Gaseous+Mercury+Monitoring&amp;rft.pub=NOAA+Earth+System+Research+Laboratory%2C+Global+Monitoring+Division&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.esrl.noaa.gov%2Fgmd%2Fobop%2Fmlo%2Fprograms%2Fesrl%2Fhg%2Fhg.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GrandyNovel15-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-GrandyNovel15_18-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGrandy,_J.Asl-Hariri,_S.Paliszyn,_J.2015\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Grandy, J.; Asl-Hariri, S.; Paliszyn, J. (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=hESnBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA208\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 7: Novel and Emerging Air-Sampling Devices\"<\/a>. In Barcelo, D. (ed.). <i>Monitoring of Air Pollutants: Sampling, Sample Preparation and Analytical Techniques<\/i>. Comprehensive Analytical Chemistry. Vol.&#160;70. Elsevier. pp.&#160;208\u2013237. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780444635532<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+7%3A+Novel+and+Emerging+Air-Sampling+Devices&amp;rft.btitle=Monitoring+of+Air+Pollutants%3A+Sampling%2C+Sample+Preparation+and+Analytical+Techniques&amp;rft.series=Comprehensive+Analytical+Chemistry&amp;rft.pages=208-237&amp;rft.pub=Elsevier&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.isbn=9780444635532&amp;rft.au=Grandy%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Asl-Hariri%2C+S.&amp;rft.au=Paliszyn%2C+J.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhESnBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA208&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CachadaSoil17-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-CachadaSoil17_19-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-CachadaSoil17_19-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-CachadaSoil17_19-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-CachadaSoil17_19-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-CachadaSoil17_19-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-CachadaSoil17_19-5\"><sup><i><b>f<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-CachadaSoil17_19-6\"><sup><i><b>g<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCachada,_A.Rocha-Santos,_T.Duarte,_A.C.2017\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Cachada, A.; Rocha-Santos, T.; Duarte, A.C. (2017). \"Chapter 1: Soil and Pollution: An Introduction to the Main Issues\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=fE6ZDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Soil Pollution: From Monitoring to Remediation<\/i><\/a>. Academic Press. pp.&#160;1\u201328. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780128498729<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+Soil+and+Pollution%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Main+Issues&amp;rft.btitle=Soil+Pollution%3A+From+Monitoring+to+Remediation&amp;rft.pages=1-28&amp;rft.pub=Academic+Press&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft.isbn=9780128498729&amp;rft.au=Cachada%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=Rocha-Santos%2C+T.&amp;rft.au=Duarte%2C+A.C.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfE6ZDgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DuboisSampling93-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-DuboisSampling93_20-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDubois,_J.P.Schulin,_R.1993\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Dubois, J.P.; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rainer_Schulin\" title=\"Rainer Schulin\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c7c67b70836231acfdec6a146b071ea\">Schulin, R.<\/a> (1993). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Amb0BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA271\" target=\"_blank\">\"Sampling and Analytical Techniques as Limiting Factors in Soil Monitoring\"<\/a>. In Schulin, R.; Webster, R.; Desaules, A.; von Steiger, B. (eds.). <i>Soil Monitoring: Early Detection and Surveying of Soil Contamination and Degradation<\/i>. Springer Basel. pp.&#160;271\u20136. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9783034875424<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Sampling+and+Analytical+Techniques+as+Limiting+Factors+in+Soil+Monitoring&amp;rft.btitle=Soil+Monitoring%3A+Early+Detection+and+Surveying+of+Soil+Contamination+and+Degradation&amp;rft.pages=271-6&amp;rft.pub=Springer+Basel&amp;rft.date=1993&amp;rft.isbn=9783034875424&amp;rft.au=Dubois%2C+J.P.&amp;rft.au=Schulin%2C+R.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAmb0BwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA271&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HarterWater08-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-HarterWater08_21-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHarter,_T.2008\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Harter, T. (2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=AmKl8C7zVoAC&pg=PA116\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 8: Water Sampling and Monitoring\"<\/a>. In Harter, T.; Rollins, L. (eds.). <i>Watersheds, Groundwater and Drinking Water: A Practical Guide<\/i>. UCANR Publications. pp.&#160;113\u201338. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781879906815<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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(2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=oHhGtPF4JzsC&pg=PA128\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Field Sampling Methods for Remedial Investigations<\/i><\/a>. CRC Press. pp.&#160;128\u2013148. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781420059151<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Field+Sampling+Methods+for+Remedial+Investigations&amp;rft.pages=128-148&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.isbn=9781420059151&amp;rft.au=Byrnes%2C+M.E.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoHhGtPF4JzsC%26pg%3DPA128&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MirsalSoil13-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-MirsalSoil13_23-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMirsal,_I.2013\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Mirsal, I. (2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=l9Z9BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA172\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Soil Pollution: Origin, Monitoring &amp; Remediation<\/i><\/a>. Springer Science+Business Media. pp.&#160;172\u20134. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9783662054000<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Soil+Pollution%3A+Origin%2C+Monitoring+%26+Remediation&amp;rft.pages=172-4&amp;rft.pub=Springer+Science%2BBusiness+Media&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.isbn=9783662054000&amp;rft.au=Mirsal%2C+I.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dl9Z9BwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA172&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KotWasikSome07-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-KotWasikSome07_24-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKot-Wasik,_A.Namie\u015bnik,_J.2007\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Kot-Wasik, A.; Namie\u015bnik, J. (2007). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=0v6Tu4kI7s8C&pg=PA161\" target=\"_blank\">\"Some Advances in Environmental Analytics and Monitoring\"<\/a>. In Twardowska, I.; Allen, H.E.; H\u00e4ggblom, M.M. (eds.). <i>Soil and Water Pollution Monitoring, Protection and Remediation<\/i>. Springer Science+Business Media. pp.&#160;161\u2013174. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781402047282<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Some+Advances+in+Environmental+Analytics+and+Monitoring&amp;rft.btitle=Soil+and+Water+Pollution+Monitoring%2C+Protection+and+Remediation&amp;rft.pages=161-174&amp;rft.pub=Springer+Science%2BBusiness+Media&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.isbn=9781402047282&amp;rft.au=Kot-Wasik%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=Namie%C5%9Bnik%2C+J.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0v6Tu4kI7s8C%26pg%3DPA161&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AelionSoil09-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-AelionSoil09_25-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAelion,_C.M.2009\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Aelion, C.M. (2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=XUzDDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA148\" target=\"_blank\">\"Soil Contamination Monitoring\"<\/a>. In Inyang, H.I.; Daniels, J.L. (eds.). <i>Environmental Monitoring<\/i>. Vol.&#160;2. EOLSS Publications. pp.&#160;148\u201374. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781905839766<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Soil+Contamination+Monitoring&amp;rft.btitle=Environmental+Monitoring&amp;rft.pages=148-74&amp;rft.pub=EOLSS+Publications&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.isbn=9781905839766&amp;rft.au=Aelion%2C+C.M.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXUzDDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA148&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-OwensSoil06-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-OwensSoil06_26-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFOwens,_P.N.Collins,_A.J.2006\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Owens, P.N.; Collins, A.J. (2006). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=YLbSI4vw_oIC&pg=PA299\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 28: Soil Erosion and Sediment Redistribution in River Catchments: Summary, Outlook and Future Requirements\"<\/a>. <i>Soil Erosion and Sediment Redistribution in River Catchments: Measurement, Modelling And Management<\/i>. CABI International. pp.&#160;297\u2013318. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780851990507<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+28%3A+Soil+Erosion+and+Sediment+Redistribution+in+River+Catchments%3A+Summary%2C+Outlook+and+Future+Requirements&amp;rft.btitle=Soil+Erosion+and+Sediment+Redistribution+in+River+Catchments%3A+Measurement%2C+Modelling+And+Management&amp;rft.pages=297-318&amp;rft.pub=CABI+International&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.isbn=9780851990507&amp;rft.au=Owens%2C+P.N.&amp;rft.au=Collins%2C+A.J.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYLbSI4vw_oIC%26pg%3DPA299&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PierveMontitor94-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-PierveMontitor94_27-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPierce,_F.J.Lai,_R.1994\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Pierce, F.J.; Lai, R. (1994). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Ers6DwAAQBAJ&pg=RA2-PA3\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 10: Monitoring soil erosion's impact on crop productivity\"<\/a>. In Lai, R. (ed.). <i>Soil Erosion Research Methods<\/i>. Soil and Water Conservation Society and St. Lucie Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781351415965<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+10%3A+Monitoring+soil+erosion%27s+impact+on+crop+productivity&amp;rft.btitle=Soil+Erosion+Research+Methods&amp;rft.pub=Soil+and+Water+Conservation+Society+and+St.+Lucie+Press&amp;rft.date=1994&amp;rft.isbn=9781351415965&amp;rft.au=Pierce%2C+F.J.&amp;rft.au=Lai%2C+R.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DErs6DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DRA2-PA3&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ShahidDevelop13-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-ShahidDevelop13_28-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ShahidDevelop13_28-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ShahidDevelop13_28-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFShahid,_S.A.2013\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Shahid, S.A. (2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=VZlEAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA3\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: Developments in Soil Salinity Assessment, Modeling, Mapping, and Monitoring from Regional to Submicroscopic Scales\"<\/a>. In Shahid, S.A.; Abdelfattah, M.A.; Taha, F.K. (eds.). <i>Developments in Soil Salinity Assessment and Reclamation: Innovative Thinking and Use of Marginal Soil and Water Resources in Irrigated Agriculture<\/i>. Springer Science+Business Media. pp.&#160;3\u201344. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9789400756847<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Vienna: IAEA.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Environmental+and+Source+Monitoring+for+Purposes+of+Radiation+Protection%2C+IAEA+Safety+Standards+Series+No.+RS%E2%80%93G-1.8&amp;rft.place=Vienna&amp;rft.pub=IAEA&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.au=International+Atomic+Energy+Agency&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-pub.iaea.org%2FMTCD%2Fpublications%2FPDF%2FPub1216_web.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-35\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-35\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFInternational_Atomic_Energy_Agency2010\" class=\"citation book cs1\">International Atomic Energy Agency (2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www-pub.iaea.org\/mtcd\/publications\/PubDetails.asp?pubId=8242\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Programmes and Systems for Source and Environmental Radiation Monitoring. Safety Reports Series No. 64<\/i><\/a>. Vienna: IAEA. p.&#160;234. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-92-0-112409-8<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Programmes+and+Systems+for+Source+and+Environmental+Radiation+Monitoring.+Safety+Reports+Series+No.+64.&amp;rft.place=Vienna&amp;rft.pages=234&amp;rft.pub=IAEA&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.isbn=978-92-0-112409-8&amp;rft.au=International+Atomic+Energy+Agency&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-pub.iaea.org%2Fmtcd%2Fpublications%2FPubDetails.asp%3FpubId%3D8242&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-36\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-36\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/biomeme.com\/environmental-dna\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Guide to Environmental DNA (eDNA) by Biomeme\"<\/a>. <i>Biomeme<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Biomeme&amp;rft.atitle=A+Guide+to+Environmental+DNA+%28eDNA%29+by+Biomeme&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiomeme.com%2Fenvironmental-dna%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GOVUK_MCERTS17-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-GOVUK_MCERTS17_37-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFEnvironment_Agency2017\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Environment Agency (December 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.gov.uk\/government\/publications\/mcerts-performance-standards-and-test-procedures-for-environmental-data-management-software\" target=\"_blank\">\"MCERTS: Quality and performance standards for environmental data management software\"<\/a>. <i>GOV.UK<\/i>. p.&#160;55<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=GOV.UK&amp;rft.atitle=MCERTS%3A+Quality+and+performance+standards+for+environmental+data+management+software&amp;rft.pages=55&amp;rft.date=2017-12&amp;rft.au=Environment+Agency&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gov.uk%2Fgovernment%2Fpublications%2Fmcerts-performance-standards-and-test-procedures-for-environmental-data-management-software&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GOVUK_Monitor17-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-GOVUK_Monitor17_38-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFEnvironment_Agency2017\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Environment Agency (9 February 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.gov.uk\/government\/collections\/monitoring-emissions-to-air-land-and-water-mcerts\" target=\"_blank\">\"Monitoring emissions to air, land and water (MCERTS)\"<\/a>. <i>GOV.UK<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=GOV.UK&amp;rft.atitle=Monitoring+emissions+to+air%2C+land+and+water+%28MCERTS%29&amp;rft.date=2017-02-09&amp;rft.au=Environment+Agency&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gov.uk%2Fgovernment%2Fcollections%2Fmonitoring-emissions-to-air-land-and-water-mcerts&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CSA_MCERTS-39\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-CSA_MCERTS_39-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.csagroupuk.org\/services\/mcerts\/mcerts-product-certification\/mcerts-certified-products\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"MCERTS Certified Products\"<\/a>. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=MCERTS+Certified+Products&amp;rft.pub=CSA+Group&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.csagroupuk.org%2Fservices%2Fmcerts%2Fmcerts-product-certification%2Fmcerts-certified-products%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EPA-40\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-EPA_40-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-EPA_40-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-EPA_40-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-EPA_40-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-EPA_40-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-EPA_40-5\"><sup><i><b>f<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.epa.gov\/nheerl\/arm\/web\/pdf\/epaqag5s.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Guidance on Choosing a Sampling Design for Environmental Data Collection for Use in Developing a Quality Assurance Project Plan EPA QA\/G-5S\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency\" title=\"United States Environmental Protection Agency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a3e4c58eca1cdd38b19280e2fe2ec728\">United States Environmental Protection Agency<\/a>. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 April<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Guidance+on+Choosing+a+Sampling+Design+for+Environmental+Data+Collection+for+Use+in+Developing+a+Quality+Assurance+Project+Plan+EPA+QA%2FG-5S&amp;rft.pub=United+States+Environmental+Protection+Agency&amp;rft.date=2002-10&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.epa.gov%2Fnheerl%2Farm%2Fweb%2Fpdf%2Fepaqag5s.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> <span class=\"noviewer\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"Public Domain\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/6\/62\/PD-icon.svg\/12px-PD-icon.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"12\" height=\"12\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/span><\/span> This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_domain\" title=\"Public domain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"45d4efd06b4edbf07ca070319cad4b29\">public domain<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Nollet-41\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Nollet_41-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Nollet_41-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Nollet_41-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFNollet2000\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Nollet, Leo M.L., ed. (2000). <i>Handbook of Water Analysis<\/i>. New York: Marcel Dekker. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>0-8247-8433-2<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Water+Analysis&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=Marcel+Dekker&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.isbn=0-8247-8433-2&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-42\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-42\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFShaw1984\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Shaw, Elizabeth M. 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(1998). \"Assessment of Atmospheric Heavy Metals by Moss Monitoring with Isothecium Stoloniferum Brid. in the Fraser Valley, B.C., Canada.\" <i>Water, Air, &amp; Soil Pollution.<\/i> Vol. 101, Nos. 1\u20134, January 1998, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0049-6979\" target=\"_blank\">0049-6979<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-46\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-46\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Bragazzaa, Marchesinia, Alberb, Bonettic, Lorenzonic, Achillid, Buffonid, De Marcoe, Franchif, Pisonf, Giaquintag, Palmierih Spezzano (2000). \"Monitoring of heavy metal deposition in Northern Italy by moss analysis.\" <i>Environmental Pollution,<\/i> Vol. 108, No. 2, pp 201\u2013208.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-47\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-47\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">C. Belpaire and G. Goemans, \"Eels: contaminant cocktails pinpointing environmental contamination.\" ICES J. Mar. Sci. 64: 1423\u20131436.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-48\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-48\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Offwell Woodland &amp; Wildlife Trust. Devon, UK. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.countrysideinfo.co.uk\/howto.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Ecological Sampling Methods.\"<\/a> Accessed 2009-10-21.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-49\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-49\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCsurosCsuros2002\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Csuros, Csaba; Csuros, Maria (2002). <i>Environmental sampling and analysis for metals<\/i>. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. p.&#160;219. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-56670-572-1<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Environmental+sampling+and+analysis+for+metals&amp;rft.place=Boca+Raton%2C+FL&amp;rft.pages=219&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-56670-572-1&amp;rft.aulast=Csuros&amp;rft.aufirst=Csaba&amp;rft.au=Csuros%2C+Maria&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-50\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-50\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Environment Agency, UK. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/apps.environment-agency.gov.uk\/wiyby\/37815.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">Chemistry classification method<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141027151813\/http:\/\/apps.environment-agency.gov.uk\/wiyby\/37815.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2014-10-27 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-51\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-51\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Environment Agency. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/apps.environment-agency.gov.uk\/wiyby\/37817.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">General quality assessment of rivers \u2013 biology<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141027152605\/http:\/\/apps.environment-agency.gov.uk\/wiyby\/37817.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2014-10-27 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-52\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-52\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Water_Framework_Directive\" title=\"Water Framework Directive\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fb52525b96fd843374c94bf2abb30e48\">European Union Water Framework Directive, EU WFD<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<p><br \/>\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\" \/><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\" \/><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw\u2010web.codfw.main\u2010566b964b46\u2010prldf\nCached time: 20240102045834\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 0.708 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.886 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 4112\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 205717\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 1684\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 16\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 18\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 167979\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.378\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 8813635\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 659.633 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>49.92% 329.261 1 Template:Reflist\n27.60% 182.080 23 Template:Cite_book\n13.50% 89.025 1 Template:Pollution_sidebar\n13.09% 86.352 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists\n 8.12% 53.559 1 Template:Short_description\n 7.89% 52.032 16 Template:Cite_web\n 6.05% 39.887 1 Template:Aquatic_ecosystem_topics\n 5.59% 36.843 1 Template:Navbox_with_collapsible_groups\n 5.37% 35.401 1 Template:Authority_control\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:22228846-0!canonical and timestamp 20240102045833 and revision id 1190923378. Rendering was triggered because: page-view\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_monitoring\" data-key=\"a8a4b57b749e044e06fc362fba59f330\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110163156\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.255 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.545 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 225885\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 437.101 1 wikipedia:Environmental_monitoring\n100.00% 437.101 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10929-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110163156 and revision id 49404. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Environmental_monitoring\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Environmental_monitoring<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","4671d3cbb4201e1698d0fb44369dc1ea_images":[],"4671d3cbb4201e1698d0fb44369dc1ea_timestamp":1704907016,"be09d3680fe1608addedf6f62692ee47_type":"article","be09d3680fe1608addedf6f62692ee47_title":"Data mining","be09d3680fe1608addedf6f62692ee47_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_mining","be09d3680fe1608addedf6f62692ee47_plaintext":"\n\nData miningFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mining?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_mining\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_mining<\/a>\nCategories: Automation and artificial intelligenceBusiness and data managementHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 12 June 2022, at 14:33.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 3,951 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","be09d3680fe1608addedf6f62692ee47_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Data_mining rootpage-Data_mining skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Data mining<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mining?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mining\" data-key=\"c0476196065f64ef9067933bc43b6634\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171656\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.096 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.166 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 93\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 159.545 1 wikipedia:Data_mining\n100.00% 159.545 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10943-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171656 and revision id 48268. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_mining\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_mining<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","be09d3680fe1608addedf6f62692ee47_images":[],"be09d3680fe1608addedf6f62692ee47_timestamp":1704907016,"fd01c635859e1d5b9583e43e31ef6718_type":"article","fd01c635859e1d5b9583e43e31ef6718_title":"Data integration","fd01c635859e1d5b9583e43e31ef6718_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_integration","fd01c635859e1d5b9583e43e31ef6718_plaintext":"\n\nData integrationFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_integration?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_integration\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_integration<\/a>\nCategories: Business and data managementInformaticsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 18 September 2022, at 18:04.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 3,419 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","fd01c635859e1d5b9583e43e31ef6718_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Data_integration rootpage-Data_integration skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Data integration<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_integration?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_integration\" data-key=\"2ef20102ff5fd42522c9e879f31e999e\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171656\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.085 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.155 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 98\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 150.966 1 wikipedia:Data_integration\n100.00% 150.966 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10405-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171655 and revision id 49348. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_integration\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_integration<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","fd01c635859e1d5b9583e43e31ef6718_images":[],"fd01c635859e1d5b9583e43e31ef6718_timestamp":1704907015,"7f41f95d4835a37b958fa9e870357f66_type":"article","7f41f95d4835a37b958fa9e870357f66_title":"Data exchange","7f41f95d4835a37b958fa9e870357f66_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_exchange","7f41f95d4835a37b958fa9e870357f66_plaintext":"\n\nData exchangeFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_exchange?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_exchange\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_exchange<\/a>\nCategory: Business and data managementHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 2 March 2019, at 22:13.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 2,204 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","7f41f95d4835a37b958fa9e870357f66_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Data_exchange rootpage-Data_exchange skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Data exchange<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_exchange?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_exchange\" data-key=\"c97e148e96943a9053684595427be918\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171639\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.082 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.151 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 95\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 147.532 1 wikipedia:Data_exchange\n100.00% 147.532 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10927-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171639 and revision id 35090. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_exchange\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_exchange<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","7f41f95d4835a37b958fa9e870357f66_images":[],"7f41f95d4835a37b958fa9e870357f66_timestamp":1704906999,"baf90d92c3bb5e14eedf0352b39e09b4_type":"article","baf90d92c3bb5e14eedf0352b39e09b4_title":"Concept processing","baf90d92c3bb5e14eedf0352b39e09b4_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Concept_processing","baf90d92c3bb5e14eedf0352b39e09b4_plaintext":"\n\nConcept processingFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Concept_processing?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Concept_processing\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Concept_processing<\/a>\nCategories: Automation and artificial intelligenceHealth informaticsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 18 September 2022, at 17:08.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 2,272 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","baf90d92c3bb5e14eedf0352b39e09b4_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Concept_processing rootpage-Concept_processing skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Concept processing<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Concept_processing?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Concept_processing\" data-key=\"1c271a1ad9a593278c9c9ce31d1d5801\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171655\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.098 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.174 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 100\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 168.597 1 wikipedia:Concept_processing\n100.00% 168.597 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:9070-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171655 and revision id 49315. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Concept_processing\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Concept_processing<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","baf90d92c3bb5e14eedf0352b39e09b4_images":[],"baf90d92c3bb5e14eedf0352b39e09b4_timestamp":1704907015,"e0952b5b262392be0995237aec36d355_type":"article","e0952b5b262392be0995237aec36d355_title":"Barcode","e0952b5b262392be0995237aec36d355_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Barcode","e0952b5b262392be0995237aec36d355_plaintext":"\n\nBarcodeFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchOptical machine-readable representation of data\n It has been suggested that Barcode system be merged into this article. (Discuss) Proposed since December 2023.\nFor the taxonomic method, see DNA barcoding. For a code of conduct for barristers, see Legal ethics.\n\n\nA UPC-A barcode\n\nA barcode or bar code is a method of representing data in a visual, machine-readable form. Initially, barcodes represented data by varying the widths, spacings and sizes of parallel lines. These barcodes, now commonly referred to as linear or one-dimensional (1D), can be scanned by special optical scanners, called barcode readers, of which there are several types.\nLater, two-dimensional (2D) variants were developed, using rectangles, dots, hexagons and other patterns, called 2D barcodes or matrix codes, although they do not use bars as such. Both can be read using purpose-built 2D optical scanners, which exist in a few different forms. Matrix codes can also be read by a digital camera connected to a microcomputer running software that takes a photographic image of the barcode and analyzes the image to deconstruct and decode the code. A mobile device with a built-in camera, such as a smartphone, can function as the latter type of barcode reader using specialized application software and is suitable for both 1D and 2D codes.\n\nBarcoded rolling stock in the UK, 1962\n\nThe barcode was invented by Norman Joseph Woodland and Bernard Silver and patented in the US in 1952.[1] The invention was based on Morse code[2] that was extended to thin and thick bars. However, it took over twenty years before this invention became commercially successful. UK magazine Modern Railways December 1962 pages 387\u2013389 record how British Railways had already perfected a barcode-reading system capable of correctly reading rolling stock travelling at 100&#160;mph (160&#160;km\/h) with no mistakes. An early use of one type of barcode in an industrial context was sponsored by the Association of American Railroads in the late 1960s. Developed by General Telephone and Electronics (GTE) and called KarTrak ACI (Automatic Car Identification), this scheme involved placing colored stripes in various combinations on steel plates which were affixed to the sides of railroad rolling stock. Two plates were used per car, one on each side, with the arrangement of the colored stripes encoding information such as ownership, type of equipment, and identification number.[3] The plates were read by a trackside scanner located, for instance, at the entrance to a classification yard, while the car was moving past.[4] The project was abandoned after about ten years because the system proved unreliable after long-term use.[3]\nBarcodes became commercially successful when they were used to automate supermarket checkout systems, a task for which they have become almost universal. The Uniform Grocery Product Code Council had chosen, in 1973, the barcode design developed by George Laurer. Laurer's barcode, with vertical bars, printed better than the circular barcode developed by Woodland and Silver.[5] Their use has spread to many other tasks that are generically referred to as automatic identification and data capture (AIDC). The first successful system using barcodes was in the UK supermarket group Sainsbury's in 1972 using shelf-mounted barcodes [6] which were developed by Plessey.[6] In June 1974, Marsh supermarket in Troy, Ohio used a scanner made by Photographic Sciences Corporation to scan the Universal Product Code (UPC) barcode on a pack of Wrigley's chewing gum.[7][5] QR codes, a specific type of 2D barcode, have recently[when? ] become very popular due to the growth in smartphone ownership.[8]\nOther systems have made inroads in the AIDC market, but the simplicity, universality and low cost of barcodes has limited the role of these other systems, particularly before technologies such as radio-frequency identification (RFID) became available after 1995.\n\n\n\nHistory \n This article duplicates the scope of other articles, specifically Universal Product Code#History. Please discuss this issue and help introduce a summary style to the article. (December 2013 ) \nIn 1948 Bernard Silver, a graduate student at Drexel Institute of Technology in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, US overheard the president of the local food chain, Food Fair, asking one of the deans to research a system to automatically read product information during checkout.[9] Silver told his friend Norman Joseph Woodland about the request, and they started working on a variety of systems. Their first working system used ultraviolet ink, but the ink faded too easily and was expensive.[10]\nConvinced that the system was workable with further development, Woodland left Drexel, moved into his father's apartment in Florida, and continued working on the system. His next inspiration came from Morse code, and he formed his first barcode from sand on the beach. \"I just extended the dots and dashes downwards and made narrow lines and wide lines out of them.\"[10] To read them, he adapted technology from optical soundtracks in movies, using a 500-watt incandescent light bulb shining through the paper onto an RCA935 photomultiplier tube (from a movie projector) on the far side. He later decided that the system would work better if it were printed as a circle instead of a line, allowing it to be scanned in any direction.\nOn 20 October 1949, Woodland and Silver filed a patent application for \"Classifying Apparatus and Method\", in which they described both the linear and bull's eye printing patterns, as well as the mechanical and electronic systems needed to read the code. The patent was issued on 7 October 1952 as US Patent 2,612,994.[1] In 1951, Woodland moved to IBM and continually tried to interest IBM in developing the system. The company eventually commissioned a report on the idea, which concluded that it was both feasible and interesting, but that processing the resulting information would require equipment that was some time off in the future.\nIBM offered to buy the patent, but the offer was not accepted. Philco purchased the patent in 1962 and then sold it to RCA sometime later.[10]\n\nCollins at Sylvania \nDuring his time as an undergraduate, David Jarrett Collins worked at the Pennsylvania Railroad and became aware of the need to automatically identify railroad cars. Immediately after receiving his master's degree from MIT in 1959, he started work at GTE Sylvania and began addressing the problem. He developed a system called KarTrak using blue, white and red reflective stripes attached to the side of the cars, encoding a four-digit company identifier and a six-digit car number.[10] Light reflected off the colored stripes was read by photomultiplier vacuum tubes.[11]\nThe Boston and Maine Railroad tested the KarTrak system on their gravel cars in 1961. The tests continued until 1967, when the Association of American Railroads (AAR) selected it as a standard, Automatic Car Identification, across the entire North American fleet. The installations began on 10 October 1967. However, the economic downturn and rash of bankruptcies in the industry in the early 1970s greatly slowed the rollout, and it was not until 1974 that 95% of the fleet was labeled. To add to its woes, the system was found to be easily fooled by dirt in certain applications, which greatly affected accuracy. The AAR abandoned the system in the late 1970s, and it was not until the mid-1980s that they introduced a similar system, this time based on radio tags.[12]\nThe railway project had failed, but a toll bridge in New Jersey requested a similar system so that it could quickly scan for cars that had purchased a monthly pass. Then the U.S. Post Office requested a system to track trucks entering and leaving their facilities. These applications required special retroreflector labels. Finally, Kal Kan asked the Sylvania team for a simpler (and cheaper) version which they could put on cases of pet food for inventory control.\n\nComputer Identics Corporation \nIn 1967, with the railway system maturing, Collins went to management looking for funding for a project to develop a black-and-white version of the code for other industries. They declined, saying that the railway project was large enough, and they saw no need to branch out so quickly.\nCollins then quit Sylvania and formed the Computer Identics Corporation.[10] As its first innovations, Computer Identics moved from using incandescent light bulbs in its systems, replacing them with helium\u2013neon lasers, and incorporated a mirror as well, making it capable of locating a barcode up to a meter (3 feet) in front of the scanner. This made the entire process much simpler and more reliable, and typically enabled these devices to deal with damaged labels, as well, by recognizing and reading the intact portions.\nComputer Identics Corporation installed one of its first two scanning systems in the spring of 1969 at a General Motors (Buick) factory in Flint, Michigan.[10] The system was used to identify a dozen types of transmissions moving on an overhead conveyor from production to shipping. The other scanning system was installed at General Trading Company's distribution center in Carlstadt, New Jersey to direct shipments to the proper loading bay.\n\nUniversal Product Code \nMain article: Universal Product Code\nIn 1966, the National Association of Food Chains (NAFC) held a meeting on the idea of automated checkout systems. RCA, who had purchased the rights to the original Woodland patent, attended the meeting and initiated an internal project to develop a system based on the bullseye code. The Kroger grocery chain volunteered to test it.\nIn the mid-1970s, the NAFC established the Ad-Hoc Committee for U.S. Supermarkets on a Uniform Grocery-Product Code to set guidelines for barcode development. In addition, it created a symbol-selection subcommittee to help standardize the approach. In cooperation with consulting firm, McKinsey &amp; Co., they developed a standardized 11-digit code for identifying products. The committee then sent out a contract tender to develop a barcode system to print and read the code. The request went to Singer, National Cash Register (NCR), Litton Industries, RCA, Pitney-Bowes, IBM and many others.[13] A wide variety of barcode approaches was studied, including linear codes, RCA's bullseye concentric circle code, starburst patterns and others.\nIn the spring of 1971, RCA demonstrated their bullseye code at another industry meeting. IBM executives at the meeting noticed the crowds at the RCA booth and immediately developed their own system. IBM marketing specialist Alec Jablonover remembered that the company still employed Woodland, and he established a new facility in Raleigh-Durham Research Triangle Park to lead development.\nIn July 1972, RCA began an 18-month test in a Kroger store in Cincinnati. Barcodes were printed on small pieces of adhesive paper, and attached by hand by store employees when they were adding price tags. The code proved to have a serious problem; the printers would sometimes smear ink, rendering the code unreadable in most orientations. However, a linear code, like the one being developed by Woodland at IBM, was printed in the direction of the stripes, so extra ink would simply make the code \"taller\" while remaining readable. So on 3 April 1973, the IBM UPC was selected as the NAFC standard. IBM had designed five versions of UPC symbology for future industry requirements: UPC A, B, C, D, and E.[14]\nNCR installed a testbed system at Marsh's Supermarket in Troy, Ohio, near the factory that was producing the equipment. On 26 June 1974, Clyde Dawson pulled a 10-pack of Wrigley's Juicy Fruit gum out of his basket and it was scanned by Sharon Buchanan at 8:01&#160;am. The pack of gum and the receipt are now on display in the Smithsonian Institution. It was the first commercial appearance of the UPC.[15]\nIn 1971, an IBM team was assembled for an intensive planning session, threshing out, 12 to 18 hours a day, how the technology would be deployed and operate cohesively across the system, and scheduling a roll-out plan. By 1973, the team were meeting with grocery manufacturers to introduce the symbol that would need to be printed on the packaging or labels of all of their products. There were no cost savings for a grocery to use it, unless at least 70% of the grocery's products had the barcode printed on the product by the manufacturer. IBM projected that 75% would be needed in 1975. Yet, although this was achieved, there were still scanning machines in fewer than 200 grocery stores by 1977.[16]\nEconomic studies conducted for the grocery industry committee projected over $40 million in savings to the industry from scanning by the mid-1970s. Those numbers were not achieved in that time-frame and some predicted the demise of barcode scanning. The usefulness of the barcode required the adoption of expensive scanners by a critical mass of retailers while manufacturers simultaneously adopted barcode labels. Neither wanted to move first and results were not promising for the first couple of years, with Business Week proclaiming \"The Supermarket Scanner That Failed\" in a 1976 article.[15][17]\nOn the other hand, experience with barcode scanning in those stores revealed additional benefits. The detailed sales information acquired by the new systems allowed greater responsiveness to customer habits, needs and preferences. This was reflected in the fact that about 5 weeks after installing barcode scanners, sales in grocery stores typically started climbing and eventually leveled off at a 10\u201312% increase in sales that never dropped off. There was also a 1\u20132% decrease in operating cost for those stores, and this enabled them to lower prices and thereby to increase market share. It was shown in the field that the return on investment for a barcode scanner was 41.5%. By 1980, 8,000 stores per year were converting.[16]\nSims Supermarkets were the first location in Australia to use barcodes, starting in 1979.[18]\n\nIndustrial adoption \nIn 1981, the United States Department of Defense adopted the use of Code 39 for marking all products sold to the United States military. This system, Logistics Applications of Automated Marking and Reading Symbols (LOGMARS), is still used by DoD and is widely viewed as the catalyst for widespread adoption of barcoding in industrial uses.[19]\n\nUse \nSnack vendor on the Shinkansen train scans a barcode.\nEAN-13 ISBN barcode\nBarcode on a patient identification wristband\nBarcoded parcel\n\nBarcodes are widely used around the world in many contexts. In stores, UPC barcodes are pre-printed on most items other than fresh produce from a grocery store. This speeds up processing at check-outs and helps track items and also reduces instances of shoplifting involving price tag swapping, although shoplifters can now print their own barcodes.[20] Barcodes that encode a book's ISBN are also widely pre-printed on books, journals and other printed materials. In addition, retail chain membership cards use barcodes to identify customers, allowing for customized marketing and greater understanding of individual consumer shopping patterns. At the point of sale, shoppers can get product discounts or special marketing offers through the address or e-mail address provided at registration.\nBarcodes are widely used in the healthcare and hospital settings, ranging from patient identification (to access patient data, including medical history, drug allergies, etc.) to creating SOAP Notes[21] with barcodes to medication management. They are also used to facilitate the separation and indexing of documents that have been imaged in batch scanning applications, track the organization of species in biology,[22] and integrate with in-motion checkweighers to identify the item being weighed in a conveyor line for data collection.\nThey can also be used to keep track of objects and people; they are used to keep track of rental cars, airline luggage, nuclear waste, registered mail, express mail and parcels. Barcoded tickets (which may be printed by the customer on their home printer, or stored on their mobile device) allow the holder to enter sports arenas, cinemas, theatres, fairgrounds, and transportation, and are used to record the arrival and departure of vehicles from rental facilities etc. This can allow proprietors to identify duplicate or fraudulent tickets more easily. Barcodes are widely used in shop floor control applications software where employees can scan work orders and track the time spent on a job.\nBarcodes are also used in some kinds of non-contact 1D and 2D position sensors. A series of barcodes are used in some kinds of absolute 1D linear encoder. The barcodes are packed close enough together that the reader always has one or two barcodes in its field of view. As a kind of fiducial marker, the relative position of the barcode in the field of view of the reader gives incremental precise positioning, in some cases with sub-pixel resolution. The data decoded from the barcode gives the absolute coarse position. An \"address carpet\", used in digital paper, such as Howell's binary pattern and the Anoto dot pattern, is a 2D barcode designed so that a reader, even though only a tiny portion of the complete carpet is in the field of view of the reader, can find its absolute X, Y position and rotation in the carpet.[23][24]\nMatrix codes can embed a hyperlink to a web page. A mobile device with a built-in camera might be used to read the pattern and browse the linked website, which can help a shopper find the best price for an item in the vicinity. Since 2005, airlines use an IATA-standard 2D barcode on boarding passes (Bar Coded Boarding Pass (BCBP)), and since 2008 2D barcodes sent to mobile phones enable electronic boarding passes.[25]\nSome applications for barcodes have fallen out of use. In the 1970s and 1980s, software source code was occasionally encoded in a barcode and printed on paper (Cauzin Softstrip and Paperbyte[26] are barcode symbologies specifically designed for this application), and the 1991 Barcode Battler computer game system used any standard barcode to generate combat statistics.\nArtists have used barcodes in art, such as Scott Blake's Barcode Jesus, as part of the post-modernism movement.\n\nSymbologies \nThe mapping between messages and barcodes is called a symbology. The specification of a symbology includes the encoding of the message into bars and spaces, any required start and stop markers, the size of the quiet zone required to be before and after the barcode, and the computation of a checksum.\nLinear symbologies can be classified mainly by two properties:\n\nContinuous vs. discrete\nCharacters in discrete symbologies are composed of n bars and n&#160;\u2212&#160;1 spaces. There is an additional space between characters, but it does not convey information, and may have any width as long as it is not confused with the end of the code.\nCharacters in continuous symbologies are composed of n bars and n spaces, and usually abut, with one character ending with a space and the next beginning with a bar, or vice versa. A special end pattern that has bars on both ends is required to end the code.\nTwo-width vs. many-width\nA two-width, also called a binary bar code, contains bars and spaces of two widths, \"wide\" and \"narrow\". The precise width of the wide bars and spaces is not critical; typically, it is permitted to be anywhere between 2 and 3 times the width of the narrow equivalents.\nSome other symbologies use bars of two different heights (POSTNET), or the presence or absence of bars (CPC Binary Barcode). These are normally also considered binary bar codes.\nBars and spaces in many-width symbologies are all multiples of a basic width called the module; most such codes use four widths of 1, 2, 3 and 4 modules.\nSome symbologies use interleaving. The first character is encoded using black bars of varying width. The second character is then encoded by varying the width of the white spaces between these bars. Thus, characters are encoded in pairs over the same section of the barcode. Interleaved 2 of 5 is an example of this.\nStacked symbologies repeat a given linear symbology vertically.\nThe most common among the many 2D symbologies are matrix codes, which feature square or dot-shaped modules arranged on a grid pattern. 2D symbologies also come in circular and other patterns and may employ steganography, hiding modules within an image (for example, DataGlyphs).\nLinear symbologies are optimized for laser scanners, which sweep a light beam across the barcode in a straight line, reading a slice of the barcode light-dark patterns. Scanning at an angle makes the modules appear wider, but does not change the width ratios. Stacked symbologies are also optimized for laser scanning, with the laser making multiple passes across the barcode.\nIn the 1990s development of charge-coupled device (CCD) imagers to read barcodes was pioneered by Welch Allyn. Imaging does not require moving parts, as a laser scanner does. In 2007, linear imaging had begun to supplant laser scanning as the preferred scan engine for its performance and durability.\n2D symbologies cannot be read by a laser, as there is typically no sweep pattern that can encompass the entire symbol. They must be scanned by an image-based scanner employing a CCD or other digital camera sensor technology.\n\nBarcode readers \nMain article: Barcode reader\nGTIN barcodes on Coca-Cola bottles. The images at right show how the laser of barcode readers \"see\" the images behind a red filter.\n\nThe earliest, and still[when? ] the cheapest, barcode scanners are built from a fixed light and a single photosensor that is manually moved across the barcode. Barcode scanners can be classified into three categories based on their connection to the computer. The older type is the RS-232 barcode scanner. This type requires special programming for transferring the input data to the application program. Keyboard interface scanners connect to a computer using a PS\/2 or AT keyboard\u2013compatible adaptor cable (a \"keyboard wedge\"). The barcode's data is sent to the computer as if it had been typed on the keyboard.\nLike the keyboard interface scanner, USB scanners do not need custom code for transferring input data to the application program. On PCs running Windows the human interface device emulates the data merging action of a hardware \"keyboard wedge\", and the scanner automatically behaves like an additional keyboard.\nMost modern smartphones are able to decode barcode using their built-in camera. Google's mobile Android operating system can use their own Google Lens application to scan QR codes, or third-party apps like Barcode Scanner to read both one-dimensional barcodes and QR codes. Nokia's Symbian operating system featured a barcode scanner,[27] while mbarcode[28] is a QR code reader for the Maemo operating system. In Apple iOS 11, the native camera app can decode QR codes and can link to URLs, join wireless networks, or perform other operations depending on the QR Code contents.[29] Other paid and free apps are available with scanning capabilities for other symbologies or for earlier iOS versions.[30] With BlackBerry devices, the App World application can natively scan barcodes and load any recognized Web URLs on the device's Web browser. Windows Phone 7.5 is able to scan barcodes through the Bing search app. However, these devices are not designed specifically for the capturing of barcodes. As a result, they do not decode nearly as quickly or accurately as a dedicated barcode scanner or portable data terminal.[citation needed ]\n\nQuality control and verification \nIt is common for producers and users of bar codes to have a quality management system which includes verification and validation of bar codes.[31] Barcode verification examines scanability and the quality of the barcode in comparison to industry standards and specifications.[32] Barcode verifiers are primarily used by businesses that print and use barcodes. Any trading partner in the supply chain can test barcode quality. It is important to verify a barcode to ensure that any reader in the supply chain can successfully interpret a barcode with a low error rate. Retailers levy large penalties for non-compliant barcodes. These chargebacks can reduce a manufacturer's revenue by 2% to 10%.[33]\nA barcode verifier works the way a reader does, but instead of simply decoding a barcode, a verifier performs a series of tests. For linear barcodes these tests are:\n\nEdge contrast (EC)[34]\nThe difference between the space reflectance (Rs) and adjoining bar reflectance (Rb). EC=Rs-Rb\nMinimum bar reflectance (Rb)[34]\nThe smallest reflectance value in a bar.\nMinimum space reflectance (Rs)[34]\nThe smallest reflectance value in a space.\nSymbol contrast (SC)[34]\nSymbol contrast is the difference in reflectance values of the lightest space (including the quiet zone) and the darkest bar of the symbol. The greater the difference, the higher the grade. The parameter is graded as either A, B, C, D, or F. SC=Rmax-Rmin\nMinimum edge contrast (ECmin)[34]\nThe difference between the space reflectance (Rs) and adjoining bar reflectance (Rb). EC=Rs-Rb\nModulation (MOD)[34]\nThe parameter is graded either A, B, C, D, or F. This grade is based on the relationship between minimum edge contrast (ECmin) and symbol contrast (SC). MOD=ECmin\/SC The greater the difference between minimum edge contrast and symbol contrast, the lower the grade. Scanners and verifiers perceive the narrower bars and spaces to have less intensity than wider bars and spaces; the comparison of the lesser intensity of narrow elements to the wide elements is called modulation. This condition is affected by aperture size.\nInter-character gap[34]\nIn discrete barcodes, the space that disconnects the two contiguous characters. When present, inter-character gaps are considered spaces (elements) for purposes of edge determination and reflectance parameter grades.\nDefects\nDecode[34]\nExtracting the information which has been encoded in a bar code symbol.\nDecodability[34]\nCan be graded as A, B, C, D, or F. The Decodability grade indicates the amount of error in the width of the most deviant element in the symbol. The less deviation in the symbology, the higher the grade. Decodability is a measure of print accuracy using the symbology reference decode algorithm.\n2D matrix symbols look at the parameters:\n\nSymbol contrast[34]\nModulation[34]\nDecode[34]\nUnused error correction\nFixed (finder) pattern damage\nGrid non-uniformity\nAxial non-uniformity[35]\nDepending on the parameter, each ANSI test is graded from 0.0 to 4.0 (F to A), or given a pass or fail mark. Each grade is determined by analyzing the scan reflectance profile (SRP), an analog graph of a single scan line across the entire symbol. The lowest of the 8 grades is the scan grade, and the overall ISO symbol grade is the average of the individual scan grades. For most applications a 2.5 (C) is the minimal acceptable symbol grade.[36]\nCompared with a reader, a verifier measures a barcode's optical characteristics to international and industry standards. The measurement must be repeatable and consistent. Doing so requires constant conditions such as distance, illumination angle, sensor angle and verifier aperture. Based on the verification results, the production process can be adjusted to print higher quality barcodes that will scan down the supply chain.\nBar code validation may include evaluations after use (and abuse) testing such as sunlight, abrasion, impact, moisture, etc.[37]\n\nBarcode verifier standards \nBarcode verifier standards are defined by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), in ISO\/IEC 15426-1 (linear) or ISO\/IEC 15426-2 (2D).[citation needed ] The current international barcode quality specification is ISO\/IEC 15416 (linear) and ISO\/IEC 15415 (2D).[citation needed ] The European Standard EN 1635 has been withdrawn and replaced by ISO\/IEC 15416. The original U.S. barcode quality specification was ANSI X3.182. (UPCs used in the US \u2013 ANSI\/UCC5).[citation needed ] As of 2011 the ISO workgroup JTC1 SC31 was developing a Direct Part Marking (DPM) quality standard: ISO\/IEC TR 29158.[38]\n\nBenefits \nIn point-of-sale management, barcode systems can provide detailed up-to-date information on the business, accelerating decisions and with more confidence. For example:\n\nFast-selling items can be identified quickly and automatically reordered.\nSlow-selling items can be identified, preventing inventory build-up.\nThe effects of merchandising changes can be monitored, allowing fast-moving, more profitable items to occupy the best space.\nHistorical data can be used to predict seasonal fluctuations very accurately.\nItems may be repriced on the shelf to reflect both sale prices and price increases.\nThis technology also enables the profiling of individual consumers, typically through a voluntary registration of discount cards. While pitched as a benefit to the consumer, this practice is considered to be potentially dangerous by privacy advocates.[which? ]\nBesides sales and inventory tracking, barcodes are very useful in logistics and supply chain management.\n\nWhen a manufacturer packs a box for shipment, a unique identifying number (UID) can be assigned to the box.\nA database can link the UID to relevant information about the box; such as order number, items packed, quantity packed, destination, etc.\nThe information can be transmitted through a communication system such as electronic data interchange (EDI) so the retailer has the information about a shipment before it arrives.\nShipments that are sent to a distribution center (DC) are tracked before forwarding. When the shipment reaches its final destination, the UID gets scanned, so the store knows the shipment's source, contents, and cost.\nBarcode scanners are relatively low cost and extremely accurate compared to key-entry, with only about 1 substitution error in 15,000 to 36 trillion characters entered.[39][unreliable source? ] The exact error rate depends on the type of barcode.\n\nTypes of barcodes \nLinear barcodes \nA first generation, \"one dimensional\" barcode that is made up of lines and spaces of various widths or sizes that create specific patterns.\n\n\n\n\nExample\nSymbology\nContinuous or discrete\nBar type\nUses\n\n\n \nCodabar\nDiscrete\nTwo\nOld format used in libraries and blood banks and on airbills (out of date, but still widely used in libraries)\n\n\n\nCode 25 \u2013 Non-interleaved 2 of 5\nContinuous\nTwo\nIndustrial\n\n\n \nCode 25 \u2013 Interleaved 2 of 5\nContinuous\nTwo\nWholesale, libraries International standard ISO\/IEC 16390\n\n\n \nCode 11\nDiscrete\nTwo\nTelephones (out of date)\n\n\n \nFarmacode or Code 32\nDiscrete\nTwo\nItalian pharmacode \u2013 use Code 39 (no international standard available)\n\n\n \nCode 39\nDiscrete\nTwo\nVarious \u2013 international standard ISO\/IEC 16388\n\n\n \nCode 93\nContinuous\nMany\nVarious\n\n\n \nCode 128\nContinuous\nMany\nVarious \u2013 International Standard ISO\/IEC 15417\n\n\n\nCPC Binary\nDiscrete\nTwo\n\n\n\n \nEAN 2\nContinuous\nMany\nAddon code (magazines), GS1-approved \u2013 not an own symbology \u2013 to be used only with an EAN\/UPC according to ISO\/IEC 15420\n\n\n \nEAN 5\nContinuous\nMany\nAddon code (books), GS1-approved \u2013 not an own symbology \u2013 to be used only with an EAN\/UPC according to ISO\/IEC 15420\n\n\n \nEAN-8, EAN-13\nContinuous\nMany\nWorldwide retail, GS1-approved \u2013 International Standard ISO\/IEC 15420\n\n\n\nFacing Identification Mark\nDiscrete\nTwo\nUSPS business reply mail\n\n\n \nGS1-128 (formerly named UCC\/EAN-128), incorrectly referenced as EAN 128 and UCC 128\nContinuous\nMany\nVarious, GS1-approved \u2013 just an application of the Code 128 (ISO\/IEC 15417) using the ANS MH10.8.2 AI Datastructures. It is not a separate symbology.\n\n\n \nGS1 DataBar, formerly Reduced Space Symbology (RSS)\nContinuous\nMany\nVarious, GS1-approved\n\n\n\n \nITF-14\nContinuous\nTwo\nNon-retail packaging levels, GS1-approved \u2013 is just an Interleaved 2\/5 Code (ISO\/IEC 16390) with a few additional specifications, according to the GS1 General Specifications\n\n\n \nITF-6\nContinuous\nTwo\nInterleaved 2 of 5 barcode to encode an addon to ITF-14 and ITF-16 barcodes. The code is used to encode additional data such as items quantity or container weight\n\n\n \nJAN\nContinuous\nMany\nUsed in Japan, similar to and compatible with EAN-13 (ISO\/IEC 15420)\n\n\n \nJapan Post barcode\nDiscrete\n4 bar heights\nJapan Post\n\n\n \nMSI\nContinuous\nTwo\nUsed for warehouse shelves and inventory\n\n\n \nPharmacode\nDiscrete\nTwo\nPharmaceutical packaging (no international standard available)\n\n\n \nPLANET\nContinuous\nTall\/short\nUnited States Postal Service (no international standard available)\n\n\n \nPlessey\nContinuous\nTwo\nCatalogs, store shelves, inventory (no international standard available)\n\n\n \nTelepen\nContinuous\nTwo\nLibraries (UK)\n\n\n \nUniversal Product Code (UPC-A and UPC-E)\nContinuous\nMany\nWorldwide retail, GS1-approved \u2013 International Standard ISO\/IEC 15420\n\n 2D barcodes \n2D barcodes consist of bars, but use both dimensions for encoding.\n\n\n\n\nExample\nSymbology\nContinuous or discrete\nBar type\nUses\n\n\n \n\nAustralia Post barcode\n\nDiscrete\n\n4 bar heights\n\nAn Australia Post 4-state barcode as used on a business reply paid envelope and applied by automated sorting machines to other mail when initially processed in fluorescent ink.[40]\n\n\n \nCode 49\nContinuous\nMany\nVarious\n\n\n \n\nCode 16K\n\n\n\n\n\nThe Code 16K (1988) is a multi-row bar code developed by Ted Williams at Laserlight Systems (USA) in 1992. In the US and France, the code is used in the electronics industry to identify chips and printed circuit boards. Medical applications in the USA are well known. Williams also developed Code 128, and the structure of 16K is based on Code 128. Not coincidentally, 128 squared happened to equal 16,384 or 16K for short. Code 16K resolved an inherent problem with Code 49. Code 49's structure requires a large amount of memory for encoding and decoding tables and algorithms. 16K is a stacked symbology.[41][42]\n\n\n \nDX film edge barcode\nNeither\nTall\/short\nColor print film\n\n\n \nIntelligent Mail barcode\nDiscrete\n4 bar heights\nUnited States Postal Service, replaces both POSTNET and PLANET symbols (formerly named OneCode)\n\n\n \nKarTrak ACI\nDiscrete\nColoured bars\nUsed in North America on railroad rolling equipment\n\n\n \nPostBar\nDiscrete\n4 bar heights\nCanadian Post office\n\n\n \nPOSTNET\nDiscrete\nTall\/short\nUnited States Postal Service (no international standard available)\n\n\n \nRM4SCC \/ KIX\nDiscrete\n4 bar heights\nRoyal Mail \/ PostNL\n\n\n \nRM Mailmark C\nDiscrete\n4 bar heights\nRoyal Mail\n\n\n \nRM Mailmark L\nDiscrete\n4 bar heights\nRoyal Mail\n\n\n \nSpotify codes\nDiscrete\n23 bar heights\nSpotify codes point to artists, songs, podcasts, playlists, and albums. The information is encoded in the height of the bars,[43] so as long as the bar heights are maintained, the code can be handwritten and can vary in color.[44] Patented under EP3444755.\n\n Matrix (2D) codes \nA matrix code or simply a 2D code, is a two-dimensional way to represent information. It can represent more data per unit area. Apart from dots various other patterns can be used.\n\n\n\n\nExample\nName\nNotes\n\n\n \nApp Clip Code\nApple-proprietary code for launching \"App Clips\", a type of applet. 5 concentric rings of three colors (light, dark, middle).[45]\n\n\n \nAR Code\nA type of marker used for placing content inside augmented reality applications. Some AR Codes can contain QR codes inside, so that AR content can be linked to.[46] See also ARTag.\n\n\n \nAztec Code\nDesigned by Andrew Longacre at Welch Allyn (now Honeywell Scanning and Mobility). Public domain. \u2013 International Standard: ISO\/IEC 24778\n\n\n \n\nbCode\n\nA matrix designed for the study of insect behavior.[47] Encodes an 11 bit identifier and 16 bits of read error detection and error correction information. Predominantly used for marking honey bees, but can also be applied to other animals.\n\n\n \n\nBEEtag\n\nA 25 bit (5x5) code matrix of black and white pixels that is unique to each tag surrounded by a white pixel border and a black pixel border. The 25-bit matrix consists of a 15-bit identity code, and a 10-bit error check.[48] It is designed to be a low-cost, image-based tracking system for the study of animal behavior and locomotion.\n\n\n\n\nBeeTagg\n\nA 2D code with honeycomb structures suitable for mobile tagging and was developed by the Swiss company connvision AG.\n\n\n\n\nBokode\n\nA type of data tag which holds much more information than a barcode over the same area. They were developed by a team led by Ramesh Raskar at the MIT Media Lab. The bokode pattern is a tiled series of Data Matrix codes.\n\n\n \n\nBoxing\n\nA high-capacity 2D code is used on piqlFilm by Piql AS[49]\n\n\n\n\nCauzin Softstrip\n\nSoftstrip code was used in the 1980s to encode software, which could be transferred by special scanners from printed journals into your computer hardware.\n\n\n\nCode 1\nPublic domain. Code 1 is currently used in the health care industry for medicine labels and the recycling industry to encode container content for sorting.[50]\n\n\n \nColorCode\nColorZip[51] developed colour barcodes that can be read by camera phones from TV screens; mainly used in Korea.[52]\n\n\n \nColor Construct Code\nColor Construct Code is one of the few code symbologies designed to take advantage of multiple colors.[53][54]\n\n\n \nCronto Visual Cryptogram\n\nThe Cronto Visual Cryptogram (also called photoTAN) is a specialized color barcode, spun out from research at the University of Cambridge by Igor Drokov, Steven Murdoch, and Elena Punskaya.[55] It is used for transaction signing in e-banking; the barcode contains encrypted transaction data which is then used as a challenge to compute a transaction authentication number using a security token.[56]\n\n\n\nCyberCode\nFrom Sony.\n\n\n\nd-touch\nreadable when printed on deformable gloves and stretched and distorted[57][58]\n\n\n \nDataGlyphs\nFrom Palo Alto Research Center (also termed Xerox PARC).[59]\nPatented.[60]\nDataGlyphs can be embedded into a half-tone image or background shading pattern in a way that is almost perceptually invisible, similar to steganography.[61][62]\n\n\n\n \nData Matrix\nFrom Microscan Systems, formerly RVSI Acuity CiMatrix\/Siemens. Public domain. Increasingly used throughout the United States. Single segment Data Matrix is also termed Semacode. \u2013 International Standard: ISO\/IEC 16022.\n\n\n\nDatastrip Code\nFrom Datastrip, Inc.\n\n\n\n\nDigimarc code\n\nThe Digimarc Code is a unique identifier, or code, based on imperceptible patterns that can be applied to marketing materials, including packaging, displays, ads in magazines, circulars, radio and television[63]\n\n\n\ndigital paper\npatterned paper used in conjunction with a digital pen to create handwritten digital documents. The printed dot pattern uniquely identifies the position coordinates on the paper.\n\n\n\n \n\n\nDolby Digital\n\nDigital sound code for printing on cinematic film between the threading holes\n\n\n \nDotCode\nStandardized as AIM Dotcode Rev 3.0. Public domain. Used to track individual cigarette and pharmaceutical packages.\n\n\n\nDot Code A\nAlso known as Philips Dot Code.[64] Patented in 1988.[65]\n\n\n\n\nDWCode\n\nIntroduced by GS1 US and GS1 Germany, the DWCode is a unique, imperceptible data carrier that is repeated across the entire graphics design of a package[66]\n\n\n \nEZcode\nDesigned for decoding by cameraphones;[67] from ScanLife.[68]\n\n\n \nHan Xin Barcode\nCode designed to encode Chinese characters introduced by Association for Automatic Identification and Mobility in 2011.\n\n\n \nHigh Capacity Color Barcode\nHCCB was developed by Microsoft; licensed by ISAN-IA.\n\n\n\nHueCode\nFrom Robot Design Associates. Uses greyscale or colour.[69]\n\n\n\nInterCode\nFrom Iconlab, Inc. The standard 2D Code in South Korea. All 3 South Korean mobile carriers put the scanner program of this code into their handsets to access mobile internet, as a default embedded program.\n\n\n\n \n\n\nJAB Code\n\nJust Another Bar Code is a colored 2D Code. Square or rectangle. License free\n\n\n \nMaxiCode\nUsed by United Parcel Service. Now public domain.\n\n\n\n\nmCode\n\nDesigned by NextCode Corporation, specifically to work with mobile phones and mobile services.[70] It is implementing an independent error detection technique preventing false decoding, it uses a variable-size error correction polynomial, which depends on the exact size of the code.[71]\n\n\n \nMessenger Codes\nProprietary ring-shaped code for Facebook Messenger. Defunct as of 2019, replaced by standard QR codes.\n\n\n \nMicro QR code\nMicro QR code is a smaller version of the QR code standard for applications where symbol size is limited.\n\n\n\nMMCC\nDesigned to disseminate high capacity mobile phone content via existing colour print and electronic media, without the need for network connectivity\n\n\n \nNexCode\nNexCode is developed and patented by S5 Systems.\n\n\n\nNintendo Dot code\nDeveloped by Olympus Corporation to store songs, images, and mini-games for Game Boy Advance on Pok\u00e9mon trading cards.\n\n\n \nPDF417\nOriginated by Symbol Technologies. Public domain. \u2013 International standard: ISO\/IEC 15438\n\n\n\n\nOcode\n\nA proprietary matrix code in hexagonal shape.[72]\n\n\n \nQode\nAmerican proprietary and patented 2D Code from NeoMedia Technologies, Inc.[68]\n\n\n \nQR code\nInitially developed, patented and owned by Denso Wave for automotive components management; they have chosen not to exercise their patent rights. Can encode Latin and Japanese Kanji and Kana characters, music, images, URLs, emails. De facto standard for Japanese cell phones. Used with BlackBerry Messenger to pick up contacts rather than using a PIN code. The most frequently used type of code to scan with smartphones, and one of the most widely used 2D Codes.[73] Public Domain. \u2013 International Standard: ISO\/IEC 18004\n\n\n\nScreencode\nDeveloped and patented[74][75] by Hewlett-Packard Labs. A time-varying 2D pattern using to encode data via brightness fluctuations in an image, for the purpose of high bandwidth data transfer from computer displays to smartphones via smartphone camera input. Inventors Timothy Kindberg and John Collomosse, publicly disclosed at ACM HotMobile 2008.[76]\n\n\n \nShotCode\nCircular pattern codes for camera phones. Originally from High Energy Magic Ltd in name Spotcode. Before that most likely termed TRIPCode.\n\n\n \nSnapcode, also called Boo-R code\nUsed by Snapchat, Spectacles, etc. US9111164B1[77][78][79]\n\n\n\n\nSnowflake Code\n\nA proprietary code developed by Electronic Automation Ltd. in 1981. It is possible to encode more than 100 numeric digits in a space of only 5mm x 5mm. User selectable error correction allows up to 40% of the code to be destroyed and still remain readable. The code is used in the pharmaceutical industry and has an advantage that it can be applied to products and materials in a wide variety of ways, including printed labels, ink-jet printing, laser-etching, indenting or hole punching.[41][80][81]\n\n\n \nSPARQCode\nQR code encoding standard from MSKYNET, Inc.\n\n\n\n\nTLC39\n\nThis is a combination of the two barcodes Code 39 and MicroPDF417, forming a 2D pattern. It is also known as Telecommunications Industry Forum (TCIF) Code 39 or TCIF Linked Code 39.[82]\n\n\n\n\nTrillcode\n\nDesigned for mobile phone scanning.[83] Developed by Lark Computer, a Romanian company.[71]\n\n\n\nVOICEYE\nDeveloped and patented by VOICEYE, Inc. in South Korea, it aims to allow blind and visually impaired people to access printed information. It also claims to be the 2D Code that has the world's largest storage capacity.\n\n\n\nWeChat Mini Program code\nA circular code with outward-projecting lines.[84]\n\nExample images \n\n\tFirst, second and third generation barcodes\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\tGTIN-12 number encoded in UPC-A barcode symbol. First and last digit are always placed outside the symbol to indicate Quiet Zones that are necessary for barcode scanners to work properly\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\tEAN-13 (GTIN-13) number encoded in EAN-13 barcode symbol. First digit is always placed outside the symbol, additionally right quiet zone indicator (&gt;) is used to indicate Quiet Zones that are necessary for barcode scanners to work properly\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\"Wikipedia\" encoded in Code 93\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\"*WIKI39*\" encoded in Code 39\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\t'Wikipedia\" encoded in Code 128\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\tAn example of a stacked barcode. Specifically a \"Codablock\" barcode.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\tPDF417 sample\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\tLorem ipsum boilerplate text as four segment Data Matrix 2D\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\"This is an example Aztec symbol for Wikipedia\" encoded in Aztec Code\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\tText 'EZcode'\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\tHigh Capacity Color Barcode of the URL for Wikipedia's article on High Capacity Color Barcode\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\"Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia\" in several languages encoded in DataGlyphs\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\tTwo different 2D barcodes used in film: Dolby Digital between the sprocket holes with the \"Double-D\" logo in the middle, and Sony Dynamic Digital Sound in the blue area to the left of the sprocket holes\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\tThe QR Code for the Wikipedia URL. \"Quick Response\", the most popular 2D barcode. It is open in that the specification is disclosed and the patent is not exercised.[85]\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\tMaxiCode example. This encodes the string \"Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia\"\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\tShotCode sample\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\tdetail of Twibright Optar scan from laser printed paper, carrying 32 kbit\/s Ogg Vorbis digital music (48 seconds per A4 page)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\tA KarTrak railroad Automatic Equipment Identification label on a caboose in Florida\n\t\t\n\nIn popular culture \nIn architecture, a building in Lingang New City by German architects Gerkan, Marg and Partners incorporates a barcode design,[86] as does a shopping mall called Shtrikh-kod (Russian for barcode) in Narodnaya ulitsa (\"People's Street\") in the Nevskiy district of St. Petersburg, Russia.[87]\nIn media, in 2011, the National Film Board of Canada and ARTE France launched a web documentary entitled Barcode.tv, which allows users to view films about everyday objects by scanning the product's barcode with their iPhone camera.[88][89]\nIn professional wrestling, the WWE stable D-Generation X incorporated a barcode into their entrance video, as well as on a T-shirt.[90][91]\nIn the TV series Dark Angel, the protagonist and the other transgenics in the Manticore X-series have barcodes on the back of their necks.\nIn video games, the protagonist of the Hitman video game series has a barcode tattoo on the back of his head; QR codes can also be scanned in a side mission in Watch Dogs.\nThe 2018 videogame Judgment features QR Codes that protagonist Takayuki Yagami can photograph with his phone camera. These are mostly to unlock parts for Yagami's Drone.[92]\n\nIn the films Back to the Future Part II and The Handmaid's Tale, cars in the future are depicted with barcode licence plates.\nIn the Terminator films, Skynet burns barcodes onto the inside surface of the wrists of captive humans (in a similar location to the WW2 concentration camp tattoos) as a unique identifier.\nIn music, Dave Davies of the Kinks released a solo album in 1980, AFL1-3603, which featured a giant barcode on the front cover in place of the musician's head. The album's name was also the barcode number.\nThe April 1978 issue of Mad Magazine featured a giant barcode on the cover, with the blurb \"[Mad] Hopes this issue jams up every computer in the country...for forcing us to deface our covers with this yecchy UPC symbol from now on!\"\nInteractive Textbooks were first published by Harcourt College Publishers to Expand Education Technology with Interactive Textbooks.[93]\n\nDesigned barcodes \nSome brands integrate custom designs into barcodes (while keeping them readable) on their consumer products.\n\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\nHoaxes about barcodes \nThere was minor skepticism from conspiracy theorists, who considered barcodes to be an intrusive surveillance technology, and from some Christians, pioneered by a 1982 book The New Money System 666 by Mary Stewart Relfe, who thought the codes hid the number 666, representing the \"Number of the Beast\".[94] Old Believers, a separation of the Russian Orthodox Church, believe barcodes are the stamp of the Antichrist.[95] Television host Phil Donahue described barcodes as a \"corporate plot against consumers\".[96]\n\nSee also \n\nAutomated identification and data capture (AIDC)\nBarcode printer\nCampus card\nEuropean Article Numbering-Uniform Code Council\nGlobal Trade Item Number\nIdentifier\nInventory control system\nObject hyperlinking\nSemacode\nSPARQCode (QR code)\nList of GS1 country codes\n\nReferences \n\n\n^ a b US patent 2612994 &#160; \n\n^ \"How Barcodes Work\". 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Palmer, Helmers Publishing, ISBN&#160;0-911261-09-5, 386 pages\nThe Bar Code Manual \u2013 Eugene F. Brighan, Thompson Learning, ISBN&#160;0-03-016173-8\nHandbook of Bar Coding Systems \u2013 Harry E. Burke, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, ISBN&#160;978-0-442-21430-2, 219 pages\nInformation Technology for Retail:Automatic Identification &amp; Data Capture Systems \u2013 Girdhar Joshi, Oxford University Press, ISBN&#160;0-19-569796-0, 416 pages\nLines of Communication \u2013 Craig K. Harmon, Helmers Publishing, ISBN&#160;0-911261-07-9, 425 pages\nPunched Cards to Bar Codes \u2013 Benjamin Nelson, Helmers Publishing, ISBN&#160;0-911261-12-5, 434 pages\nRevolution at the Checkout Counter: The Explosion of the Bar Code \u2013 Stephen A. Brown, Harvard University Press, ISBN&#160;0-674-76720-9\nReading Between The Lines \u2013 Craig K. Harmon and Russ Adams, Helmers Publishing, ISBN&#160;0-911261-00-1, 297 pages\nThe Black and White Solution: Bar Code and the IBM PC \u2013 Russ Adams and Joyce Lane, Helmers Publishing, ISBN&#160;0-911261-01-X, 169 pages\nSourcebook of Automatic Identification and Data Collection \u2013 Russ Adams, Van Nostrand Reinhold, ISBN&#160;0-442-31850-2, 298 pages\nInside Out: The Wonders of Modern Technology \u2013 Carol J. Amato, Smithmark Pub, ISBN&#160;0831746572, 1993\n\nExternal links \n\n\n \nWikimedia Commons has media related to Barcode .\n\nBarcode at Curlie\nFree Online Barcode Generator.\nvteBarcodesLinear barcodes\nAutomatic Car Identification\nCode 11\nCode 39\nCode 93\nCode 128\nCodabar\nEuropean Article Number\nGS1 DataBar\nITF-14\nInterleaved 2 of 5\nMSI Barcode\nPatch Code\nPharmacode\nPlessey\nTelepen\nUPC\n\n \nUPC-A\n \nMaxiCode\nPost office barcodes\nCPC Binary Barcode\nFacing Identification Mark\nPostBar\nPOSTNET\nRM4SCC\nIntelligent Mail barcode\nPLANET\n2D barcodes (stacked)\nGS1 DataBar\nPDF417\n2D barcodes (matrix)\nAztec Code\nData Matrix (Semacode)\nJAB Code\nMaxiCode\nQR code\nBoxing\nPolar coordinate barcodes\nMaxiCode\nShotCode\nOther\nHigh Capacity Color Barcode (Microsoft Tag)\nTechnological issues\nBarcode reader\nBarcode printer\nOther data tags\nRFID\nBokode\nRelated topics\nSupply Chain Management\nObject hyperlinking\nMatrix\nMobile tagging\nCueCat\n\n Category\n Commons\n\nvtePaper data storage mediaAntiquity\nWriting on papyrus (c. 3000 BCE)\nPaper (105 CE)\nModern\nIndex card (1640s)\nPunched tape (mid-1800s)\nPunched card (1880s)\nEdge-notched card (1904)\nOptical mark recognition (1930s)\nBarcode (1948)\n\nAuthority control databases: National \nGermany \nIsrael \nUnited States \nJapan \n\n\n\n\n\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Barcode\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Barcode<\/a>\nCategory: Testing terminologyHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 15 April 2020, at 14:59.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 11,541 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","e0952b5b262392be0995237aec36d355_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Barcode rootpage-Barcode skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Barcode<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Optical machine-readable representation of data<\/div>\n\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">For the taxonomic method, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DNA_barcoding\" title=\"DNA barcoding\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dbad5c5642cbbfd8b41110a215db57d9\">DNA barcoding<\/a>. For a code of conduct for barristers, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Legal_ethics\" title=\"Legal ethics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2bbcf5fea6254beec6f3dc6b011e6afa\">Legal ethics<\/a>.<\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\">\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:UPC-A-036000291452.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"010df4c364acd542be4cc6142f503f94\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/e\/e9\/UPC-A-036000291452.svg\/220px-UPC-A-036000291452.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"189\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Universal_Product_Code\" title=\"Universal Product Code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5db82c178bc58440cafb52148a1f0acd\">UPC-A<\/a> barcode<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>A <b>barcode<\/b> or <b>bar code<\/b> is a method of representing data in a visual, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine-readable_data\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Machine-readable data\" data-key=\"ace160f39cb6133c3b15a2459b31b712\">machine-readable form<\/a>. Initially, barcodes represented data by varying the widths, spacings and sizes of parallel lines. These barcodes, now commonly referred to as linear or one-dimensional (1D), can be scanned by special <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Optical_scanner\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Optical scanner\" data-key=\"3a010ceb834b98eeb4db465f99037f0b\">optical scanners<\/a>, called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Barcode_reader\" title=\"Barcode reader\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ed2d845906378d62530ae8d1aead8ec\">barcode readers<\/a>, of which there are several types.\n<\/p><p>Later, two-dimensional (2D) variants were developed, using rectangles, dots, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hexagon\" title=\"Hexagon\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"190e55cb16e169444f56cb748af776da\">hexagons<\/a> and other patterns, called <i>2D barcodes<\/i> or <i>matrix codes<\/i>, although they do not use bars as such. Both can be read using purpose-built 2D optical scanners, which exist in a few different forms. Matrix codes can also be read by a digital camera connected to a microcomputer running software that takes a photographic image of the barcode and analyzes the image to deconstruct and decode the code. A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mobile_device\" title=\"Mobile device\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a1814ba94a214212770f308719be5139\">mobile device<\/a> with a built-in camera, such as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smartphone\" title=\"Smartphone\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"49a2d39877c99c533d1236c163ea0100\">smartphone<\/a>, can function as the latter type of barcode reader using specialized <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_software\" title=\"Application software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d58f3ea86f366b8ea97d65cd53ad8a36\">application software<\/a> and is suitable for both 1D and 2D codes.\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Barcodes_on_British_Railways_rolling_stock_in_1962_(Modern_Railways_Dec_1962)_000130.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"e8ec4a1428b818b8f1da00deb063fd9f\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/a\/ae\/Barcodes_on_British_Railways_rolling_stock_in_1962_%28Modern_Railways_Dec_1962%29_000130.jpg\/220px-Barcodes_on_British_Railways_rolling_stock_in_1962_%28Modern_Railways_Dec_1962%29_000130.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"314\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Barcoded rolling stock in the UK, 1962<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>The barcode was invented by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Norman_Joseph_Woodland\" title=\"Norman Joseph Woodland\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"facbde51fe5daa67c42917f3c46a5798\">Norman Joseph Woodland<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bernard_Silver\" title=\"Bernard Silver\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1f409f977da89011a33f6230a03e6441\">Bernard Silver<\/a> and patented in the US in 1952.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-patent_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-patent-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> The invention was based on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Morse_code\" title=\"Morse code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7a0a00c8e68667568ec0ea8d43aea88\">Morse code<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> that was extended to thin and thick bars. However, it took over twenty years before this invention became commercially successful. UK magazine <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modern_Railways\" title=\"Modern Railways\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"05422ec391a7d110c12152ed5dbf9cb5\">Modern Railways<\/a><\/i> December 1962 pages 387\u2013389 record how <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/British_Railways\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"British Railways\" data-key=\"1fe25848fda203416611b540791d8670\">British Railways<\/a> had already perfected a barcode-reading system capable of correctly reading rolling stock travelling at 100&#160;mph (160&#160;km\/h) with no mistakes. An early use of one type of barcode in an industrial context was sponsored by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Association_of_American_Railroads\" title=\"Association of American Railroads\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4b0e36380967dedabe218b18221f9701\">Association of American Railroads<\/a> in the late 1960s. Developed by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GTE\" title=\"GTE\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d3e4f762ad19d53601e557b472740c7\">General Telephone and Electronics<\/a> (GTE) and called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/KarTrak_ACI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"KarTrak ACI\" data-key=\"bd2caa288fa56be9b30c483c4c84a0ec\">KarTrak ACI<\/a> (Automatic Car Identification), this scheme involved placing colored stripes in various combinations on steel plates which were affixed to the sides of railroad rolling stock. Two plates were used per car, one on each side, with the arrangement of the colored stripes encoding information such as ownership, type of equipment, and identification number.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cranstone_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cranstone-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> The plates were read by a trackside scanner located, for instance, at the entrance to a classification yard, while the car was moving past.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Keyes_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Keyes-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> The project was abandoned after about ten years because the system proved unreliable after long-term use.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cranstone_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cranstone-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Barcodes became commercially successful when they were used to automate supermarket <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Point_of_sale\" title=\"Point of sale\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e978e565243cc8deaef8586997eedbd7\">checkout<\/a> systems, a task for which they have become almost universal. The Uniform Grocery Product Code Council had chosen, in 1973, the barcode design developed by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/George_Laurer\" title=\"George Laurer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"76a5483d8849bbf1042f7a416e6a9d96\">George Laurer<\/a>. Laurer's barcode, with vertical bars, printed better than the circular barcode developed by Woodland and Silver.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RobertsNYT_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RobertsNYT-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> Their use has spread to many other tasks that are generically referred to as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automatic_identification_and_data_capture\" title=\"Automatic identification and data capture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a34ceda16c2b3cebf6248b1530be1f3\">automatic identification and data capture<\/a> (AIDC). The first successful system using barcodes was in the UK supermarket group <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sainsbury%27s\" title=\"Sainsbury's\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8094f1332ec7b642bceb28051452f2b4\">Sainsbury's<\/a> in 1972 using shelf-mounted barcodes <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:1_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:1-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> which were developed by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Plessey\" title=\"Plessey\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"db57ebe26d5c67e51371eaa790ff79cf\">Plessey<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:1_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:1-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> In June 1974, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Marsh_Supermarkets\" title=\"Marsh Supermarkets\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b2c8d7be283f9b97b469b24dc3b7f40c\">Marsh supermarket<\/a> in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Troy,_Ohio\" title=\"Troy, Ohio\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51f6b28e06a0a4c4cf342e80f396dfd3\">Troy, Ohio<\/a> used a scanner made by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PSC_Inc.\" title=\"PSC Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8209f6db950b43460aeade44c69b6544\">Photographic Sciences Corporation<\/a> to scan the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Universal_Product_Code\" title=\"Universal Product Code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5db82c178bc58440cafb52148a1f0acd\">Universal Product Code<\/a> (UPC) barcode on a pack of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wrigley_Company\" title=\"Wrigley Company\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62aab9b94f4aa1cd0d5e9fc7674c3871\">Wrigley's<\/a> chewing gum.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RobertsNYT_5-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RobertsNYT-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/QR_code\" title=\"QR code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"47108109498cb9cfde2bd82ca0546c8b\">QR codes<\/a>, a specific type of 2D barcode, have recently<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style\/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items\" title=\"Wikipedia:Manual of Style\/Dates and numbers\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a4cfbab771e1d842adb00b68f8cdf8bd\"><span title=\"The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (September 2023)\">when?<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> become very popular due to the growth in smartphone ownership.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Other systems have made inroads in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automatic_identification_and_data_capture\" title=\"Automatic identification and data capture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a34ceda16c2b3cebf6248b1530be1f3\">AIDC<\/a> market, but the simplicity, universality and low cost of barcodes has limited the role of these other systems, particularly before technologies such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Radio-frequency_identification\" title=\"Radio-frequency identification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"142e22fc78bf4acc0c1806ea4d00e395\">radio-frequency identification<\/a> (RFID) became available after 1995.\n<\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1097763485\" \/>\n<p>In 1948 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bernard_Silver\" title=\"Bernard Silver\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1f409f977da89011a33f6230a03e6441\">Bernard Silver<\/a>, a graduate student at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Drexel_Institute_of_Technology\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Drexel Institute of Technology\" data-key=\"2f2a9b443e7a0c6d742ce6e2ea2ad2db\">Drexel Institute of Technology<\/a> in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philadelphia\" title=\"Philadelphia\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef093b85a0ceea23d336cf0dbba2f5eb\">Philadelphia<\/a>, Pennsylvania, US overheard the president of the local food chain, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Food_Fair\" title=\"Food Fair\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2f363d299a2164eae9a4c9f254d4f8fe\">Food Fair<\/a>, asking one of the deans to research a system to automatically read product information during checkout.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> Silver told his friend <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Norman_Joseph_Woodland\" title=\"Norman Joseph Woodland\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"facbde51fe5daa67c42917f3c46a5798\">Norman Joseph Woodland<\/a> about the request, and they started working on a variety of systems. Their first working system used <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ultraviolet\" title=\"Ultraviolet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c04581600fb0e327a6ea34d912bd0b22\">ultraviolet<\/a> ink, but the ink faded too easily and was expensive.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-story_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-story-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Convinced that the system was workable with further development, Woodland left Drexel, moved into his father's apartment in Florida, and continued working on the system. His next inspiration came from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Morse_code\" title=\"Morse code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7a0a00c8e68667568ec0ea8d43aea88\">Morse code<\/a>, and he formed his first barcode from sand on the beach. \"I just extended the dots and dashes downwards and made narrow lines and wide lines out of them.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-story_10-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-story-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> To read them, he adapted technology from optical soundtracks in movies, using a 500-watt incandescent light bulb shining through the paper onto an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Photomultiplier\" title=\"Photomultiplier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"35995b1fe61b7f57e114b2a111aacf4b\">photomultiplier<\/a> tube (from a movie projector) on the far side. He later decided that the system would work better if it were printed as a circle instead of a line, allowing it to be scanned in any direction.\n<\/p><p>On 20 October 1949, Woodland and Silver filed a patent application for \"Classifying Apparatus and Method\", in which they described both the linear and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bullseye_(target)\" title=\"Bullseye (target)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4771d396b9cee5afdb688c12e7488f72\">bull's eye<\/a> printing patterns, as well as the mechanical and electronic systems needed to read the code. The patent was issued on 7 October 1952 as US Patent 2,612,994.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-patent_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-patent-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> In 1951, Woodland moved to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IBM\" title=\"IBM\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"517a128ab6331cda10bbf2ea31e64d86\">IBM<\/a> and continually tried to interest IBM in developing the system. The company eventually commissioned a report on the idea, which concluded that it was both feasible and interesting, but that processing the resulting information would require equipment that was some time off in the future.\n<\/p><p>IBM offered to buy the patent, but the offer was not accepted. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philco\" title=\"Philco\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"70aff64b4d6b00e1e38c3a64508bc5ca\">Philco<\/a> purchased the patent in 1962 and then sold it to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/RCA\" title=\"RCA\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f7165ddcaad9417729508b4ff67708ec\">RCA<\/a> sometime later.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-story_10-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-story-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Collins_at_Sylvania\">Collins at Sylvania<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>During his time as an undergraduate, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/David_Jarrett_Collins\" title=\"David Jarrett Collins\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"68e61067dbef175c7c96afe0fd6fc299\">David Jarrett Collins<\/a> worked at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pennsylvania_Railroad\" title=\"Pennsylvania Railroad\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f805f3a7b41c4d6ac2ff876fdbb6d57c\">Pennsylvania Railroad<\/a> and became aware of the need to automatically identify railroad cars. Immediately after receiving his master's degree from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology\" title=\"Massachusetts Institute of Technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6d082af902828b7c6c2395cc18da224\">MIT<\/a> in 1959, he started work at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sylvania_Electric_Products\" title=\"Sylvania Electric Products\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"56f221af29ee34d5c082b21b00187862\">GTE Sylvania<\/a> and began addressing the problem. He developed a system called <i>KarTrak<\/i> using blue, white and red reflective stripes attached to the side of the cars, encoding a four-digit company identifier and a six-digit car number.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-story_10-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-story-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> Light reflected off the colored stripes was read by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Photomultiplier\" title=\"Photomultiplier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"35995b1fe61b7f57e114b2a111aacf4b\">photomultiplier<\/a> vacuum tubes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Boston_and_Maine_Railroad\" title=\"Boston and Maine Railroad\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca43b885cea840df15fdc424b5bf8bd9\">Boston and Maine Railroad<\/a> tested the KarTrak system on their gravel cars in 1961. The tests continued until 1967, when the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Association_of_American_Railroads\" title=\"Association of American Railroads\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4b0e36380967dedabe218b18221f9701\">Association of American Railroads<\/a> (AAR) selected it as a standard, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automatic_Car_Identification\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Automatic Car Identification\" data-key=\"3b004978b1a0813b65555785b6f84c68\">Automatic Car Identification<\/a>, across the entire North American fleet. The installations began on 10 October 1967. However, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/1970s#Economy\" title=\"1970s\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8d128714fd47fad7bf8f3d17a8c9bfb6\">economic downturn<\/a> and rash of bankruptcies in the industry in the early 1970s greatly slowed the rollout, and it was not until 1974 that 95% of the fleet was labeled. To add to its woes, the system was found to be easily fooled by dirt in certain applications, which greatly affected accuracy. The AAR abandoned the system in the late 1970s, and it was not until the mid-1980s that they introduced a similar system, this time based on radio tags.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The railway project had failed, but a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Toll_bridge\" title=\"Toll bridge\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"229a86ff023082a45f355c3615a1a2b9\">toll bridge<\/a> in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/New_Jersey\" title=\"New Jersey\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"90fdcbb236a7435916a45d27a2b806a0\">New Jersey<\/a> requested a similar system so that it could quickly scan for cars that had purchased a monthly pass. Then the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_Postal_Service\" title=\"United States Postal Service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd92023e532a15beec861736b66001a7\">U.S. Post Office<\/a> requested a system to track trucks entering and leaving their facilities. These applications required special <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Retroreflector\" title=\"Retroreflector\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1146869cd40bbb22f8a57d596f08e364\">retroreflector<\/a> labels. Finally, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Whiskas\" title=\"Whiskas\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d981d4ba2d19a6a198e9ceb325a6cda4\">Kal Kan<\/a> asked the Sylvania team for a simpler (and cheaper) version which they could put on cases of pet food for inventory control.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Computer_Identics_Corporation\">Computer Identics Corporation<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In 1967, with the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Railway\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Railway\" data-key=\"0fa22ad2ffab2b70528be008fa15fcfd\">railway<\/a> system maturing, Collins went to management looking for funding for a project to develop a black-and-white version of the code for other industries. They declined, saying that the railway project was large enough, and they saw no need to branch out so quickly.\n<\/p><p>Collins then quit Sylvania and formed the .<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-story_10-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-story-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> As its first innovations, Computer Identics moved from using incandescent light bulbs in its systems, replacing them with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Helium%E2%80%93neon_laser\" title=\"Helium\u2013neon laser\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a023667be2d3d5f5fd47478f0f096dc5\">helium\u2013neon lasers<\/a>, and incorporated a mirror as well, making it capable of locating a barcode up to a meter (3 feet) in front of the scanner. This made the entire process much simpler and more reliable, and typically enabled these devices to deal with damaged labels, as well, by recognizing and reading the intact portions.\n<\/p><p>Computer Identics Corporation installed one of its first two scanning systems in the spring of 1969 at a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/General_Motors\" title=\"General Motors\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3176f5bb7b98ae45aafeb9d9709311cd\">General Motors<\/a> (Buick) factory in Flint, Michigan.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-story_10-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-story-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> The system was used to identify a dozen types of transmissions moving on an overhead conveyor from production to shipping. The other scanning system was installed at General Trading Company's distribution center in Carlstadt, New Jersey to direct shipments to the proper loading bay.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Universal_Product_Code\">Universal Product Code<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Universal_Product_Code\" title=\"Universal Product Code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5db82c178bc58440cafb52148a1f0acd\">Universal Product Code<\/a><\/div>\n<p>In 1966, the (NAFC) held a meeting on the idea of automated checkout systems. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/RCA\" title=\"RCA\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f7165ddcaad9417729508b4ff67708ec\">RCA<\/a>, who had purchased the rights to the original Woodland patent, attended the meeting and initiated an internal project to develop a system based on the bullseye code. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kroger\" title=\"Kroger\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ee9107bc984ad7c1ee464f622c1a85af\">Kroger<\/a> grocery chain volunteered to test it.\n<\/p><p>In the mid-1970s, the NAFC established the Ad-Hoc Committee for U.S. Supermarkets on a Uniform Grocery-Product Code to set guidelines for barcode development. In addition, it created a symbol-selection subcommittee to help standardize the approach. In cooperation with consulting firm, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/McKinsey_%26_Co.\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"McKinsey &amp; Co.\" data-key=\"b931db17d8ca8f3c3a1dfd2b1a25c35e\">McKinsey &amp; Co.<\/a>, they developed a standardized 11-digit code for identifying products. The committee then sent out a contract tender to develop a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Barcode_system\" title=\"Barcode system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"db1954b358dfff7180e8fb3940aafa95\">barcode system<\/a> to print and read the code. The request went to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Singer_Corporation\" title=\"Singer Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ccdccc5e6b2a27f4cf75309ef772e0ff\">Singer<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_Cash_Register\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"National Cash Register\" data-key=\"feb5a5e34e88184fcfd76ce75d8aaa71\">National Cash Register<\/a> (NCR), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Litton_Industries\" title=\"Litton Industries\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5e9f41d32e71c9278b2c791e432bad04\">Litton Industries<\/a>, RCA, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pitney-Bowes\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Pitney-Bowes\" data-key=\"1ed0d0bf68362374a9730dde3d910310\">Pitney-Bowes<\/a>, IBM and many others.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> A wide variety of barcode approaches was studied, including linear codes, RCA's bullseye concentric circle code, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wiktionary.org\/wiki\/starburst\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"wikt:starburst\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\">starburst<\/a> patterns and others.\n<\/p><p>In the spring of 1971, RCA demonstrated their bullseye code at another industry meeting. IBM executives at the meeting noticed the crowds at the RCA booth and immediately developed their own system. IBM marketing specialist Alec Jablonover remembered that the company still employed Woodland, and he established a new facility in Raleigh-Durham <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Research_Triangle_Park\" title=\"Research Triangle Park\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"706d3eb48eb51748546dafcbeb34b604\">Research Triangle Park<\/a> to lead development.\n<\/p><p>In July 1972, RCA began an 18-month test in a Kroger store in Cincinnati. Barcodes were printed on small pieces of adhesive paper, and attached by hand by store employees when they were adding price tags. The code proved to have a serious problem; the printers would sometimes smear ink, rendering the code unreadable in most orientations. However, a linear code, like the one being developed by Woodland at IBM, was printed in the direction of the stripes, so extra ink would simply make the code \"taller\" while remaining readable. So on 3 April 1973, the IBM UPC was selected as the NAFC standard. IBM had designed five versions of UPC symbology for future industry requirements: UPC A, B, C, D, and E.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Nelson_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Nelson-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>NCR installed a testbed system at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Marsh_Supermarkets\" title=\"Marsh Supermarkets\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b2c8d7be283f9b97b469b24dc3b7f40c\">Marsh's Supermarket<\/a> in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Troy,_Ohio\" title=\"Troy, Ohio\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51f6b28e06a0a4c4cf342e80f396dfd3\">Troy, Ohio<\/a>, near the factory that was producing the equipment. On 26 June 1974, Clyde Dawson pulled a 10-pack of Wrigley's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Juicy_Fruit\" title=\"Juicy Fruit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b3fbf5dbae7679aec0a9599ae7d8aa7b\">Juicy Fruit<\/a> gum out of his basket and it was scanned by Sharon Buchanan at 8:01&#160;am. The pack of gum and the receipt are now on display in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smithsonian_Institution\" title=\"Smithsonian Institution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"851562470cdc028c4421a73ed399e624\">Smithsonian Institution<\/a>. It was the first commercial appearance of the UPC.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Varchaver_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Varchaver-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In 1971, an IBM team was assembled for an intensive planning session, threshing out, 12 to 18 hours a day, how the technology would be deployed and operate cohesively across the system, and scheduling a roll-out plan. By 1973, the team were meeting with grocery manufacturers to introduce the symbol that would need to be printed on the packaging or labels of all of their products. There were no cost savings for a grocery to use it, unless at least 70% of the grocery's products had the barcode printed on the product by the manufacturer. IBM projected that 75% would be needed in 1975. Yet, although this was achieved, there were still scanning machines in fewer than 200 grocery stores by 1977.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Selmeier_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Selmeier-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Economic studies conducted for the grocery industry committee projected over $40 million in savings to the industry from scanning by the mid-1970s. Those numbers were not achieved in that time-frame and some predicted the demise of barcode scanning. The usefulness of the barcode required the adoption of expensive scanners by a critical mass of retailers while manufacturers simultaneously adopted barcode labels. Neither wanted to move first and results were not promising for the first couple of years, with <i>Business Week<\/i> proclaiming \"The Supermarket Scanner That Failed\" in a 1976 article.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Varchaver_15-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Varchaver-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>On the other hand, experience with barcode scanning in those stores revealed additional benefits. The detailed sales information acquired by the new systems allowed greater responsiveness to customer habits, needs and preferences. This was reflected in the fact that about 5 weeks after installing barcode scanners, sales in grocery stores typically started climbing and eventually leveled off at a 10\u201312% increase in sales that never dropped off. There was also a 1\u20132% decrease in operating cost for those stores, and this enabled them to lower prices and thereby to increase market share. It was shown in the field that the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Return_on_investment\" title=\"Return on investment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a5acdd67ab1811e8dafb118769bf24c5\">return on investment<\/a> for a barcode scanner was 41.5%. By 1980, 8,000 stores per year were converting.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Selmeier_16-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Selmeier-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sims_Supermarket\" title=\"Sims Supermarket\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5954b33ebd3afc693ecef48f9d30febc\">Sims Supermarkets<\/a> were the first location in Australia to use barcodes, starting in 1979.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Industrial_adoption\">Industrial adoption<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In 1981, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_Department_of_Defense\" title=\"United States Department of Defense\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"655b39ec745d1842fbcb4d9760be7f84\">United States Department of Defense<\/a> adopted the use of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Code_39\" title=\"Code 39\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f9f60d0c592a60b7a14d143f42e6e6a\">Code 39<\/a> for marking all products sold to the United States military. This system, Logistics Applications of Automated Marking and Reading Symbols (LOGMARS), is still used by DoD and is widely viewed as the catalyst for widespread adoption of barcoding in industrial uses.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Use\">Use<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size mw-halign-right\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Snack_vendor_on_the_Shinkansen._2005_(26321781190).jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"68c74bd82708d93531b9e6594d7a9c17\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/e\/e7\/Snack_vendor_on_the_Shinkansen._2005_%2826321781190%29.jpg\/220px-Snack_vendor_on_the_Shinkansen._2005_%2826321781190%29.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"293\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Snack vendor on the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shinkansen\" title=\"Shinkansen\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f31d5a16bd5a08da9104eacf9304b445\">Shinkansen<\/a> train scans a barcode.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure class=\"mw-default-size mw-halign-right\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:EAN-13-ISBN-13.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe8000422f520ec4e6ca414f89e05ce5\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/28\/EAN-13-ISBN-13.svg\/220px-EAN-13-ISBN-13.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"140\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Article_Number_(EAN)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"International Article Number (EAN)\" data-key=\"6223a8932d8698c2768ce299becc3252\">EAN-13 ISBN barcode<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure class=\"mw-default-size mw-halign-right\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:LB2-ADULT-L3_Assembled.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"37b015f6b7ed58162b55780d368fea5a\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/a\/ad\/LB2-ADULT-L3_Assembled.jpg\/220px-LB2-ADULT-L3_Assembled.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"95\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Barcode on a patient identification wristband<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure class=\"mw-default-size mw-halign-right\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Barcodedmail.JPG\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"c4a3bc346266fb4a8f6e29b00437274c\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/4\/4b\/Barcodedmail.JPG\/220px-Barcodedmail.JPG\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"147\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Barcoded parcel<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>Barcodes are widely used around the world in many contexts. In stores, UPC barcodes are pre-printed on most items other than fresh produce from a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Grocery_store\" title=\"Grocery store\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"23a0b930a1a5050c08707509a58117a9\">grocery store<\/a>. This speeds up processing at check-outs and helps track items and also reduces instances of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shoplifting\" title=\"Shoplifting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff75387e26014106c9b177d1f9283826\">shoplifting<\/a> involving price tag swapping, although shoplifters can now print their own barcodes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> Barcodes that encode a book's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> are also widely pre-printed on books, journals and other printed materials. In addition, retail chain membership cards use barcodes to identify customers, allowing for customized marketing and greater understanding of individual consumer shopping patterns. At the point of sale, shoppers can get product discounts or special marketing offers through the address or e-mail address provided at registration.\n<\/p><p>Barcodes are widely <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Barcode_technology_in_healthcare\" title=\"Barcode technology in healthcare\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f6d7e509fdc6ff598938c72a37c2b36\">used in the healthcare and hospital settings<\/a>, ranging from patient identification (to access patient data, including medical history, drug allergies, etc.) to creating <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SOAP_note\" title=\"SOAP note\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dca533bcd8c1ef04ed585091cf4969db\">SOAP Notes<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup> with barcodes to medication management. They are also used to facilitate the separation and indexing of documents that have been imaged in batch scanning applications, track the organization of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Species\" title=\"Species\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a79f673499553b4a0095adf91c93bef\">species<\/a> in biology,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup> and integrate with in-motion <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Checkweigher\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Checkweigher\" data-key=\"4ba77841d837ba27d63b052b6485568c\">checkweighers<\/a> to identify the item being weighed in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conveyor\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Conveyor\" data-key=\"e00d41c5a46ebad00b5f9ec78d99902c\">conveyor<\/a> line for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_collection\" title=\"Data collection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c480fa3155cedfb5132e5258cdc0aa80\">data collection<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>They can also be used to keep track of objects and people; they are used to keep track of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rental_car\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Rental car\" data-key=\"cacef3231a3343c00889abb6cc310a06\">rental cars<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Checked_baggage\" title=\"Checked baggage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4ec51b0cbac08ac04949c96561456d14\">airline luggage<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nuclear_waste\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Nuclear waste\" data-key=\"1fa8991465e22c12830afad47d48daab\">nuclear waste<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Registered_mail\" title=\"Registered mail\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b76afb8c4313e7154ba9552ad46163aa\">registered mail<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Express_mail\" title=\"Express mail\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1397396d36c7d25f81d8c0c39047761d\">express mail<\/a> and parcels. Barcoded tickets (which may be printed by the customer on their home printer, or stored on their mobile device) allow the holder to enter sports arenas, cinemas, theatres, fairgrounds, and transportation, and are used to record the arrival and departure of vehicles from rental facilities etc. This can allow proprietors to identify duplicate or fraudulent tickets more easily. Barcodes are widely used in shop floor control applications software where employees can scan work orders and track the time spent on a job.\n<\/p><p>Barcodes are also used in some kinds of non-contact 1D and 2D <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Position_sensor\" title=\"Position sensor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b589da2bbac4cc429a9066459bc0c2b7\">position sensors<\/a>. A series of barcodes are used in some kinds of absolute 1D <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linear_encoder\" title=\"Linear encoder\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"24a6716f6bde13e81c1ec70ba814125e\">linear encoder<\/a>. The barcodes are packed close enough together that the reader always has one or two barcodes in its field of view. As a kind of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fiducial_marker\" title=\"Fiducial marker\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cc289fcb4ccb8d36589266bbe67c3381\">fiducial marker<\/a>, the relative position of the barcode in the field of view of the reader gives incremental precise positioning, in some cases with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sub-pixel_resolution\" title=\"Sub-pixel resolution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"900fc93b545917c0b1a29a38aba8c8bc\">sub-pixel resolution<\/a>. The data decoded from the barcode gives the absolute coarse position. An \"address carpet\", used in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_paper\" title=\"Digital paper\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"420c59f9dbb82fa2cf407f777ca613b7\">digital paper<\/a>, such as Howell's binary pattern and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anoto\" title=\"Anoto\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"58baa264ab07856d457a7499a78e6b17\">Anoto<\/a> dot pattern, is a 2D barcode designed so that a reader, even though only a tiny portion of the complete carpet is in the field of view of the reader, can find its absolute X, Y position and rotation in the carpet.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Matrix codes can embed a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hyperlink\" title=\"Hyperlink\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7c2d04e10617831fd46d81d0134233d4\">hyperlink<\/a> to a web page. A mobile device with a built-in camera might be used to read the pattern and browse the linked website, which can help a shopper find the best price for an item in the vicinity. Since 2005, airlines use an IATA-standard 2D barcode on boarding passes (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bar_Coded_Boarding_Pass\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bar Coded Boarding Pass\" data-key=\"3c7d49be10badc21f25d293f92220291\">Bar Coded Boarding Pass (BCBP)<\/a>), and since 2008 2D barcodes sent to mobile phones enable electronic boarding passes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-25\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Some applications for barcodes have fallen out of use. In the 1970s and 1980s, software source code was occasionally encoded in a barcode and printed on paper (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cauzin_Softstrip\" title=\"Cauzin Softstrip\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a50cd9fc7abc62d3d7aabb691477c3cc\">Cauzin Softstrip<\/a> and Paperbyte<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-26\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup> are barcode symbologies specifically designed for this application), and the 1991 <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Barcode_Battler\" title=\"Barcode Battler\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"23bcbb0f1bf738dd259b002d44996806\">Barcode Battler<\/a><\/i> computer game system used any standard barcode to generate combat statistics.\n<\/p><p>Artists have used barcodes in art, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scott_Blake\" title=\"Scott Blake\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"335bbd740831975929d3347ee989aebe\">Scott Blake's<\/a> Barcode Jesus, as part of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Post-modernism\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Post-modernism\" data-key=\"aa161b8db2183fe78fad8e8587c5b437\">post-modernism<\/a> movement.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Symbologies\">Symbologies<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The mapping between messages and barcodes is called a <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Symbology\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Symbology\" data-key=\"274160e12ed4781bc3596c22a60fdb52\">symbology<\/a><\/i>. The specification of a symbology includes the encoding of the message into bars and spaces, any required start and stop markers, the size of the quiet zone required to be before and after the barcode, and the computation of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Checksum\" title=\"Checksum\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0062da8a4cedf924c709cab7d64dc84\">checksum<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>Linear symbologies can be classified mainly by two properties:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dt>Continuous vs. discrete<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li>Characters in discrete symbologies are composed of <i>n<\/i> bars and <i>n<\/i>&#160;\u2212&#160;1 spaces. There is an additional space between characters, but it does not convey information, and may have any width as long as it is not confused with the end of the code.<\/li>\n<li>Characters in continuous symbologies are composed of <i>n<\/i> bars and <i>n<\/i> spaces, and usually abut, with one character ending with a space and the next beginning with a bar, or vice versa. A special end pattern that has bars on both ends is required to end the code.<\/li><\/ul>\n<dl><dt>Two-width vs. many-width<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li>A two-width, also called a <b>binary bar code<\/b>, contains bars and spaces of two widths, \"wide\" and \"narrow\". The precise width of the wide bars and spaces is not critical; typically, it is permitted to be anywhere between 2 and 3 times the width of the narrow equivalents.<\/li>\n<li>Some other symbologies use bars of two different heights (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/POSTNET\" title=\"POSTNET\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"36180c8b398bc2b8b0ba4e4f7abd1afa\">POSTNET<\/a>), or the presence or absence of bars (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CPC_Binary_Barcode\" title=\"CPC Binary Barcode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"620b6456abd625a579a0730c43cd0633\">CPC Binary Barcode<\/a>). These are normally also considered binary bar codes.<\/li>\n<li>Bars and spaces in many-width symbologies are all multiples of a basic width called the <i>module<\/i>; most such codes use four widths of 1, 2, 3 and 4 modules.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Some symbologies use interleaving. The first character is encoded using black bars of varying width. The second character is then encoded by varying the width of the white spaces between these bars. Thus, characters are encoded in pairs over the same section of the barcode. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Interleaved_2_of_5\" title=\"Interleaved 2 of 5\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eeebb8c5185080619a3c29aa78c8c8ae\">Interleaved 2 of 5<\/a> is an example of this.\n<\/p><p>Stacked symbologies repeat a given linear symbology vertically.\n<\/p><p>The most common among the many 2D symbologies are matrix codes, which feature square or dot-shaped modules arranged on a grid pattern. 2D symbologies also come in circular and other patterns and may employ <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Steganography\" title=\"Steganography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b9ee2d36b0e33ccd0a769128b0422100\">steganography<\/a>, hiding modules within an image (for example, ).\n<\/p><p>Linear symbologies are optimized for laser scanners, which sweep a light beam across the barcode in a straight line, reading a <i>slice<\/i> of the barcode light-dark patterns. Scanning at an angle makes the modules appear wider, but does not change the width ratios. Stacked symbologies are also optimized for laser scanning, with the laser making multiple passes across the barcode.\n<\/p><p>In the 1990s development of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Charge-coupled_device\" title=\"Charge-coupled device\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7efee5436b2028e45275594a4e70571\">charge-coupled device<\/a> (CCD) imagers to read barcodes was pioneered by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Welch_Allyn\" title=\"Welch Allyn\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dc172fd42f74fc73e25bb846731e5a61\">Welch Allyn<\/a>. Imaging does not require moving parts, as a laser scanner does. In 2007, linear imaging had begun to supplant laser scanning as the preferred scan engine for its performance and durability.\n<\/p><p>2D symbologies cannot be read by a laser, as there is typically no sweep pattern that can encompass the entire symbol. They must be scanned by an image-based scanner employing a CCD or other digital camera sensor technology.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Barcode_readers\">Barcode readers<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Barcode_reader\" title=\"Barcode reader\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ed2d845906378d62530ae8d1aead8ec\">Barcode reader<\/a><\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:GTIN_Barcodes_of_coke_bottles_-_what_you_see_and_what_the_barcode_scanner_see_2_IMG_2908_2913_2919.JPG\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"4492813c3d239994950748afeab37c99\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/6\/65\/GTIN_Barcodes_of_coke_bottles_-_what_you_see_and_what_the_barcode_scanner_see_2_IMG_2908_2913_2919.JPG\/220px-GTIN_Barcodes_of_coke_bottles_-_what_you_see_and_what_the_barcode_scanner_see_2_IMG_2908_2913_2919.JPG\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"188\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Global_Trade_Item_Number\" title=\"Global Trade Item Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c449fd1f47ef95fec97a3bbe78324264\">GTIN<\/a> barcodes on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Coca-Cola\" title=\"Coca-Cola\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"044fd505d498629db1cc9e0268102b28\">Coca-Cola<\/a> bottles. The images at right show how the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Laser\" title=\"Laser\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7dea2f5421219017090110890edd72e4\">laser<\/a> of barcode readers \"see\" the images behind a red filter.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>The earliest, and still<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style\/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items\" title=\"Wikipedia:Manual of Style\/Dates and numbers\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a4cfbab771e1d842adb00b68f8cdf8bd\"><span title=\"The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (September 2022)\">when?<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> the cheapest, barcode scanners are built from a fixed light and a single <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Photosensor\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Photosensor\" data-key=\"5bb39d95f26beede807be0c6dd5deb9f\">photosensor<\/a> that is manually moved across the barcode. Barcode scanners can be classified into three categories based on their connection to the computer. The older type is the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/RS-232\" title=\"RS-232\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"184dfbcc8c49dcd27e8b092853f851ad\">RS-232<\/a> barcode scanner. This type requires special programming for transferring the input data to the application program. Keyboard interface scanners connect to a computer using a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PS\/2_port\" title=\"PS\/2 port\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0cec4546fba2ecd94508b3e750d4b20c\">PS\/2<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AT_keyboard\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"AT keyboard\" data-key=\"c4f855f28080a65ddf6fb3f7a5787bdd\">AT keyboard<\/a>\u2013compatible adaptor cable (a \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Barcode_reader#Keyboard_wedge_(USB,_PS\/2,_etc)\" title=\"Barcode reader\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c125a425637561a4735cb2aed67ae617\">keyboard wedge<\/a>\"). The barcode's data is sent to the computer as if it had been typed on the keyboard.\n<\/p><p>Like the keyboard interface scanner, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/USB\" title=\"USB\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a17240fa8e9a3f31e95fb0b748e7da8e\">USB<\/a> scanners do not need custom code for transferring input data to the application program. On PCs running Windows the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_interface_device\" title=\"Human interface device\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e377c101d46edc23c2e9f8e398a4f516\">human interface device<\/a> emulates the data merging action of a hardware \"keyboard wedge\", and the scanner automatically behaves like an additional keyboard.\n<\/p><p>Most modern smartphones are able to decode barcode using their built-in camera. Google's mobile <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Android_(operating_system)\" title=\"Android (operating system)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e4367a4e67ff6009ca76098e827576ad\">Android<\/a> operating system can use their own <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Google_Lens\" title=\"Google Lens\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f78412fd3fef909c8ca2f1e1aaf2cd46\">Google Lens<\/a> application to scan QR codes, or third-party apps like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Barcode_Scanner_(application)\" title=\"Barcode Scanner (application)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"329ac6186055069b7bb1b460a2cebfe0\">Barcode Scanner<\/a> to read both one-dimensional barcodes and QR codes. Nokia's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Symbian\" title=\"Symbian\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a39032a8298097864e05afd03e3019e2\">Symbian<\/a> operating system featured a barcode scanner,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup> while mbarcode<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-28\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup> is a QR code reader for the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Maemo\" title=\"Maemo\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cbf1ca2911a530e0d6bb8e75629f3c3c\">Maemo<\/a> operating system. In Apple <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IOS_11\" title=\"IOS 11\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86745512b73bd901376c5adb5468aba9\">iOS 11<\/a>, the native camera app can decode QR codes and can link to URLs, join wireless networks, or perform other operations depending on the QR Code contents.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-29\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup> Other paid and free apps are available with scanning capabilities for other symbologies or for earlier iOS versions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-30\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup> With <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/BlackBerry\" title=\"BlackBerry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3836670acddf6113f0205955b2628db8\">BlackBerry<\/a> devices, the App World application can natively scan barcodes and load any recognized Web URLs on the device's Web browser. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Windows_Phone_7.5\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Windows Phone 7.5\" data-key=\"6558f46ae9866be6c086679b86ebf19c\">Windows Phone 7.5<\/a> is able to scan barcodes through the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bing_(search_engine)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bing (search engine)\" data-key=\"7cc48a07bf465193a8be19a9688d0ac5\">Bing<\/a> search app. However, these devices are not designed specifically for the capturing of barcodes. As a result, they do not decode nearly as quickly or accurately as a dedicated barcode scanner or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Portable_data_terminal\" title=\"Portable data terminal\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a3210bec340b441f74190ddec18b7633\">portable data terminal<\/a>.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2020)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Quality_control_and_verification\">Quality control and verification<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>It is common for producers and users of bar codes to have a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quality_management_system\" title=\"Quality management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d64fd726a87573213d8dce6e9f2fe22f\">quality management system<\/a> which includes <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Verification_and_validation\" title=\"Verification and validation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed7e27dd6af25849fd870d013597fa9f\">verification and validation<\/a> of bar codes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-31\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup> Barcode verification examines scanability and the quality of the barcode in comparison to industry standards and specifications.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-32\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup> Barcode verifiers are primarily used by businesses that print and use barcodes. Any trading partner in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supply_chain\" title=\"Supply chain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e23757d3e834e0b4658459f0fd50db00\">supply chain<\/a> can test barcode quality. It is important to verify a barcode to ensure that any reader in the supply chain can successfully interpret a barcode with a low error rate. Retailers levy large penalties for non-compliant barcodes. These chargebacks can reduce a manufacturer's revenue by 2% to 10%.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-33\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>A barcode verifier works the way a reader does, but instead of simply decoding a barcode, a verifier performs a series of tests. For linear barcodes these tests are:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Edge contrast (EC)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:3_34-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:3-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup>\n<ul><li>The difference between the space reflectance (Rs) and adjoining bar reflectance (Rb). EC=Rs-Rb<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>Minimum bar reflectance (Rb)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:3_34-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:3-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup>\n<ul><li>The smallest reflectance value in a bar.<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>Minimum space reflectance (Rs)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:3_34-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:3-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup>\n<ul><li>The smallest reflectance value in a space.<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>Symbol contrast (SC)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:3_34-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:3-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup>\n<ul><li>Symbol contrast is the difference in reflectance values of the lightest space (including the quiet zone) and the darkest bar of the symbol. The greater the difference, the higher the grade. The parameter is graded as either A, B, C, D, or F. SC=Rmax-Rmin<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>Minimum edge contrast (ECmin)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:3_34-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:3-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup>\n<ul><li>The difference between the space reflectance (Rs) and adjoining bar reflectance (Rb). EC=Rs-Rb<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>Modulation (MOD)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:3_34-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:3-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup>\n<ul><li>The parameter is graded either A, B, C, D, or F. This grade is based on the relationship between minimum edge contrast (ECmin) and symbol contrast (SC). MOD=ECmin\/SC The greater the difference between minimum edge contrast and symbol contrast, the lower the grade. Scanners and verifiers perceive the narrower bars and spaces to have less intensity than wider bars and spaces; the comparison of the lesser intensity of narrow elements to the wide elements is called modulation. This condition is affected by aperture size.<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>Inter-character gap<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:3_34-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:3-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup>\n<ul><li>In discrete barcodes, the space that disconnects the two contiguous characters. When present, inter-character gaps are considered spaces (elements) for purposes of edge determination and reflectance parameter grades.<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>Defects<\/li>\n<li>Decode<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:3_34-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:3-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup>\n<ul><li>Extracting the information which has been encoded in a bar code symbol.<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>Decodability<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:3_34-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:3-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup>\n<ul><li>Can be graded as A, B, C, D, or F. The Decodability grade indicates the amount of error in the width of the most deviant element in the symbol. The less deviation in the symbology, the higher the grade. Decodability is a measure of print accuracy using the symbology reference decode algorithm.<\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>2D matrix symbols look at the parameters:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Symbol contrast<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:3_34-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:3-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Modulation<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:3_34-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:3-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Decode<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:3_34-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:3-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Unused error correction<\/li>\n<li>Fixed (finder) pattern damage<\/li>\n<li>Grid non-uniformity<\/li>\n<li>Axial non-uniformity<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-35\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-35\">[35]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Depending on the parameter, each <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ANSI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ANSI\" data-key=\"9c4a01098b2145ef6236aac9daf871c0\">ANSI<\/a> test is graded from 0.0 to 4.0 (F to A), or given a pass or fail mark. Each grade is determined by analyzing the (SRP), an analog graph of a single scan line across the entire symbol. The lowest of the 8 grades is the scan grade, and the overall ISO symbol grade is the average of the individual scan grades. For most applications a 2.5 (C) is the minimal acceptable symbol grade.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-36\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Compared with a reader, a verifier measures a barcode's optical characteristics to international and industry standards. The measurement must be repeatable and consistent. Doing so requires constant conditions such as distance, illumination angle, sensor angle and verifier <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aperture\" title=\"Aperture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7fb11d0cf38be8130ce0bf142517c546\">aperture<\/a>. Based on the verification results, the production process can be adjusted to print higher quality barcodes that will scan down the supply chain.\n<\/p><p>Bar code validation may include evaluations after use (and abuse) testing such as sunlight, abrasion, impact, moisture, etc.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-37\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Barcode_verifier_standards\">Barcode verifier standards<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Barcode verifier standards are defined by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Organization_for_Standardization\" title=\"International Organization for Standardization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef9904309649741613d73bb73ca51e39\">International Organization for Standardization<\/a> (ISO), in ISO\/IEC 15426-1 (linear) or ISO\/IEC 15426-2 (2D).<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2020)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> The current international barcode quality specification is ISO\/IEC 15416 (linear) and ISO\/IEC 15415 (2D).<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2020)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Standard\" title=\"European Standard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d5ce99cda2b1e4b0781966d9d374ebf1\">European Standard<\/a> EN 1635 has been withdrawn and replaced by ISO\/IEC 15416. The original U.S. barcode quality specification was <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ANSI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ANSI\" data-key=\"9c4a01098b2145ef6236aac9daf871c0\">ANSI<\/a> X3.182. (UPCs used in the US \u2013 ANSI\/UCC5).<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2020)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> As of 2011 the ISO workgroup JTC1 SC31 was developing a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Direct_part_marking\" title=\"Direct part marking\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d19cfc8157ca8fe58941b0ab40292fc4\">Direct Part Marking (DPM)<\/a> quality standard: ISO\/IEC TR 29158.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-38\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-38\">[38]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Benefits\">Benefits<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In point-of-sale management, barcode systems can provide detailed up-to-date information on the business, accelerating decisions and with more confidence. For example:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Fast-selling items can be identified quickly and automatically reordered.<\/li>\n<li>Slow-selling items can be identified, preventing inventory build-up.<\/li>\n<li>The effects of merchandising changes can be monitored, allowing fast-moving, more profitable items to occupy the best space.<\/li>\n<li>Historical data can be used to predict seasonal fluctuations very accurately.<\/li>\n<li>Items may be repriced on the shelf to reflect both sale prices and price increases.<\/li>\n<li>This technology also enables the profiling of individual consumers, typically through a voluntary registration of discount cards. While pitched as a benefit to the consumer, this practice is considered to be potentially dangerous by privacy advocates.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words\" data-key=\"3c3e3e3bd5e8c5c41bbedf61159040c1\"><span title=\"The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (March 2019)\">which?<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Besides sales and inventory tracking, barcodes are very useful in logistics and supply chain management.\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>When a manufacturer packs a box for shipment, a unique identifying number (UID) can be assigned to the box.<\/li>\n<li>A database can link the UID to relevant information about the box; such as order number, items packed, quantity packed, destination, etc.<\/li>\n<li>The information can be transmitted through a communication system such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_data_interchange\" title=\"Electronic data interchange\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"08606d658cb8079277aacc5938326c04\">electronic data interchange<\/a> (EDI) so the retailer has the information about a shipment before it arrives.<\/li>\n<li>Shipments that are sent to a distribution center (DC) are tracked before forwarding. When the shipment reaches its final destination, the UID gets scanned, so the store knows the shipment's source, contents, and cost.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Barcode scanners are relatively low cost and extremely accurate compared to key-entry, with only about 1 substitution error in 15,000 to 36 trillion characters entered.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-39\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources\" title=\"Wikipedia:Reliable sources\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c3226d9fbe4bdcfea28d6706f866cbbe\"><span title=\"The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. (July 2010)\">unreliable source?<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> The exact error rate depends on the type of barcode.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Types_of_barcodes\">Types of barcodes<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Linear_barcodes\">Linear barcodes<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A first generation, \"one dimensional\" barcode that is made up of lines and spaces of various widths or sizes that create specific patterns.\n<\/p>\n<table class=\"wikitable\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<th>Example<\/th>\n<th>Symbology<\/th>\n<th>Continuous or discrete<\/th>\n<th>Bar type<\/th>\n<th>Uses\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Codabar.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5664f3ef4ab0d34044b3c54c55d5e61\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/d\/d1\/Codabar.svg\/128px-Codabar.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"37\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Codabar\" title=\"Codabar\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"76850c32770b9bc8066598d1005723b3\">Codabar<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Discrete<\/td>\n<td>Two<\/td>\n<td>Old format used in libraries and blood banks and on airbills (out of date, but still widely used in libraries)\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Two-out-of-five_code\" title=\"Two-out-of-five code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"68fe2372c702679cea7047cae802522e\">Code 25 \u2013 Non-interleaved 2 of 5<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Continuous<\/td>\n<td>Two<\/td>\n<td>Industrial\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Barcode2of5example.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"198c27b2092cf56130d3c96d9762fdc8\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/5\/5f\/Barcode2of5example.svg\/128px-Barcode2of5example.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"45\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Interleaved_2_of_5\" title=\"Interleaved 2 of 5\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eeebb8c5185080619a3c29aa78c8c8ae\">Code 25 \u2013 Interleaved 2 of 5<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Continuous<\/td>\n<td>Two<\/td>\n<td>Wholesale, libraries International standard ISO\/IEC 16390\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Code11_barcode.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"c461f8ea677aaa61ea4a8d763cdea9c6\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/6\/65\/Code11_barcode.png\/128px-Code11_barcode.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"64\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Code_11\" title=\"Code 11\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ede50e4efde726b7a1cfc15012208ef3\">Code 11<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Discrete<\/td>\n<td>Two<\/td>\n<td>Telephones (out of date)\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Code32_01234567.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"07ee355bc96dccb629125dceadea3424\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/5\/5e\/Code32_01234567.png\/128px-Code32_01234567.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"80\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td> or Code 32<\/td>\n<td>Discrete<\/td>\n<td>Two<\/td>\n<td>Italian pharmacode \u2013 use <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Code_39\" title=\"Code 39\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f9f60d0c592a60b7a14d143f42e6e6a\">Code 39<\/a> (no international standard available)\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Code_3_of_9.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"34da50b01f1cdf91277d266c6c341dd1\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/0\/0b\/Code_3_of_9.svg\/128px-Code_3_of_9.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"50\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Code_39\" title=\"Code 39\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f9f60d0c592a60b7a14d143f42e6e6a\">Code 39<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Discrete<\/td>\n<td>Two<\/td>\n<td>Various \u2013 international standard ISO\/IEC 16388\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Code_93_Wikipedia_barcode.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"b0006addf3d1577ce88384e826500f54\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/f\/fe\/Code_93_Wikipedia_barcode.png\/128px-Code_93_Wikipedia_barcode.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"86\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Code_93\" title=\"Code 93\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b87af21dea1e65d105ffb773dabbb87\">Code 93<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Continuous<\/td>\n<td>Many<\/td>\n<td>Various\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Code_128B-2009-06-02.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"3e7ef7fc635c98ece7a3ce7627d13957\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/b\/b5\/Code_128B-2009-06-02.svg\/128px-Code_128B-2009-06-02.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"50\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Code_128\" title=\"Code 128\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ccec83aa5b75bfee467598f8c2f6cd3\">Code 128<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Continuous<\/td>\n<td>Many<\/td>\n<td>Various \u2013 International Standard ISO\/IEC 15417\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CPC_Binary_Barcode\" title=\"CPC Binary Barcode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"620b6456abd625a579a0730c43cd0633\">CPC Binary<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Discrete<\/td>\n<td>Two<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Issn_barcode.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"503e1bbd95f8586e4e63b9e119ae9d2b\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/1\/1f\/Issn_barcode.png\/128px-Issn_barcode.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"79\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/EAN_2\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"EAN 2\" data-key=\"f7d54c2a16aabdcd8461443b091e1114\">EAN 2<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Continuous<\/td>\n<td>Many<\/td>\n<td>Addon code (magazines), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GS1\" title=\"GS1\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"55f7c1df51e52b385a4231dbcd9c48e1\">GS1<\/a>-approved \u2013 not an own symbology \u2013 to be used only with an EAN\/UPC according to ISO\/IEC 15420\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Isbn_add5.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d94b3fb4d0f2c8dcc76f73e02af2563\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/94\/Isbn_add5.png\/128px-Isbn_add5.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"66\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/EAN_5\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"EAN 5\" data-key=\"309c8273c8e41ac6b4a410b8ad62b1c7\">EAN 5<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Continuous<\/td>\n<td>Many<\/td>\n<td>Addon code (books), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GS1\" title=\"GS1\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"55f7c1df51e52b385a4231dbcd9c48e1\">GS1<\/a>-approved \u2013 not an own symbology \u2013 to be used only with an EAN\/UPC according to ISO\/IEC 15420\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:EAN8.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"72d56706c180a94e3df0067ca334d4d6\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/f1\/EAN8.svg\/128px-EAN8.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"125\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/EAN-8\" title=\"EAN-8\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60e40c5d0be3960e98cddf19e32dd5ca\">EAN-8<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/EAN-13\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"EAN-13\" data-key=\"9d8832d0fa235a0ea3b7b1635b49feed\">EAN-13<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Continuous<\/td>\n<td>Many<\/td>\n<td>Worldwide retail, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GS1\" title=\"GS1\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"55f7c1df51e52b385a4231dbcd9c48e1\">GS1<\/a>-approved \u2013 International Standard ISO\/IEC 15420\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Facing_Identification_Mark\" title=\"Facing Identification Mark\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7ac07034b9eb1ed8746db7138a49f42\">Facing Identification Mark<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Discrete<\/td>\n<td>Two<\/td>\n<td>USPS business reply mail\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Gs1-128_example.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"21d8f62dc8595ead6335392a81edbb21\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/c\/c4\/Gs1-128_example.svg\/128px-Gs1-128_example.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"42\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GS1-128\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"GS1-128\" data-key=\"57be968bd42ce72ef753d4328749d784\">GS1-128<\/a> (formerly named UCC\/EAN-128), incorrectly referenced as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/EAN_128\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"EAN 128\" data-key=\"f3b07e33eaa2ac71c88df1f814f3c06f\">EAN 128<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/UCC_128\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"UCC 128\" data-key=\"5d919642bfe96224325ef972425aa2bb\">UCC 128<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Continuous<\/td>\n<td>Many<\/td>\n<td>Various, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GS1\" title=\"GS1\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"55f7c1df51e52b385a4231dbcd9c48e1\">GS1<\/a>-approved \u2013 just an application of the Code 128 (ISO\/IEC 15417) using the ANS MH10.8.2 AI Datastructures. It is not a separate symbology.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Databar_14_00075678164125.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"0e31b4106083d401f666e2a01a1e11a0\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/3\/39\/Databar_14_00075678164125.png\/128px-Databar_14_00075678164125.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"93\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GS1_DataBar\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"GS1 DataBar\" data-key=\"650d47b92af32311f736361619273979\">GS1 DataBar<\/a>, formerly Reduced Space Symbology (RSS)<\/td>\n<td>Continuous<\/td>\n<td>Many<\/td>\n<td>Various, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GS1\" title=\"GS1\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"55f7c1df51e52b385a4231dbcd9c48e1\">GS1<\/a>-approved\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:ITF-14.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"18d81aceaf3bfc2099b43e347a24aed4\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/e\/e5\/ITF-14.svg\/128px-ITF-14.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"40\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ITF-14\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ITF-14\" data-key=\"2ee5219860512a406a28b9c8c4b174dd\">ITF-14<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Continuous<\/td>\n<td>Two<\/td>\n<td>Non-retail packaging levels, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GS1\" title=\"GS1\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"55f7c1df51e52b385a4231dbcd9c48e1\">GS1<\/a>-approved \u2013 is just an Interleaved 2\/5 Code (ISO\/IEC 16390) with a few additional specifications, according to the GS1 General Specifications\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:ITF-6_barcode.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"2c6d00533400aed0e7aa7978773f8b8d\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/8\/86\/ITF-6_barcode.svg\/128px-ITF-6_barcode.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"128\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ITF-6\" title=\"ITF-6\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cf2db287290ca5af1a04d774cf35de5f\">ITF-6<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Continuous<\/td>\n<td>Two<\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Interleaved_2_of_5\" title=\"Interleaved 2 of 5\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eeebb8c5185080619a3c29aa78c8c8ae\">Interleaved 2 of 5<\/a> barcode to encode an addon to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ITF-14\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ITF-14\" data-key=\"2ee5219860512a406a28b9c8c4b174dd\">ITF-14<\/a> and ITF-16 barcodes. The code is used to encode additional data such as items quantity or container weight\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:EAN-13-5901234123457.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"6ca1760d961d4caa41c025a133bb3a57\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/a\/a2\/EAN-13-5901234123457.svg\/128px-EAN-13-5901234123457.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"93\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Japan_Article_Number\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Japan Article Number\" data-key=\"7a4d2e86ba98d96d79c85d7fb657da3c\">JAN<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Continuous<\/td>\n<td>Many<\/td>\n<td>Used in Japan, similar to and compatible with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/EAN-13\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"EAN-13\" data-key=\"9d8832d0fa235a0ea3b7b1635b49feed\">EAN-13<\/a> (ISO\/IEC 15420)\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Japan_Post_barcode.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"5fe435feb2e5374ea5b8808bb2ee9a03\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/5\/5c\/Japan_Post_barcode.png\/128px-Japan_Post_barcode.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"9\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Japan_Post\" title=\"Japan Post\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f2d89c89aba0ba2a471fa49716f5bfe\">Japan Post<\/a> barcode<\/td>\n<td>Discrete<\/td>\n<td>4 bar heights<\/td>\n<td>Japan Post\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:MSI_Barcode.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"634135b2651aa1cd251c39d07ca1a386\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/25\/MSI_Barcode.svg\/128px-MSI_Barcode.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"62\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MSI_Barcode\" title=\"MSI Barcode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef24bd51d2701ee86d3406b0e9480207\">MSI<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Continuous<\/td>\n<td>Two<\/td>\n<td>Used for warehouse shelves and inventory\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Pharmacode_example.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"32770952666fbba35128899664963d77\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/90\/Pharmacode_example.svg\/128px-Pharmacode_example.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"142\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pharmacode\" title=\"Pharmacode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b954cbb2c2d5f681c754d8b15d345ca\">Pharmacode<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Discrete<\/td>\n<td>Two<\/td>\n<td>Pharmaceutical packaging (no international standard available)\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Planet_Barcode_Format.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"f7528eeb2d0d9698c29ad41a44370d7b\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/e\/e2\/Planet_Barcode_Format.png\/128px-Planet_Barcode_Format.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"55\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Postal_Alpha_Numeric_Encoding_Technique\" title=\"Postal Alpha Numeric Encoding Technique\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d57b76ec29075320e742721d5628c80f\">PLANET<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Continuous<\/td>\n<td>Tall\/short<\/td>\n<td>United States Postal Service (no international standard available)\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Plessey_barcode.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"47e149c4cf4a78cdaa62ae9e44ce270f\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/6\/6d\/Plessey_barcode.svg\/128px-Plessey_barcode.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"23\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Plessey_Code\" title=\"Plessey Code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e83263a5ade93790b4c4317d435c1855\">Plessey<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Continuous<\/td>\n<td>Two<\/td>\n<td>Catalogs, store shelves, inventory (no international standard available)\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Telepen_barcode.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed2ca171baea4f9c397cf64816af45f8\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/e\/ed\/Telepen_barcode.png\/128px-Telepen_barcode.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"30\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Telepen\" title=\"Telepen\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a749f3e876dd08ececa447d184519fd\">Telepen<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Continuous<\/td>\n<td>Two<\/td>\n<td>Libraries (UK)\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:UPC_A.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"04f8c10fac4d6b3d52743296e00675fb\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/fe\/UPC_A.svg\/128px-UPC_A.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"92\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Universal_Product_Code\" title=\"Universal Product Code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5db82c178bc58440cafb52148a1f0acd\">Universal Product Code<\/a> (UPC-A and UPC-E)<\/td>\n<td>Continuous<\/td>\n<td>Many<\/td>\n<td>Worldwide retail, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GS1\" title=\"GS1\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"55f7c1df51e52b385a4231dbcd9c48e1\">GS1<\/a>-approved \u2013 International Standard ISO\/IEC 15420\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"2D_barcodes\"><span class=\"anchor\" id=\"rdp-ebb-2D_barcodes\"><\/span> 2D barcodes<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>2D barcodes consist of bars, but use both dimensions for encoding.\n<\/p>\n<table class=\"wikitable\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<th>Example<\/th>\n<th>Symbology<\/th>\n<th>Continuous or discrete<\/th>\n<th>Bar type<\/th>\n<th>Uses\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Australia_Post_4-state_barcode.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"1d38c5afc55238153afac0a1d0d5d4bd\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/c\/c3\/Australia_Post_4-state_barcode.png\/128px-Australia_Post_4-state_barcode.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"20\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span>\n<\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Australia_Post\" title=\"Australia Post\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f3e65fec8c152acbca1b58534875741\">Australia Post<\/a> barcode\n<\/td>\n<td>Discrete\n<\/td>\n<td>4 bar heights\n<\/td>\n<td>An Australia Post 4-state barcode as used on a business reply paid envelope and applied by automated sorting machines to other mail when initially processed in fluorescent ink.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-40\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Code_49_wikipedia.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"08b67a5cc12cfa406b3200623da76ab6\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/3\/3d\/Code_49_wikipedia.png\/128px-Code_49_wikipedia.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"79\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Code_49\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Code 49\" data-key=\"787b5c91e19535f506e8a32ad6b79228\">Code 49<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Continuous<\/td>\n<td>Many<\/td>\n<td>Various\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Code_16K_wikipedia.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"6d4a03a73c00057413d792534c010cef\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/92\/Code_16K_wikipedia.png\/128px-Code_16K_wikipedia.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"157\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>The Code 16K (1988) is a multi-row bar code developed by Ted Williams at Laserlight Systems (USA) in 1992. In the US and France, the code is used in the electronics industry to identify chips and printed circuit boards. Medical applications in the USA are well known. Williams also developed Code 128, and the structure of 16K is based on Code 128. Not coincidentally, 128 squared happened to equal 16,384 or 16K for short. Code 16K resolved an inherent problem with Code 49. Code 49's structure requires a large amount of memory for encoding and decoding tables and algorithms. 16K is a stacked symbology.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2-Dimensional_Bar_Code_Page_41-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2-Dimensional_Bar_Code_Page-41\">[41]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-42\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-42\">[42]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Dx-film-edge-barcode.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"be5dd94e6f396f94e7765767e136864e\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/79\/Dx-film-edge-barcode.jpg\/128px-Dx-film-edge-barcode.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"102\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DX_encoding#DX_film_edge_barcode\" title=\"DX encoding\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c3294b4dcbefb46b669bcef13e522e3d\">DX film edge barcode<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Neither<\/td>\n<td>Tall\/short<\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Color_print_film\" title=\"Color print film\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4dbe7fe68fe0ec4c8808e2971e5285e7\">Color print film<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Intelligent_Mail_Barcode_Wiki22.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"a00356cf432ce7c7be9aa35f31394837\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/6\/68\/Intelligent_Mail_Barcode_Wiki22.png\/128px-Intelligent_Mail_Barcode_Wiki22.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"46\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intelligent_Mail_barcode\" title=\"Intelligent Mail barcode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fb7ecd62840ec56d97f2b36035683cf2\">Intelligent Mail barcode<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Discrete<\/td>\n<td>4 bar heights<\/td>\n<td>United States Postal Service, replaces both POSTNET and PLANET symbols (formerly named <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OneCode\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OneCode\" data-key=\"bda68bd887c4d5d83f57953a5ac688d3\">OneCode<\/a>)\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Diagram_Of_a_KarTrak_ACI_Plate.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"cae23246ff456d79a1cf008688b4c157\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/a\/af\/Diagram_Of_a_KarTrak_ACI_Plate.svg\/128px-Diagram_Of_a_KarTrak_ACI_Plate.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"268\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/KarTrak\" title=\"KarTrak\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"819a7519d40face0f5012d5a4495d9dc\">KarTrak<\/a> ACI<\/td>\n<td>Discrete<\/td>\n<td>Coloured bars<\/td>\n<td>Used in North America on railroad rolling equipment\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Canada_Post_d52.01_domestic_barcode.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"405ee214788e924eaaa1dc4f860fca78\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/8\/84\/Canada_Post_d52.01_domestic_barcode.png\/128px-Canada_Post_d52.01_domestic_barcode.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"16\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PostBar\" title=\"PostBar\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"358b3f2f51a515cc7d3781b094ca3e7d\">PostBar<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Discrete<\/td>\n<td>4 bar heights<\/td>\n<td>Canadian Post office\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:POSTNET_BAR.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"c51bebf9ba522e8f5eac8c9a2ed42c24\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/2d\/POSTNET_BAR.svg\/6px-POSTNET_BAR.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"6\" height=\"14\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:POSTNET_1.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"b9f06d2e3bc571de0f5a56940f4dbf6c\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/4\/47\/POSTNET_1.svg\/30px-POSTNET_1.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"30\" height=\"14\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:POSTNET_2.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"c130ab15497725c59de0608df06c41d3\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/1\/19\/POSTNET_2.svg\/30px-POSTNET_2.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"30\" height=\"14\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:POSTNET_3.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"250c5ab132a60060301046507448a7f6\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/3\/3d\/POSTNET_3.svg\/30px-POSTNET_3.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"30\" height=\"14\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:POSTNET_BAR.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"43b4e30f313192f61e5ae42ec34ec97e\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/4\/43\/POSTNET_BAR.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"6\" height=\"14\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/POSTNET\" title=\"POSTNET\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"36180c8b398bc2b8b0ba4e4f7abd1afa\">POSTNET<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Discrete<\/td>\n<td>Tall\/short<\/td>\n<td>United States Postal Service (no international standard available)\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Address_with_RM4SCC_barcode.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"0dc258823dccb4cb5dfbe31f98f4212d\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/fc\/Address_with_RM4SCC_barcode.svg\/128px-Address_with_RM4SCC_barcode.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"88\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/RM4SCC\" title=\"RM4SCC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1d8dd3e59a77d5a35a92e538907c62a\">RM4SCC<\/a> \/ KIX<\/td>\n<td>Discrete<\/td>\n<td>4 bar heights<\/td>\n<td>Royal Mail \/ <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PostNL\" title=\"PostNL\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afedd6e39721850acc4cd778705447b2\">PostNL<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Royal_Mail_mailmark_C_barcode.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd2668b47441fb3287f927a22006ea8e\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/7b\/Royal_Mail_mailmark_C_barcode.png\/128px-Royal_Mail_mailmark_C_barcode.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"13\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td>RM Mailmark C<\/td>\n<td>Discrete<\/td>\n<td>4 bar heights<\/td>\n<td>Royal Mail\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Royal_Mail_mailmark_L_barcode.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"3fcb442d606711fd4bf70517d4619ae7\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/fe\/Royal_Mail_mailmark_L_barcode.png\/128px-Royal_Mail_mailmark_L_barcode.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"10\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td>RM Mailmark L<\/td>\n<td>Discrete<\/td>\n<td>4 bar heights<\/td>\n<td>Royal Mail\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Spotify_code_barcode.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"64297c132bbac20710ad67a101cb831e\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/21\/Spotify_code_barcode.svg\/128px-Spotify_code_barcode.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"32\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spotify\" title=\"Spotify\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1263cfd7bb4fd7cedf162510283b02e8\">Spotify<\/a> codes<\/td>\n<td>Discrete<\/td>\n<td>23 bar heights<\/td>\n<td>Spotify codes point to artists, songs, podcasts, playlists, and albums. The information is encoded in the height of the bars,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-43\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-43\">[43]<\/a><\/sup> so as long as the bar heights are maintained, the code can be handwritten and can vary in color.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-44\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup> Patented under EP3444755.\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Matrix_.282D.29_codes\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Matrix_(2D)_codes\"><span class=\"anchor\" id=\"rdp-ebb-2D_Codes\"><\/span> Matrix (2D) codes<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A <i>matrix code<\/i> or simply a <i>2D code<\/i>, is a two-dimensional way to represent information. It can represent more data per unit area. Apart from dots various other patterns can be used.\n<\/p>\n<table class=\"wikitable\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<th>Example<\/th>\n<th>Name<\/th>\n<th>Notes\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:App_Clip_Code_example.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"a0c8dee56e5fe172fa89f5a0d924347a\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/a\/a7\/App_Clip_Code_example.svg\/128px-App_Clip_Code_example.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"157\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td>App Clip Code<\/td>\n<td>Apple-proprietary code for launching \"App Clips\", a type of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Applet\" title=\"Applet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"834a0b6fdad7f29a9f6a254d48783dc5\">applet<\/a>. 5 concentric rings of three colors (light, dark, middle).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-45\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-45\">[45]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Ar_code.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"22c22a1d5a31208c62f5dd93d74eac5e\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/e\/e0\/Ar_code.png\/128px-Ar_code.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"128\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ARToolKit\" title=\"ARToolKit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"df0abd469fadfd08e27686b4cf9920da\">AR Code<\/a><\/td>\n<td>A type of marker used for placing content inside <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Augmented_reality\" title=\"Augmented reality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb0ff91c510e81bccbb9ef63158e6d48\">augmented reality<\/a> applications. Some AR Codes can contain QR codes inside, so that AR content can be linked to.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-46\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-46\">[46]<\/a><\/sup> See also <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ARTag\" title=\"ARTag\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a189fd085d0a67a3592777544c9b652c\">ARTag<\/a>.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Azteccodeexample.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"2c5caad883df7567187c2c1bc4c5cac9\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/20\/Azteccodeexample.svg\/128px-Azteccodeexample.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"128\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aztec_Code\" title=\"Aztec Code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6cfbebcab64563c5b80b645c75fd111c\">Aztec Code<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Designed by Andrew Longacre at Welch Allyn (now Honeywell Scanning and Mobility). Public domain. \u2013 International Standard: ISO\/IEC 24778\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:BCode_barcode_1683.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"a36bdf8cab73f5ce366ce7af45f8fd9f\"><img alt=\"A bCode matrix code encoding the identifier 1683\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/4\/44\/BCode_barcode_1683.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"62\" height=\"62\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span>\n<\/td>\n<td>bCode\n<\/td>\n<td>A matrix designed for the study of insect behavior.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-47\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-47\">[47]<\/a><\/sup> Encodes an 11 bit identifier and 16 bits of read error detection and error correction information. Predominantly used for marking <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Honey_bee\" title=\"Honey bee\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b1bd0efa5c18f78a46d119d39370dc29\">honey bees<\/a>, but can also be applied to other animals.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Frameless\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:BEEtag_1166.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"145f89030df4f38003dc2e11a5129059\"><img alt=\"BEEtag Matrix Code Image\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/0\/09\/BEEtag_1166.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"101\" height=\"103\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>A 25 bit (5x5) code matrix of black and white pixels that is unique to each tag surrounded by a white pixel border and a black pixel border. The 25-bit matrix consists of a 15-bit identity code, and a 10-bit error check.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-48\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-48\">[48]<\/a><\/sup> It is designed to be a low-cost, image-based tracking system for the study of animal behavior and locomotion.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>A 2D code with honeycomb structures suitable for mobile tagging and was developed by the Swiss company connvision AG.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bokode\" title=\"Bokode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43861fc72e4dbbf08d68f588ae4cc169\">Bokode<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td>A type of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automatic_identification_and_data_capture\" title=\"Automatic identification and data capture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a34ceda16c2b3cebf6248b1530be1f3\">data tag<\/a> which holds much more information than a barcode over the same area. They were developed by a team led by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ramesh_Raskar\" title=\"Ramesh Raskar\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8e76d71eb20c13be79d0ca040d8d527a\">Ramesh Raskar<\/a> at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MIT_Media_Lab\" title=\"MIT Media Lab\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"732a13705490ff5ebcac01cfac50dde4\">MIT Media Lab<\/a>. The bokode pattern is a tiled series of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Matrix\" title=\"Data Matrix\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f437cb7754dec5b1b7f4f005f7602eb\">Data Matrix<\/a> codes.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Boxing_4kv6_0.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"2d26d66ee65a118d4a11d16c0f2ef157\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/78\/Boxing_4kv6_0.png\/128px-Boxing_4kv6_0.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"68\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span>\n<\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Boxing_barcode\" title=\"Boxing barcode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8a2946488ac53cf2f765a1ce6ad0179c\">Boxing<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td>A high-capacity 2D code is used on by Piql AS<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-49\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-49\">[49]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cauzin_Softstrip\" title=\"Cauzin Softstrip\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a50cd9fc7abc62d3d7aabb691477c3cc\">Cauzin Softstrip<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td>Softstrip code was used in the 1980s to encode software, which could be transferred by special scanners from printed journals into your computer hardware.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>Code 1<\/td>\n<td>Public domain. Code 1 is currently used in the health care industry for medicine labels and the recycling industry to encode container content for sorting.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-50\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-50\">[50]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Colorzip_Colorcode_example.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"58a064d9159b79e71446a2a9e22f057d\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/4\/41\/Colorzip_Colorcode_example.png\/128px-Colorzip_Colorcode_example.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"128\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td>ColorCode<\/td>\n<td><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-51\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-51\">[51]<\/a><\/sup> developed colour barcodes that can be read by camera phones from TV screens; mainly used in Korea.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-52\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-52\">[52]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Color_Construct_Code_example.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"d9f8e84b1d6b29079dc5edfb99fd56cd\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/f2\/Color_Construct_Code_example.png\/128px-Color_Construct_Code_example.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"139\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td>Color Construct Code<\/td>\n<td> is one of the few code symbologies designed to take advantage of multiple colors.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-53\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-53\">[53]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-54\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-54\">[54]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:PhotoTAN_mit_Orientierungsmarkierungen.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"4fd634e217955d7a3179c47f3ddd0774\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/b\/bd\/PhotoTAN_mit_Orientierungsmarkierungen.svg\/128px-PhotoTAN_mit_Orientierungsmarkierungen.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"128\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td>Cronto Visual Cryptogram\n<\/td>\n<td>The Cronto Visual Cryptogram (also called photoTAN) is a specialized color barcode, spun out from research at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/University_of_Cambridge\" title=\"University of Cambridge\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"804ee5e182344c3f5f780777b651e1e6\">University of Cambridge<\/a> by Igor Drokov, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Steven_Murdoch\" title=\"Steven Murdoch\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fc064f63a49eb55ca44ea87749f76842\">Steven Murdoch<\/a>, and Elena Punskaya.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-cronto_55-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-cronto-55\">[55]<\/a><\/sup> It is used for transaction signing in e-banking; the barcode contains encrypted transaction data which is then used as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Challenge%E2%80%93response_authentication\" title=\"Challenge\u2013response authentication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"95ef305528eff6bb8963b06d6c34ef6a\">challenge<\/a> to compute a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transaction_authentication_number\" title=\"Transaction authentication number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5af7521943170b531bcc968dc854e33a\">transaction authentication number<\/a> using a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_token\" title=\"Security token\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2c9d3bbad457f10503b520c6c25215d3\">security token<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-56\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-56\">[56]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CyberCode\" title=\"CyberCode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0863297ca0e815d7c213f4c0232dbe02\">CyberCode<\/a><\/td>\n<td>From Sony.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>d-touch<\/td>\n<td>readable when printed on deformable gloves and stretched and distorted<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-57\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-57\">[57]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-58\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-58\">[58]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Dataglyph511140.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"e7850f1e74a2e6319f8f8143373fd32f\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/92\/Dataglyph511140.png\/128px-Dataglyph511140.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"104\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>From Palo Alto Research Center (also termed Xerox PARC).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-59\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-59\">[59]<\/a><\/sup>\n<p>Patented.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-60\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-60\">[60]<\/a><\/sup>\nDataGlyphs can be embedded into a half-tone image or background shading pattern in a way that is almost perceptually invisible, similar to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Steganography\" title=\"Steganography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b9ee2d36b0e33ccd0a769128b0422100\">steganography<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-61\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-61\">[61]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-62\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-62\">[62]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Datamatrix.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"b6e887e478c9040f757cb59317bb8557\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/e\/e8\/Datamatrix.svg\/128px-Datamatrix.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"128\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Matrix\" title=\"Data Matrix\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f437cb7754dec5b1b7f4f005f7602eb\">Data Matrix<\/a><\/td>\n<td>From , formerly RVSI Acuity CiMatrix\/Siemens. Public domain. Increasingly used throughout the United States. Single segment Data Matrix is also termed <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semacode\" title=\"Semacode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6cc98e88e6ca4c9765eeee54bc7d6d4c\">Semacode<\/a>. \u2013 International Standard: ISO\/IEC 16022.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Datastrip_Code\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Datastrip Code\" data-key=\"49f4850795a75ae2ba96ab82f1526ecb\">Datastrip Code<\/a><\/td>\n<td>From Datastrip, Inc.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digimarc#Digimarc_code\" title=\"Digimarc\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a1b9eb4d9ff80d2f78730a4450d3e2c\">Digimarc code<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td>The Digimarc Code is a unique identifier, or code, based on imperceptible patterns that can be applied to marketing materials, including packaging, displays, ads in magazines, circulars, radio and television<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-63\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-63\">[63]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_paper\" title=\"Digital paper\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"420c59f9dbb82fa2cf407f777ca613b7\">digital paper<\/a><\/td>\n<td>patterned paper used in conjunction with a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_pen\" title=\"Digital pen\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e98bcb3cc0b9dec2aa26c463f1e8e17d\">digital pen<\/a> to create handwritten digital documents. The printed dot pattern uniquely identifies the position coordinates on the paper.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<p><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:35mm_film_audio_macro.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"67856b3138127d35657b4686b9b0b37c\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/1\/1d\/35mm_film_audio_macro.jpg\/128px-35mm_film_audio_macro.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"93\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span>\n<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dolby_Digital\" title=\"Dolby Digital\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"67ff79f210c57270b1b6506ef858f2d0\">Dolby Digital<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td>Digital sound code for printing on cinematic film between the threading holes\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:DotCode_Wikipedia.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"1c63f4c45747c96a8d078077325aeab9\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/e\/e2\/DotCode_Wikipedia.png\/128px-DotCode_Wikipedia.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"90\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>Standardized as AIM Dotcode Rev 3.0. Public domain. Used to track individual cigarette and pharmaceutical packages.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>Also known as <i>Philips Dot Code<\/i>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-64\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-64\">[64]<\/a><\/sup> Patented in 1988.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-65\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-65\">[65]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170216045744\/https:\/\/sites.gs1us.org\/mobilescan\/home\" target=\"_blank\">DWCode<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td>Introduced by GS1 US and GS1 Germany, the DWCode is a unique, imperceptible data carrier that is repeated across the entire graphics design of a package<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-66\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-66\">[66]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:EZcode_Example.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"Example of an EZcode.\" data-key=\"52be247d08f1d3623c20c4178d3720d7\"><img alt=\"Example of an EZcode.\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/90\/EZcode_Example.png\/128px-EZcode_Example.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"128\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td>EZcode<\/td>\n<td>Designed for decoding by cameraphones;<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-67\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-67\">[67]<\/a><\/sup> from ScanLife.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Steeman_68-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Steeman-68\">[68]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Han_Xin_2D_Barcode.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"032faeaee6e6961556bfa624252580e7\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/c\/ce\/Han_Xin_2D_Barcode.svg\/128px-Han_Xin_2D_Barcode.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"128\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>Code designed to encode <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chinese_characters\" title=\"Chinese characters\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b5461b097f5cb7860fc960ca35c239a\">Chinese characters<\/a> introduced by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Association_for_Automatic_Identification_and_Mobility\" title=\"Association for Automatic Identification and Mobility\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0a64b975bdc201b342c6d6a814d2009\">Association for Automatic Identification and Mobility<\/a> in 2011.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:High_Capacity_Color_Barcode_Tag.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a506f47986b791e1981065bfb932782\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/d\/dc\/High_Capacity_Color_Barcode_Tag.svg\/128px-High_Capacity_Color_Barcode_Tag.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"128\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/High_Capacity_Color_Barcode\" title=\"High Capacity Color Barcode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"44d15f4372c9ba607510b9007cd3718e\">High Capacity Color Barcode<\/a><\/td>\n<td><b>HCCB<\/b> was developed by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft\" title=\"Microsoft\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"552bdc43bfc9c7d67618e071d33e5e97\">Microsoft<\/a>; licensed by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Audiovisual_Number_International_Agency\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"International Standard Audiovisual Number International Agency\" data-key=\"5ee5359fea9d26dd228daa877ae3fb2b\">ISAN-IA<\/a>.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>From Robot Design Associates. Uses greyscale or colour.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-69\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-69\">[69]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>From . The standard 2D Code in South Korea. All 3 South Korean mobile carriers put the scanner program of this code into their handsets to access mobile internet, as a default embedded program.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<p><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:JAB_code_-_Wikipedia_greetings_with_link.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"70662c47a651c2c9f9143d03e4473bd6\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/5\/5a\/JAB_code_-_Wikipedia_greetings_with_link.png\/128px-JAB_code_-_Wikipedia_greetings_with_link.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"128\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span>\n<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JAB_Code\" title=\"JAB Code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2171bffb80ece8b9104d85e254ab03cb\">JAB Code<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td><b>J<\/b>ust <b>A<\/b>nother <b>B<\/b>ar Code is a colored 2D Code. Square or rectangle. License free\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:MaxiCode.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"5e9ae980c539c0a5fefbda97dd080d00\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/b\/b4\/MaxiCode.svg\/128px-MaxiCode.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"123\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MaxiCode\" title=\"MaxiCode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0884c08172ad0ddb2789f225ca65a646\">MaxiCode<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Used by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_Parcel_Service\" title=\"United Parcel Service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2e33fbf8c4075127007bb6ec3bded976\">United Parcel Service<\/a>. Now public domain.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>Designed by NextCode Corporation, specifically to work with mobile phones and mobile services.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-70\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-70\">[70]<\/a><\/sup> It is implementing an independent error detection technique preventing false decoding, it uses a variable-size error correction polynomial, which depends on the exact size of the code.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_71-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-71\">[71]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Messenger_code_-_barcode.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"3e2b9bc39ca1d61268caca8f0e1eb0ba\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/25\/Messenger_code_-_barcode.png\/128px-Messenger_code_-_barcode.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"128\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td>Messenger Codes<\/td>\n<td>Proprietary ring-shaped code for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Facebook_Messenger\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Facebook Messenger\" data-key=\"7a20006e55b264f58a9f4b4b966581f1\">Facebook Messenger<\/a>. Defunct as of 2019, replaced by standard QR codes.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Micro_QR_Example.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"c41057350220202d9230dd6fbfc2f5ec\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/8\/89\/Micro_QR_Example.svg\/128px-Micro_QR_Example.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"128\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/QR_code#Micro_QR_code\" title=\"QR code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"959fe124041e5b385dd1dca67cdd8918\">Micro QR code<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Micro QR code is a smaller version of the QR code standard for applications where symbol size is limited.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mobile_Multi-Coloured_Composite\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Mobile Multi-Coloured Composite\" data-key=\"390656abad988380edbb8f77a00744d9\">MMCC<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Designed to disseminate high capacity mobile phone content via existing colour print and electronic media, without the need for network connectivity\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:NexCode.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"57db4e22c1f42ab4633428ae8072d532\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/a\/ac\/NexCode.png\/128px-NexCode.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"128\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>NexCode is developed and patented by S5 Systems.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nintendo_e-Reader#Dot_code\" title=\"Nintendo e-Reader\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"70f649b7d79c36584ec5a05e56bb9412\">Nintendo Dot code<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Developed by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Olympus_Corporation\" title=\"Olympus Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73b380bbfcf29198fcd380e1c78a80d3\">Olympus Corporation<\/a> to store songs, images, and mini-games for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Game_Boy_Advance\" title=\"Game Boy Advance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"98a68c071e2f66e2efa7393e3d7585f7\">Game Boy Advance<\/a> on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pok%C3%A9mon_Trading_Card_Game\" title=\"Pok\u00e9mon Trading Card Game\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6c68e47f99608c8f2209fa6bfd5b8c4a\">Pok\u00e9mon trading cards<\/a>.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Better_Sample_PDF417.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"e06cf6c06ecaeab347a878eb73d41081\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/0\/07\/Better_Sample_PDF417.png\/128px-Better_Sample_PDF417.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"56\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PDF417\" title=\"PDF417\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d7766eaa8f5f73bb764a7ebadb384c8d\">PDF417<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Originated by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Symbol_Technologies\" title=\"Symbol Technologies\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f862e976f68915d914145df1b47a7072\">Symbol Technologies<\/a>. Public domain. \u2013 International standard: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISO\" data-key=\"e95523d3dca5a1220c8d242d7653c133\">ISO<\/a>\/<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Electrotechnical_Commission\" title=\"International Electrotechnical Commission\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3365d94c8fd167fc59737ebfcb686d3e\">IEC<\/a> 15438\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>Ocode\n<\/td>\n<td>A proprietary matrix code in hexagonal shape.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-72\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-72\">[72]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Qode.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"Qode example.\" data-key=\"cc26859335d679ad4493ef8bb4c530b6\"><img alt=\"Qode example.\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/e\/e4\/Qode.png\/128px-Qode.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"138\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>American proprietary and patented 2D Code from NeoMedia Technologies, Inc.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Steeman_68-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Steeman-68\">[68]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:QR_code_for_mobile_English_Wikipedia.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"32dd7bd804b3eff7c08f337683ee12ee\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/d\/d0\/QR_code_for_mobile_English_Wikipedia.svg\/128px-QR_code_for_mobile_English_Wikipedia.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"128\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/QR_code\" title=\"QR code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"47108109498cb9cfde2bd82ca0546c8b\">QR code<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Initially developed, patented and owned by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Denso_Wave\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Denso Wave\" data-key=\"1ea2f3dfe5085e236f6384e9e8374c59\">Denso Wave<\/a> for automotive components management; they have chosen not to exercise their <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Patent_right\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Patent right\" data-key=\"68d72157eca46f6960825872626d3375\">patent rights<\/a>. Can encode <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Latin_script\" title=\"Latin script\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f8fcff7b79351ec37491d94b4aa7657\">Latin<\/a> and Japanese Kanji and Kana characters, music, images, URLs, emails. De facto standard for Japanese cell phones. Used with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/BlackBerry_Messenger\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"BlackBerry Messenger\" data-key=\"898916870166c7fe8e15a600554f10d3\">BlackBerry Messenger<\/a> to pick up contacts rather than using a PIN code. The most frequently used type of code to scan with smartphones, and one of the most widely used 2D Codes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-73\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-73\">[73]<\/a><\/sup> Public Domain. \u2013 International Standard: ISO\/IEC 18004\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>Screencode<\/td>\n<td>Developed and patented<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-74\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-74\">[74]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-75\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-75\">[75]<\/a><\/sup> by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hewlett-Packard\" title=\"Hewlett-Packard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3071e67fd131546e44720a6d8dc9510b\">Hewlett-Packard<\/a> Labs. A time-varying 2D pattern using to encode data via brightness fluctuations in an image, for the purpose of high bandwidth data transfer from computer displays to smartphones via smartphone camera input. Inventors and , publicly disclosed at ACM HotMobile 2008.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-76\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-76\">[76]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Shotcode.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"9abb1460c626f141b1ef0c189d5e958a\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/7d\/Shotcode.png\/128px-Shotcode.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"128\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ShotCode\" title=\"ShotCode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"686b1b23e62087e69077760609ca9868\">ShotCode<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Circular pattern codes for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Camera_phone\" title=\"Camera phone\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43f2734df2ca0420114aaa602eb000da\">camera phones<\/a>. Originally from High Energy Magic Ltd in name Spotcode. Before that most likely termed TRIPCode.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Snapcode_barcode.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a56e9a69778208050250873a092a1c6\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/d\/d6\/Snapcode_barcode.svg\/128px-Snapcode_barcode.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"128\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td>Snapcode, also called Boo-R code<\/td>\n<td>Used by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Snapchat\" title=\"Snapchat\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b832a26ab875896c1cd20153f134e769\">Snapchat<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spectacles_(product)\" title=\"Spectacles (product)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"640e0e811de60172687ad1dad34529ed\">Spectacles<\/a>, etc. US9111164B1<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-77\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-77\">[77]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-78\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-78\">[78]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-79\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-79\">[79]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>Snowflake Code\n<\/td>\n<td>A proprietary code developed by Electronic Automation Ltd. in 1981. It is possible to encode more than 100 numeric digits in a space of only 5mm x 5mm. User selectable error correction allows up to 40% of the code to be destroyed and still remain readable. The code is used in the pharmaceutical industry and has an advantage that it can be applied to products and materials in a wide variety of ways, including printed labels, ink-jet printing, laser-etching, indenting or hole punching.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2-Dimensional_Bar_Code_Page_41-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2-Dimensional_Bar_Code_Page-41\">[41]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-80\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-80\">[80]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-81\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-81\">[81]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:SPARQCode-sample.gif\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb661e1282f36e8c2e9caa452b06069a\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/6\/65\/SPARQCode-sample.gif\/128px-SPARQCode-sample.gif\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"148\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SPARQCode\" title=\"SPARQCode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62a08d1b7cfe6a71fd9fc15e669d7395\">SPARQCode<\/a><\/td>\n<td>QR code encoding standard from MSKYNET, Inc.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>This is a combination of the two barcodes <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Code_39\" title=\"Code 39\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f9f60d0c592a60b7a14d143f42e6e6a\">Code 39<\/a> and , forming a 2D pattern. It is also known as Telecommunications Industry Forum (TCIF) Code 39 or TCIF Linked Code 39.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-82\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-82\">[82]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>Designed for mobile phone scanning.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-83\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-83\">[83]<\/a><\/sup> Developed by Lark Computer, a Romanian company.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_71-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-71\">[71]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>Developed and patented by VOICEYE, Inc. in South Korea, it aims to allow blind and visually impaired people to access printed information. It also claims to be the 2D Code that has the world's largest storage capacity.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/WeChat#WeChat_Mini_Program\" title=\"WeChat\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f4ed67a0456288351a8523bc89a042de\">WeChat Mini Program<\/a> code<\/td>\n<td>A circular code with outward-projecting lines.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-84\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-84\">[84]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Example_images\">Example images<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul class=\"gallery mw-gallery-traditional\">\n\t<li class=\"gallerycaption\">First, second and third generation barcodes<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:UPC-A-036000291452.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"GTIN-12 number encoded in UPC-A barcode symbol. First and last digit are always placed outside the symbol to indicate Quiet Zones that are necessary for barcode scanners to work properly\" data-key=\"46403bbf4a50085daaa767e225d3750d\"><img alt=\"GTIN-12 number encoded in UPC-A barcode symbol. First and last digit are always placed outside the symbol to indicate Quiet Zones that are necessary for barcode scanners to work properly\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/5\/5d\/UPC-A-036000291452.png\/120px-UPC-A-036000291452.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"87\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\">GTIN-12 number encoded in UPC-A barcode symbol. First and last digit are always placed outside the symbol to indicate Quiet Zones that are necessary for barcode scanners to work properly<\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:EAN-13-5901234123457.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"EAN-13 (GTIN-13) number encoded in EAN-13 barcode symbol. First digit is always placed outside the symbol, additionally right quiet zone indicator (>) is used to indicate Quiet Zones that are necessary for barcode scanners to work properly\" data-key=\"6ca1760d961d4caa41c025a133bb3a57\"><img alt=\"EAN-13 (GTIN-13) number encoded in EAN-13 barcode symbol. First digit is always placed outside the symbol, additionally right quiet zone indicator (>) is used to indicate Quiet Zones that are necessary for barcode scanners to work properly\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/a\/a2\/EAN-13-5901234123457.svg\/120px-EAN-13-5901234123457.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"87\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\">EAN-13 (GTIN-13) number encoded in EAN-13 barcode symbol. First digit is always placed outside the symbol, additionally right quiet zone indicator (&gt;) is used to indicate Quiet Zones that are necessary for barcode scanners to work properly<\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Code93.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"&quot;Wikipedia&quot; encoded in Code 93\" data-key=\"6e9e8c327c98c8e06b6ea79f3f34a7a9\"><img alt=\"&quot;Wikipedia&quot; encoded in Code 93\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/8\/86\/Code93.png\/120px-Code93.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"53\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\">\"Wikipedia\" encoded in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Code_93\" title=\"Code 93\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b87af21dea1e65d105ffb773dabbb87\">Code 93<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Code39.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"&quot;*WIKI39*&quot; encoded in Code 39\" data-key=\"8fd2832c4b55d98f1f0b589504be49c7\"><img alt=\"&quot;*WIKI39*&quot; encoded in Code 39\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/4\/4f\/Code39.png\/120px-Code39.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"51\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\">\"*WIKI39*\" encoded in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Code_39\" title=\"Code 39\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f9f60d0c592a60b7a14d143f42e6e6a\">Code 39<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Wikipedia_barcode_128.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"'Wikipedia&quot; encoded in Code 128\" data-key=\"07a6a08e266f24197743b4ab8c2d4647\"><img alt=\"'Wikipedia&quot; encoded in Code 128\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/f7\/Wikipedia_barcode_128.svg\/120px-Wikipedia_barcode_128.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"74\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\">'Wikipedia\" encoded in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Code_128\" title=\"Code 128\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ccec83aa5b75bfee467598f8c2f6cd3\">Code 128<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Codablock-F_Example.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"An example of a stacked barcode. Specifically a &quot;Codablock&quot; barcode.\" data-key=\"21be03d55ebdb7013d86d6036a5c7b2f\"><img alt=\"An example of a stacked barcode. Specifically a &quot;Codablock&quot; barcode.\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/b\/b9\/Codablock-F_Example.png\/120px-Codablock-F_Example.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"71\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\">An example of a <i>stacked barcode<\/i>. Specifically a \"Codablock\" barcode.<\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Better_Sample_PDF417.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"PDF417 sample\" data-key=\"e06cf6c06ecaeab347a878eb73d41081\"><img alt=\"PDF417 sample\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/0\/07\/Better_Sample_PDF417.png\/120px-Better_Sample_PDF417.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"52\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PDF417\" title=\"PDF417\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d7766eaa8f5f73bb764a7ebadb384c8d\">PDF417<\/a> sample<\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Lorem_Ipsum.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"Lorem ipsum boilerplate text as four segment Data Matrix 2D\" data-key=\"37ce29a6eebc8f31a5c0cfc7bb04d149\"><img alt=\"Lorem ipsum boilerplate text as four segment Data Matrix 2D\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/b\/b6\/Lorem_Ipsum.png\/120px-Lorem_Ipsum.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"120\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lorem_ipsum\" title=\"Lorem ipsum\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"da7d2f7e2b59e1683d219187904621a2\">Lorem ipsum<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Boilerplate_text\" title=\"Boilerplate text\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"61816daf9c1a10156e8dd27e11b29dc9\">boilerplate text<\/a> as four segment <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Matrix\" title=\"Data Matrix\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f437cb7754dec5b1b7f4f005f7602eb\">Data Matrix<\/a> 2D<\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Azteccodeexample.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"&quot;This is an example Aztec symbol for Wikipedia&quot; encoded in Aztec Code\" data-key=\"2c5caad883df7567187c2c1bc4c5cac9\"><img alt=\"&quot;This is an example Aztec symbol for Wikipedia&quot; encoded in Aztec Code\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/20\/Azteccodeexample.svg\/120px-Azteccodeexample.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"120\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\">\"This is an example Aztec symbol for Wikipedia\" encoded in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aztec_Code\" title=\"Aztec Code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6cfbebcab64563c5b80b645c75fd111c\">Aztec Code<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:EZcode.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"Text 'EZcode'\" data-key=\"2d361562d37e888e163a24e86577276d\"><img alt=\"Text 'EZcode'\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/9\/99\/EZcode.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"120\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\">Text 'EZcode'<\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:High_Capacity_Color_Barcode.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"High Capacity Color Barcode of the URL for Wikipedia's article on High Capacity Color Barcode\" data-key=\"9db786be1a33ab075cfaf8e2b8b76f9f\"><img alt=\"High Capacity Color Barcode of the URL for Wikipedia's article on High Capacity Color Barcode\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/1\/16\/High_Capacity_Color_Barcode.png\/120px-High_Capacity_Color_Barcode.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"120\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\">High Capacity Color Barcode of the URL for Wikipedia's article on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/High_Capacity_Color_Barcode\" title=\"High Capacity Color Barcode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"44d15f4372c9ba607510b9007cd3718e\">High Capacity Color Barcode<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Dataglyph511140.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"&quot;Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia&quot; in several languages encoded in DataGlyphs\" data-key=\"e7850f1e74a2e6319f8f8143373fd32f\"><img alt=\"&quot;Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia&quot; in several languages encoded in DataGlyphs\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/92\/Dataglyph511140.png\/120px-Dataglyph511140.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"98\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\">\"Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia\" in several languages encoded in <\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:35mm_film_audio_macro.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"Two different 2D barcodes used in film: Dolby Digital between the sprocket holes with the &quot;Double-D&quot; logo in the middle, and Sony Dynamic Digital Sound in the blue area to the left of the sprocket holes\" data-key=\"67856b3138127d35657b4686b9b0b37c\"><img alt=\"Two different 2D barcodes used in film: Dolby Digital between the sprocket holes with the &quot;Double-D&quot; logo in the middle, and Sony Dynamic Digital Sound in the blue area to the left of the sprocket holes\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/1\/1d\/35mm_film_audio_macro.jpg\/120px-35mm_film_audio_macro.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"87\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\">Two different 2D barcodes used in film: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dolby_Digital\" title=\"Dolby Digital\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"67ff79f210c57270b1b6506ef858f2d0\">Dolby Digital<\/a> between the sprocket holes with the \"Double-D\" logo in the middle, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sony_Dynamic_Digital_Sound\" title=\"Sony Dynamic Digital Sound\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f0c3ceb92bd74c92223875fbeb5699e\">Sony Dynamic Digital Sound<\/a> in the blue area to the left of the sprocket holes<\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:WikiQRCode.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"The QR Code for the Wikipedia URL. &quot;Quick Response&quot;, the most popular 2D barcode. It is open in that the specification is disclosed and the patent is not exercised.[85]\" data-key=\"42fdbacc9157c70010d86ca05ca1de9e\"><img alt=\"The QR Code for the Wikipedia URL. &quot;Quick Response&quot;, the most popular 2D barcode. It is open in that the specification is disclosed and the patent is not exercised.[85]\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/1\/1d\/WikiQRCode.svg\/120px-WikiQRCode.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"120\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\">The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/QR_Code\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"QR Code\" data-key=\"fe1e6436e7c024095606b74293cbd082\">QR Code<\/a> for the Wikipedia URL. \"Quick Response\", the most popular 2D barcode. It is open in that the specification is disclosed and the patent is not exercised.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-85\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-85\">[85]<\/a><\/sup><\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:MaxiCode.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"MaxiCode example. This encodes the string &quot;Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia&quot;\" data-key=\"5e9ae980c539c0a5fefbda97dd080d00\"><img alt=\"MaxiCode example. This encodes the string &quot;Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia&quot;\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/b\/b4\/MaxiCode.svg\/120px-MaxiCode.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"115\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MaxiCode\" title=\"MaxiCode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0884c08172ad0ddb2789f225ca65a646\">MaxiCode<\/a> example. This encodes the string \"Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia\"<\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Shotcode.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"ShotCode sample\" data-key=\"9abb1460c626f141b1ef0c189d5e958a\"><img alt=\"ShotCode sample\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/7d\/Shotcode.png\/120px-Shotcode.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"120\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ShotCode\" title=\"ShotCode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"686b1b23e62087e69077760609ca9868\">ShotCode<\/a> sample<\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Twibright_Optar_Detail_Scanned.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"detail of Twibright Optar scan from laser printed paper, carrying 32 kbit\/s Ogg Vorbis digital music (48 seconds per A4 page)\" data-key=\"f9a51d47c7077a97824e3d82efaee9c8\"><img alt=\"detail of Twibright Optar scan from laser printed paper, carrying 32 kbit\/s Ogg Vorbis digital music (48 seconds per A4 page)\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/d\/d9\/Twibright_Optar_Detail_Scanned.png\/120px-Twibright_Optar_Detail_Scanned.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"120\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\">detail of scan from laser printed paper, carrying 32 kbit\/s Ogg Vorbis digital music (48 seconds per A4 page)<\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:KarTrak_code.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"A KarTrak railroad Automatic Equipment Identification label on a caboose in Florida\" data-key=\"2585784bfe91390fd1db10dbc48e4753\"><img alt=\"A KarTrak railroad Automatic Equipment Identification label on a caboose in Florida\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/b\/b3\/KarTrak_code.jpg\/120px-KarTrak_code.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"90\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\">A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/KarTrak\" title=\"KarTrak\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"819a7519d40face0f5012d5a4495d9dc\">KarTrak<\/a> railroad <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automatic_Equipment_Identification\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Automatic Equipment Identification\" data-key=\"6167dad0df6ce1452f6946262edeb435\">Automatic Equipment Identification<\/a> label on a caboose in Florida<\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"In_popular_culture\">In popular culture<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In architecture, a building in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lingang_New_City\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Lingang New City\" data-key=\"cf2bb97a13b268fd53d71965a9472f29\">Lingang New City<\/a> by German architects <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gerkan,_Marg_and_Partners\" title=\"Gerkan, Marg and Partners\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"639fc3aba5edb9ac17a557199426c36b\">Gerkan, Marg and Partners<\/a> incorporates a barcode design,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-86\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-86\">[86]<\/a><\/sup> as does a shopping mall called <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20111026031424\/http:\/\/www.marlen-dress.ru\/img\/schtrih-kod.jpg\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Shtrikh-kod<\/i><\/a> (Russian for <i>barcode<\/i>) in Narodnaya ulitsa (\"People's Street\") in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Administrative_divisions_of_Saint_Petersburg#Nevskiy_District\" title=\"Administrative divisions of Saint Petersburg\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b6dd68f5fcf93ac8ee55085ec686d48\">Nevskiy district<\/a> of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/St._Petersburg\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"St. Petersburg\" data-key=\"e5b32df602771c31d2eb35f830286380\">St. Petersburg<\/a>, Russia.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-87\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-87\">[87]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In media, in 2011, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_Film_Board_of_Canada\" title=\"National Film Board of Canada\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fbae8fac329dfe9cdf654b20b4184a4f\">National Film Board of Canada<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ARTE_France\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ARTE France\" data-key=\"d7f857eb5e14bd993ffb8d323c319dd6\">ARTE France<\/a> launched a web documentary entitled <i>Barcode.tv<\/i>, which allows users to view films about everyday objects by scanning the product's barcode with their <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IPhone\" title=\"IPhone\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0fbfa769f394b81468b61e051b5eafa7\">iPhone<\/a> camera.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NFB_blog_88-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NFB_blog-88\">[88]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Reelscreen_89-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Reelscreen-89\">[89]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Professional_wrestling\" title=\"Professional wrestling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d81bc55a9455e1b58dd6748495dbe0e5\">professional wrestling<\/a>, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/WWE\" title=\"WWE\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0661b554deb067a27dcbda81be1e8c65\">WWE<\/a> stable <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/D-Generation_X\" title=\"D-Generation X\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aa9d57971a38e429009396c51d92c652\">D-Generation X<\/a> incorporated a barcode into their entrance video, as well as on a T-shirt.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-90\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-90\">[90]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-91\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-91\">[91]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In the TV series <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dark_Angel_(2000_TV_series)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Dark Angel (2000 TV series)\" data-key=\"e5de6662739cf35dea2edd29a7ef327d\">Dark Angel<\/a><\/i>, the protagonist and the other <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transgenics\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Transgenics\" data-key=\"a196af49b32b8411e6cda370aa5c693f\">transgenics<\/a> in the Manticore X-series have barcodes on the back of their necks.\n<\/p><p>In video games, the protagonist of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hitman_(franchise)\" title=\"Hitman (franchise)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f5e7f886d8d5380111d6a9b62949b1a\"><i>Hitman<\/i> video game series<\/a> has a barcode tattoo on the back of his head; QR codes can also be scanned in a side mission in <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Watch_Dogs_(video_game)\" title=\"Watch Dogs (video game)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2bca44001fa50d9b9cd77ec5e4a24840\">Watch Dogs<\/a><\/i>.\n<\/p><p>The 2018 videogame <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Judgment_(video_game)\" title=\"Judgment (video game)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62b0e9ad768ada392caed995d51dcb35\">Judgment<\/a><\/i> features <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/QR_Code\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"QR Code\" data-key=\"fe1e6436e7c024095606b74293cbd082\">QR Codes<\/a> that protagonist Takayuki Yagami can photograph with his phone camera. These are mostly to unlock parts for Yagami's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/UAV\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"UAV\" data-key=\"12e2ce1fe700ea63b50d1c768701aac9\">Drone<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-92\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-92\">[92]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><p>In the films <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Back_to_the_Future_Part_II\" title=\"Back to the Future Part II\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"22e7e511b771e1bae6b44b837c6a30bb\">Back to the Future Part II<\/a><\/i> and <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Handmaid%27s_Tale_(film)\" title=\"The Handmaid's Tale (film)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b27136a005ec36997effe28b3ed6cc90\">The Handmaid's Tale<\/a><\/i>, cars in the future are depicted with barcode <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Licence_plate\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Licence plate\" data-key=\"d0379d4db1215391432450e6e64d2aef\">licence plates<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>In the <i>Terminator<\/i> films, Skynet burns barcodes onto the inside surface of the wrists of captive humans (in a similar location to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Identification_of_inmates_in_German_concentration_camps\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Identification of inmates in German concentration camps\" data-key=\"0660f6e7a0c858e8079b39c8d7896816\">WW2 concentration camp tattoos<\/a>) as a unique identifier.\n<\/p><p>In music, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dave_Davies\" title=\"Dave Davies\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce55e4f337988e9c7d5cf1910316ef37\">Dave Davies<\/a> of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Kinks\" title=\"The Kinks\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0f67ab694d9f079f84a905862151f350\">the Kinks<\/a> released a solo album in 1980, <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AFL1-3603\" title=\"AFL1-3603\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"33227fc146b61b6a33a27060c4930d1a\">AFL1-3603<\/a><\/i>, which featured a giant barcode on the front cover in place of the musician's head. The album's name was also the barcode number.\n<\/p><p>The April 1978 issue of <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mad_Magazine\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Mad Magazine\" data-key=\"2d224b00a376b15b35ffb2d05994e083\">Mad Magazine<\/a><\/i> featured a giant barcode on the cover, with the blurb \"[Mad] Hopes this issue jams up every computer in the country...for forcing us to deface our covers with this yecchy UPC symbol from now on!\"\n<\/p><p>Interactive Textbooks were first published by <i>Harcourt College Publishers to Expand Education Technology with Interactive Textbooks.<\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-93\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-93\">[93]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Designed_barcodes\">Designed barcodes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Some brands integrate custom designs into barcodes (while keeping them readable) on their consumer products.\n<\/p>\n<ul class=\"gallery mw-gallery-traditional centered\">\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Design_Barcode_Grasvodka_IMG_5574.JPG\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"ec73321f6532df8a1a1c44bd567204bc\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/4\/42\/Design_Barcode_Grasvodka_IMG_5574.JPG\/116px-Design_Barcode_Grasvodka_IMG_5574.JPG\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"116\" height=\"120\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\"><\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Barcode_Tall_Horse1.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"305fd0979de113d0fb6aa756ab1a904f\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/4\/45\/Barcode_Tall_Horse1.jpg\/120px-Barcode_Tall_Horse1.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"102\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\"><\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:H%C3%BChner-Bouillon_K_Designbarcode_4337185009907_IMG_8716.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"85a6290d1bd960a20e65a3dc83bd4128\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/a\/ad\/H%C3%BChner-Bouillon_K_Designbarcode_4337185009907_IMG_8716.jpg\/115px-H%C3%BChner-Bouillon_K_Designbarcode_4337185009907_IMG_8716.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"115\" height=\"120\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\"><\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Sardinendose_K_Barcode_Art_valid_IMG11829.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"1e2a2986e309dbc9fa9c1e962764a1e4\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/98\/Sardinendose_K_Barcode_Art_valid_IMG11829.jpg\/120px-Sardinendose_K_Barcode_Art_valid_IMG11829.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"78\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\"><\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Barcode_peanut.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"53d61cc9648d9e77868baf7a11d11366\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/6\/63\/Barcode_peanut.jpg\/120px-Barcode_peanut.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"108\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\"><\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Hoaxes_about_barcodes\">Hoaxes about barcodes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>There was minor skepticism from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conspiracy_theory\" title=\"Conspiracy theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f177ec8b058ebe08167b37d49a33d88d\">conspiracy theorists<\/a>, who considered barcodes to be an intrusive <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Surveillance\" title=\"Surveillance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b2e3ae2beab3ec421b301bf765e28f8\">surveillance<\/a> technology, and from some Christians, pioneered by a 1982 book <i>The New Money System 666<\/i> by Mary Stewart Relfe, who thought the codes hid the number <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/666_(number)\" title=\"666 (number)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c74ccbd17df6264dd5298f0126c23698\">666<\/a>, representing the \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Number_of_the_beast\" title=\"Number of the beast\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"57055fc0bbdfde86a88da74e1396c0a8\">Number of the Beast<\/a>\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-94\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-94\">[94]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Old_Believers\" title=\"Old Believers\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b7d84e78a608b1afcbbf5067592f7b2\">Old Believers<\/a>, a separation of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Russian_Orthodox_Church\" title=\"Russian Orthodox Church\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"483cc264eccd11e6ea2a8857466ef24d\">Russian Orthodox Church<\/a>, believe barcodes are the stamp of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Antichrist\" title=\"Antichrist\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f84346b245a643597b21104a9a319f92\">Antichrist<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-95\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-95\">[95]<\/a><\/sup> Television host <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Phil_Donahue\" title=\"Phil Donahue\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c1f189858cda248441f836d6bda32483\">Phil Donahue<\/a> described barcodes as a \"corporate plot against consumers\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-96\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-96\">[96]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"div-col\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_identification_and_data_capture\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Automated identification and data capture\" data-key=\"6a095044168dde4006e55605a3f7de37\">Automated identification and data capture<\/a> (AIDC)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Barcode_printer\" title=\"Barcode printer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7f2b81c93aa735f7f7030cbd58ebd10\">Barcode printer<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Campus_card\" title=\"Campus card\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d29320af2dc49856351f027a277d2120\">Campus card<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Article_Numbering-Uniform_Code_Council\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"European Article Numbering-Uniform Code Council\" data-key=\"390bd02266a91a8ee74dee6a4faacc84\">European Article Numbering-Uniform Code Council<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Global_Trade_Item_Number\" title=\"Global Trade Item Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c449fd1f47ef95fec97a3bbe78324264\">Global Trade Item Number<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Identifier\" title=\"Identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"13703cbb128e47888d8a4a075f5e6e19\">Identifier<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventory_control_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Inventory control system\" data-key=\"c100e52ca72ad41779d2ff7340fab909\">Inventory control system<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Object_hyperlinking\" title=\"Object hyperlinking\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"859375ca10778e7bc9425e63878d90cc\">Object hyperlinking<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semacode\" title=\"Semacode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6cc98e88e6ca4c9765eeee54bc7d6d4c\">Semacode<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SPARQCode\" title=\"SPARQCode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62a08d1b7cfe6a71fd9fc15e669d7395\">SPARQCode<\/a> (QR code)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_GS1_country_codes\" title=\"List of GS1 country codes\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"24eab7d306b9770e6b6df4039e1bacb5\">List of GS1 country codes<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist reflist-columns references-column-width\" style=\"column-width: 30em;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-patent-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-patent_1-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-patent_1-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation patent\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/worldwide.espacenet.com\/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2612994\" target=\"_blank\">US patent 2612994<\/a><\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Apatent&amp;rft.number=2612994&amp;rft.cc=US&amp;rft.title=\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190605080136\/https:\/\/www.stuffyoushouldknow.com\/podcasts\/how-barcodes-work.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"How Barcodes Work\"<\/a>. <i>Stuff You Should Know<\/i>. 4 June 2019. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.stuffyoushouldknow.com\/podcasts\/how-barcodes-work.htm\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 5 June 2019<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">5 June<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Stuff+You+Should+Know&amp;rft.atitle=How+Barcodes+Work&amp;rft.date=2019-06-04&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.stuffyoushouldknow.com%2Fpodcasts%2Fhow-barcodes-work.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Cranstone-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Cranstone_3-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Cranstone_3-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCranstone\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Cranstone, Ian. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nakina.net\/other\/aci\/aci.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"A guide to ACI (Automatic Car Identification)\/KarTrak\"<\/a>. <i>Canadian Freight Cars A resource page for the Canadian Freight Car Enthusiast<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110827124711\/http:\/\/www.nakina.net\/other\/aci\/aci.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 27 August 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 May<\/span> 2013<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Canadian+Freight+Cars+A+resource+page+for+the+Canadian+Freight+Car+Enthusiast&amp;rft.atitle=A+guide+to+ACI+%28Automatic+Car+Identification%29%2FKarTrak&amp;rft.aulast=Cranstone&amp;rft.aufirst=Ian&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nakina.net%2Fother%2Faci%2Faci.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Keyes-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Keyes_4-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKeyes2003\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Keyes, John (22 August 2003). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140310153027\/http:\/\/johnkeyes.com\/2003\/08\/kartrak\" target=\"_blank\">\"KarTrak\"<\/a>. <i>John Keyes Boston photoblogger. Images from Boston, New England, and beyond<\/i>. John Keyes. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/johnkeyes.com\/2003\/08\/kartrak\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 10 March 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 May<\/span> 2013<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=John+Keyes+Boston+photoblogger.+Images+from+Boston%2C+New+England%2C+and+beyond.&amp;rft.atitle=KarTrak&amp;rft.date=2003-08-22&amp;rft.aulast=Keyes&amp;rft.aufirst=John&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjohnkeyes.com%2F2003%2F08%2Fkartrak&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RobertsNYT-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-RobertsNYT_5-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-RobertsNYT_5-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRoberts2019\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Roberts, Sam (11 December 2019). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2019\/12\/11\/technology\/george-laurer-dead.html?searchResultPosition=1\" target=\"_blank\">\"George Laurer, Who Developed the Bar Code, Is Dead at 94\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_New_York_Times\" title=\"The New York Times\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"623c682760636b635e0bd6f2cf164389\">The New York Times<\/a><\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200622055851\/https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2019\/12\/11\/technology\/george-laurer-dead.html?searchResultPosition=1\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 22 June 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">13 December<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&amp;rft.atitle=George+Laurer%2C+Who+Developed+the+Bar+Code%2C+Is+Dead+at+94&amp;rft.date=2019-12-11&amp;rft.aulast=Roberts&amp;rft.aufirst=Sam&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2019%2F12%2F11%2Ftechnology%2Fgeorge-laurer-dead.html%3FsearchResultPosition%3D1&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:1-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:1_6-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:1_6-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBrown2023\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Brown, Derrick (19 January 2023). \"Birth of the Barcode: a talk given to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_Conservation_Society\" title=\"Computer Conservation Society\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9da320b96dd44bd0f30eace9f8b25c44\">Computer Conservation Society<\/a>\".<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Birth+of+the+Barcode%3A+a+talk+given+to+the+Computer+Conservation+Society&amp;rft.date=2023-01-19&amp;rft.aulast=Brown&amp;rft.aufirst=Derrick&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-7\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFFox2011\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Fox, Margalit (15 June 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2011\/06\/16\/business\/16haberman.html?_r=1&hp&gwh=7657EAA31B3069C9E728CC93FD2695E8\" target=\"_blank\">\"Alan Haberman, Who Ushered in the Bar Code, Dies at 81\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_New_York_Times\" title=\"The New York Times\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"623c682760636b635e0bd6f2cf164389\">The New York Times<\/a><\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170624163459\/http:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2011\/06\/16\/business\/16haberman.html?_r=1&hp&gwh=7657EAA31B3069C9E728CC93FD2695E8\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 24 June 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 February<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&amp;rft.atitle=Alan+Haberman%2C+Who+Ushered+in+the+Bar+Code%2C+Dies+at+81&amp;rft.date=2011-06-15&amp;rft.aulast=Fox&amp;rft.aufirst=Margalit&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2011%2F06%2F16%2Fbusiness%2F16haberman.html%3F_r%3D1%26hp%26gwh%3D7657EAA31B3069C9E728CC93FD2695E8&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-8\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFG._F.2017\" class=\"citation news cs1\">G. F. (2 November 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.economist.com\/blogs\/economist-explains\/2017\/11\/economist-explains-0\" target=\"_blank\">\"Why QR codes are on the rise\"<\/a>. <i>The Economist<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180205184837\/https:\/\/www.economist.com\/blogs\/economist-explains\/2017\/11\/economist-explains-0\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 5 February 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">5 February<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Economist&amp;rft.atitle=Why+QR+codes+are+on+the+rise&amp;rft.date=2017-11-02&amp;rft.au=G.+F.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fblogs%2Feconomist-explains%2F2017%2F11%2Feconomist-explains-0&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-9\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFFishman2001\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Fishman, Charles (1 August 2001). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100112043409\/http:\/\/www.americanwaymag.com\/so-woodland-bar-code-bernard-silver-drexel-university\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Killer App \u2013 Bar None\"<\/a>. <i>American Way<\/i>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.americanwaymag.com\/so-woodland-bar-code-bernard-silver-drexel-university\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 12 January 2010<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 April<\/span> 2010<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=American+Way&amp;rft.atitle=The+Killer+App+%E2%80%93+Bar+None&amp;rft.date=2001-08-01&amp;rft.aulast=Fishman&amp;rft.aufirst=Charles&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanwaymag.com%2Fso-woodland-bar-code-bernard-silver-drexel-university&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-story-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-story_10-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-story_10-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-story_10-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-story_10-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-story_10-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-story_10-5\"><sup><i><b>f<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSeideman1993\" class=\"citation cs2\">Seideman, Tony (Spring 1993), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161016084435\/http:\/\/www.bar-code.com\/upc\/bar_code_history.php\" target=\"_blank\">\"Barcodes Sweep the World\"<\/a>, <i>Wonders of Modern Technology<\/i>, archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.bar-code.com\/upc\/bar_code_history.php\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 16 October 2016<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Wonders+of+Modern+Technology&amp;rft.atitle=Barcodes+Sweep+the+World&amp;rft.ssn=spring&amp;rft.date=1993&amp;rft.aulast=Seideman&amp;rft.aufirst=Tony&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bar-code.com%2Fupc%2Fbar_code_history.php&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-11\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDunn2015\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Dunn, Peter (20 October 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.technologyreview.com\/s\/601032\/david-collins-sm-59\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"David Collins, SM '59: Making his mark on the world with bar codes\"<\/a>. <i>technologyreview.com<\/i>. MIT. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20181110013152\/https:\/\/www.technologyreview.com\/s\/601032\/david-collins-sm-59\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 10 November 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2 December<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=technologyreview.com&amp;rft.atitle=David+Collins%2C+SM+%2759%3A+Making+his+mark+on+the+world+with+bar+codes&amp;rft.date=2015-10-20&amp;rft.aulast=Dunn&amp;rft.aufirst=Peter&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.technologyreview.com%2Fs%2F601032%2Fdavid-collins-sm-59%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-12\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGraham-White1999\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Graham-White, Sean (August 1999). \"Do You Know Where Your Boxcar Is?\". <i>Trains<\/i>. <b>59<\/b> (8): 48\u201353.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Trains&amp;rft.atitle=Do+You+Know+Where+Your+Boxcar+Is%3F&amp;rft.volume=59&amp;rft.issue=8&amp;rft.pages=48-53&amp;rft.date=1999-08&amp;rft.aulast=Graham-White&amp;rft.aufirst=Sean&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-13\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLaurer\" class=\"citation web cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/George_Laurer\" title=\"George Laurer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"76a5483d8849bbf1042f7a416e6a9d96\">Laurer, George<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20080925105745\/http:\/\/bellsouthpwp.net\/l\/a\/laurergj\/UPC\/upc_work.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Development of the U.P.C. Symbol\"<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/bellsouthpwp.net\/l\/a\/laurergj\/UPC\/upc_work.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 25 September 2008.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Development+of+the+U.P.C.+Symbol&amp;rft.aulast=Laurer&amp;rft.aufirst=George&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbellsouthpwp.net%2Fl%2Fa%2Flaurergj%2FUPC%2Fupc_work.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Nelson-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Nelson_14-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFNelson1997\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Nelson, Benjamin (1997). <i>Punched Cards To Bar Codes: A 200-year journey<\/i>. Peterborough, N.H.: Helmers. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780911261127<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Punched+Cards+To+Bar+Codes%3A+A+200-year+journey&amp;rft.place=Peterborough%2C+N.H.&amp;rft.pub=Helmers&amp;rft.date=1997&amp;rft.isbn=9780911261127&amp;rft.aulast=Nelson&amp;rft.aufirst=Benjamin&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Varchaver-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Varchaver_15-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Varchaver_15-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFVarchaver2004\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Varchaver, Nicholas (31 May 2004). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/money.cnn.com\/magazines\/fortune\/fortune_archive\/2004\/05\/31\/370719\/index.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Scanning the Globe\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fortune_(magazine)\" title=\"Fortune (magazine)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef8ee87f565dde9aafbc2b149d7b70f8\">Fortune<\/a><\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20061114065720\/https:\/\/money.cnn.com\/magazines\/fortune\/fortune_archive\/2004\/05\/31\/370719\/index.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 14 November 2006<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">27 November<\/span> 2006<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Fortune&amp;rft.atitle=Scanning+the+Globe&amp;rft.date=2004-05-31&amp;rft.aulast=Varchaver&amp;rft.aufirst=Nicholas&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmoney.cnn.com%2Fmagazines%2Ffortune%2Ffortune_archive%2F2004%2F05%2F31%2F370719%2Findex.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Selmeier-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Selmeier_16-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Selmeier_16-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSelmeier2009\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Selmeier, Bill (2009). <i>Spreading the Barcode<\/i>. Lulu. pp.&#160;26, 214, 236, 238, 244, 245, 236, 238, 244, 245. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-578-02417-2<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Spreading+the+Barcode&amp;rft.pages=26%2C+214%2C+236%2C+238%2C+244%2C+245%2C+236%2C+238%2C+244%2C+245&amp;rft.pub=Lulu&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-578-02417-2&amp;rft.aulast=Selmeier&amp;rft.aufirst=Bill&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRawsthorn2010\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Rawsthorn, Alice (23 February 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2010\/02\/28\/t-magazine\/womens-fashion\/28talk-rawsthorn.html?_r=0\" target=\"_blank\">\"Scan Artists\"<\/a>. <i>New York Times<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161118202704\/http:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2010\/02\/28\/t-magazine\/womens-fashion\/28talk-rawsthorn.html?_r=0\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 18 November 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 July<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&amp;rft.atitle=Scan+Artists&amp;rft.date=2010-02-23&amp;rft.aulast=Rawsthorn&amp;rft.aufirst=Alice&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2010%2F02%2F28%2Ft-magazine%2Fwomens-fashion%2F28talk-rawsthorn.html%3F_r%3D0&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-18\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.fullyloaded.com.au\/news\/logistics\/1407\/world-hails-barcode-on-important-birthday\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"World hails barcode on important birthday\"<\/a>. <i>ATN<\/i>. 1 July 2014. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140723051540\/http:\/\/www.fullyloaded.com.au\/news\/logistics\/1407\/world-hails-barcode-on-important-birthday\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 23 July 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">15 February<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=ATN&amp;rft.atitle=World+hails+barcode+on+important+birthday&amp;rft.date=2014-07-01&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fullyloaded.com.au%2Fnews%2Flogistics%2F1407%2Fworld-hails-barcode-on-important-birthday%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-19\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.adams1.com\/history.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Short History of Bar Code\"<\/a>. <i>BarCode 1<\/i>. Adams Communications. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100502072956\/http:\/\/www.adams1.com\/history.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2 May 2010<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">28 November<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=BarCode+1&amp;rft.atitle=A+Short+History+of+Bar+Code&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.adams1.com%2Fhistory.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-20\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/iwatchsystems.com\/technical\/2011\/05\/02\/barcode\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Barcode\"<\/a>. <i>iWatch Systems<\/i>. 2 May 2011. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120109011439\/http:\/\/iwatchsystems.com\/technical\/2011\/05\/02\/barcode\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 9 January 2012<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">28 November<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=iWatch+Systems&amp;rft.atitle=Barcode&amp;rft.date=2011-05-02&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fiwatchsystems.com%2Ftechnical%2F2011%2F05%2F02%2Fbarcode%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-21\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFOberfield\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Oberfield, Craig. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.qnotes.com\/quix\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"QNotes Barcode System\"<\/a>. <i>US Patented #5296688<\/i>. Quick Notes Inc. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20121231170857\/http:\/\/qnotes.com\/quix\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 31 December 2012<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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(March 2001). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130603223227\/http:\/\/turing.plymouth.edu\/~wjt\/HCI\/ui2.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Printed Embedded Data Graphical User Interfaces\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IEEE_Computer\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"IEEE Computer\" data-key=\"f03ff32f15cb440e40b1288be5d96b79\">IEEE Computer<\/a><\/i>. Xerox Palo Alto Research Center. <b>34<\/b> (3): 47\u201355. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2F2.910893\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/2.910893<\/a>. 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IATA.org. 21 November 2011. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120104081606\/http:\/\/www1.iata.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 4 January 2012<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">28 November<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=IATA.org&amp;rft.pub=IATA.org&amp;rft.date=2011-11-21&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iata.org%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-26\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/primepuzzle.com\/waduzitdo\/waduzitdo.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Paperbyte Bar Codes for Waduzitdo\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Byte_(magazine)\" title=\"Byte (magazine)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0fe510a0aa400b675c514e3d86b212bc\">Byte magazine<\/a><\/i>. September 1978. p.&#160;172. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170704113826\/http:\/\/primepuzzle.com\/waduzitdo\/waduzitdo.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 4 July 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">6 February<\/span> 2009<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Byte+magazine&amp;rft.atitle=Paperbyte+Bar+Codes+for+Waduzitdo&amp;rft.pages=172&amp;rft.date=1978-09&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fprimepuzzle.com%2Fwaduzitdo%2Fwaduzitdo.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-27\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110714030851\/http:\/\/europe.nokia.com\/support\/product-support\/nokia-n80\/phone-software\/smartphone\" target=\"_blank\">\"Nokia N80 Support\"<\/a>. <i>Nokia Europe<\/i>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/europe.nokia.com\/support\/product-support\/nokia-n80\/phone-software\/smartphone\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 14 July 2011.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Nokia+Europe&amp;rft.atitle=Nokia+N80+Support&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feurope.nokia.com%2Fsupport%2Fproduct-support%2Fnokia-n80%2Fphone-software%2Fsmartphone&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-28\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/maemo.org\/packages\/view\/mbarcode\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"package overview for mbarcode\"<\/a>. Maemo.org. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190407120644\/http:\/\/maemo.org\/packages\/view\/mbarcode\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 7 April 2019<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">1 October<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=How+to+use+QR+codes+in+iOS+11&amp;rft.pub=iMore&amp;rft.date=2017-09-24&amp;rft.aulast=Sargent&amp;rft.aufirst=Mikah&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.imore.com%2Fhow-use-qr-codes-ios-11&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-30\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iphoneness.com\/iphone-apps\/5-best-barcode-iphone-applications\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"15+ Best Barcode Scanner iPhone Applications\"<\/a>. <i>iPhoneness<\/i>. 3 March 2017. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171002120130\/https:\/\/www.iphoneness.com\/iphone-apps\/5-best-barcode-iphone-applications\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2 October 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">1 October<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=iPhoneness&amp;rft.atitle=15%2B+Best+Barcode+Scanner+iPhone+Applications&amp;rft.date=2017-03-03&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iphoneness.com%2Fiphone-apps%2F5-best-barcode-iphone-applications%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-31\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDavid2018\" class=\"citation cs2\">David, H (28 November 2018), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labelingnews.com\/2018\/11\/barcodes-validation-vs-verification-in-gs1\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Barcodes \u2013 Validation vs Verification in GS1\"<\/a>, <i>Labeling News<\/i>, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200607173051\/http:\/\/www.labelingnews.com\/2018\/11\/barcodes-validation-vs-verification-in-gs1\/\" target=\"_blank\">archived<\/a> from the original on 7 June 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">6 June<\/span> 2020<\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Labeling+News&amp;rft.atitle=Barcodes+%E2%80%93+Validation+vs+Verification+in+GS1&amp;rft.date=2018-11-28&amp;rft.aulast=David&amp;rft.aufirst=H&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.labelingnews.com%2F2018%2F11%2Fbarcodes-validation-vs-verification-in-gs1%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-32\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160910162109\/http:\/\/www.bar-code.com\/verifiers\/LaymansGuidetoANSI.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Layman's Guide to ANSI, CEN, and ISO Barcode Print Quality Documents\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. 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Retailer compliance initiatives can lead to efficiency\"<\/a>. <i>Frontline Solutions<\/i>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/findarticles.com\/p\/articles\/mi_m0DIS\/is_10_4\/ai_109518393\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 8 July 2012.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Frontline+Solutions&amp;rft.atitle=Retailer+chargebacks%3A+is+there+an+upside%3F+Retailer+compliance+initiatives+can+lead+to+efficiency&amp;rft.date=2003-10&amp;rft.aulast=Zieger&amp;rft.aufirst=Anne&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffindarticles.com%2Fp%2Farticles%2Fmi_m0DIS%2Fis_10_4%2Fai_109518393%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:3-34\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:3_34-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:3_34-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:3_34-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:3_34-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:3_34-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:3_34-5\"><sup><i><b>f<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:3_34-6\"><sup><i><b>g<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:3_34-7\"><sup><i><b>h<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:3_34-8\"><sup><i><b>i<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:3_34-9\"><sup><i><b>j<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:3_34-10\"><sup><i><b>k<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:3_34-11\"><sup><i><b>l<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCorp\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Corp, Express. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.expresscorp.com\/Barcode-Glossary\" target=\"_blank\">\"Barcode Glossary | Express\"<\/a>. <i>Express Corp<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20191211231342\/https:\/\/www.expresscorp.com\/Barcode-Glossary\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 11 December 2019<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">11 December<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Express+Corp&amp;rft.atitle=Barcode+Glossary+%7C+Express&amp;rft.aulast=Corp&amp;rft.aufirst=Express&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.expresscorp.com%2FBarcode-Glossary&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-35\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-35\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBar_Code_Verification_Best_Practice_work_team2010\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Bar Code Verification Best Practice work team (May 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gs1.org\/docs\/barcodes\/GS1_DataMatrix_Introduction_and_technical_overview.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"GS1 DataMatrix: An introduction and technical overview of the most advanced GS1 Application Identifiers compliant symbology\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Global Standards 1<\/i>. <b>1<\/b> (17): 34\u201336. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110720135555\/http:\/\/www.gs1.org\/docs\/barcodes\/GS1_DataMatrix_Introduction_and_technical_overview.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 20 July 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2 August<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Global+Standards+1&amp;rft.atitle=GS1+DataMatrix%3A+An+introduction+and+technical+overview+of+the+most+advanced+GS1+Application+Identifiers+compliant+symbology&amp;rft.volume=1&amp;rft.issue=17&amp;rft.pages=34-36&amp;rft.date=2010-05&amp;rft.au=Bar+Code+Verification+Best+Practice+work+team&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gs1.org%2Fdocs%2Fbarcodes%2FGS1_DataMatrix_Introduction_and_technical_overview.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-36\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-36\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGS1_Bar_Code_Verification_Best_Practice_work_team2009\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">GS1 Bar Code Verification Best Practice work team (May 2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gs1.org\/docs\/barcodes\/GS1_Bar_Code_Verification.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"GS1 Bar Code Verification for Linear Symbols\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Global Standards 1<\/i>. <b>4<\/b> (3): 23\u201332. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110927053101\/http:\/\/www.gs1.org\/docs\/barcodes\/GS1_Bar_Code_Verification.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 27 September 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2 August<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Global+Standards+1&amp;rft.atitle=GS1+Bar+Code+Verification+for+Linear+Symbols&amp;rft.volume=4&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=23-32&amp;rft.date=2009-05&amp;rft.au=GS1+Bar+Code+Verification+Best+Practice+work+team&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gs1.org%2Fdocs%2Fbarcodes%2FGS1_Bar_Code_Verification.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_journal\" title=\"Template:Cite journal\">cite journal<\/a>}}<\/code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c038bc1c366392c430552d4d7ede182e\">link<\/a>)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-37\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGarner2019\" class=\"citation cs2\">Garner, J (2019), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.osti.gov\/servlets\/purl\/1524857\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Results of Data Matrix Barcode Testing for Field Applications<\/i><\/a>, Oak Ridge National Laboratory<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">6 June<\/span> 2020<\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Results+of+Data+Matrix+Barcode+Testing+for+Field+Applications&amp;rft.pub=Oak+Ridge+National+Laboratory&amp;rft.date=2019&amp;rft.aulast=Garner&amp;rft.aufirst=J&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.osti.gov%2Fservlets%2Fpurl%2F1524857&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-38\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/iso_technical_committee.html?commid=45332\" target=\"_blank\">\"Technical committees \u2013 JTC 1\/SC 31 \u2013 Automatic identification and data capture techniques\"<\/a>. ISO. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20111018171042\/http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/iso_technical_committee.html?commid=45332\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 18 October 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">28 November<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Technical+committees+%E2%80%93+JTC+1%2FSC+31+%E2%80%93+Automatic+identification+and+data+capture+techniques&amp;rft.pub=ISO&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fiso%2Fiso_technical_committee.html%3Fcommid%3D45332&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-39\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-39\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHarmonAdams1989\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Harmon, Craig K.; Adams, Russ (1989). <i>Reading Between The Lines:An Introduction to Bar Code Technology<\/i>. Peterborough, NH: Helmers. p.&#160;13. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>0-911261-00-1<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Reading+Between+The+Lines%3AAn+Introduction+to+Bar+Code+Technology&amp;rft.place=Peterborough%2C+NH&amp;rft.pages=13&amp;rft.pub=Helmers&amp;rft.date=1989&amp;rft.isbn=0-911261-00-1&amp;rft.aulast=Harmon&amp;rft.aufirst=Craig+K.&amp;rft.au=Adams%2C+Russ&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-40\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-40\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/auspost.com.au\/content\/dam\/auspost_corp\/media\/documents\/barcoding-fact-sheet-oct14.pdf%7CAustralia\" target=\"_blank\">Post: Barcoding fact sheet<\/a>, Oct. 2014<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2-Dimensional_Bar_Code_Page-41\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-2-Dimensional_Bar_Code_Page_41-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-2-Dimensional_Bar_Code_Page_41-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.adams1.com\/stack.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"2-Dimensional Bar Code Page\"<\/a>. <i>www.adams1.com<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110707082929\/http:\/\/www.adams1.com\/stack.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 7 July 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">12 January<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=www.gomaro.ch&amp;rft.atitle=Code+16K+Specs&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gomaro.ch%2Fftproot%2FCode%252016k.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-43\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-43\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBoone2020\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Boone, Peter (13 November 2020). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/boonepeter.github.io\/posts\/2020-11-10-spotify-codes\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"How do Spotify Codes work?\"<\/a>. <i>boonepeter.github.io<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20230503163202\/https:\/\/boonepeter.github.io\/posts\/2020-11-10-spotify-codes\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 3 May 2023<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">3 May<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=boonepeter.github.io&amp;rft.atitle=How+do+Spotify+Codes+work%3F&amp;rft.date=2020-11-13&amp;rft.aulast=Boone&amp;rft.aufirst=Peter&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fboonepeter.github.io%2Fposts%2F2020-11-10-spotify-codes%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-44\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-44\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/social.techcrunch.com\/2017\/05\/05\/spotify-codes\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Scan these new QR-style Spotify Codes to instantly play a song\"<\/a>. <i>TechCrunch<\/i>. 5 May 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 August<\/span> 2022<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=TechCrunch&amp;rft.atitle=Scan+these+new+QR-style+Spotify+Codes+to+instantly+play+a+song&amp;rft.date=2017-05-05&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsocial.techcrunch.com%2F2017%2F05%2F05%2Fspotify-codes%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-45\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-45\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/developer.apple.com\/documentation\/app_clips\/creating_app_clip_codes?language=objc\" target=\"_blank\">\"Creating App Clip Codes\"<\/a>. <i>Apple Developer Documentation<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Apple+Developer+Documentation&amp;rft.atitle=Creating+App+Clip+Codes&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdeveloper.apple.com%2Fdocumentation%2Fapp_clips%2Fcreating_app_clip_codes%3Flanguage%3Dobjc&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-46\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-46\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#%7B%22urlQrCode%22%3A%22https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FBarcode%22%2C%22hideUiEnabled%22%3Afalse%7D\">\"<span class=\"cs1-kern-left\"><\/span>\"AR Code Generator\"<span class=\"cs1-kern-right\"><\/span>\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#%7B%22urlQrCode%22%3A%22https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FBarcode%22%2C%22hideUiEnabled%22%3Afalse%7D\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 10 June 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">29 April<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=%22AR+Code+Generator%22&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjeromeetienne.github.io%2FAR.js%2Fthree.js%2Fexamples%2Farcode.html%23%257B%2522urlQrCode%2522%253A%2522https%253A%252F%252Fen.wikipedia.org%252Fwiki%252FBarcode%2522%252C%2522hideUiEnabled%2522%253Afalse%257D&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-47\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-47\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGernatRaoMiddendorfDankowicz2018\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Gernat, Tim; Rao, Vikyath D.; Middendorf, Martin; Dankowicz, Harry; Goldenfeld, Nigel; Robinson, Gene E. (13 February 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5816157\" target=\"_blank\">\"Automated monitoring of behavior reveals bursty interaction patterns and rapid spreading dynamics in honeybee social networks\"<\/a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences<\/i>. <b>115<\/b> (7): 1433\u20131438. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2018PNAS..115.1433G\" target=\"_blank\">2018PNAS..115.1433G<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073%2Fpnas.1713568115\" target=\"_blank\">10.1073\/pnas.1713568115<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0027-8424\" target=\"_blank\">0027-8424<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5816157\" target=\"_blank\">5816157<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/29378954\" target=\"_blank\">29378954<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&amp;rft.atitle=Automated+monitoring+of+behavior+reveals+bursty+interaction+patterns+and+rapid+spreading+dynamics+in+honeybee+social+networks&amp;rft.volume=115&amp;rft.issue=7&amp;rft.pages=1433-1438&amp;rft.date=2018-02-13&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5816157%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018PNAS..115.1433G&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29378954&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1713568115&amp;rft.issn=0027-8424&amp;rft.aulast=Gernat&amp;rft.aufirst=Tim&amp;rft.au=Rao%2C+Vikyath+D.&amp;rft.au=Middendorf%2C+Martin&amp;rft.au=Dankowicz%2C+Harry&amp;rft.au=Goldenfeld%2C+Nigel&amp;rft.au=Robinson%2C+Gene+E.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5816157&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-48\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-48\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCombesMountcastleGravishCrall2015\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Combes, Stacey A.; Mountcastle, Andrew M.; Gravish, Nick; Crall, James D. (2 September 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC4558030\" target=\"_blank\">\"BEEtag: A Low-Cost, Image-Based Tracking System for the Study of Animal Behavior and Locomotion\"<\/a>. <i>PLOS ONE<\/i>. <b>10<\/b> (9): e0136487. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2015PLoSO..1036487C\" target=\"_blank\">2015PLoSO..1036487C<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0136487\" target=\"_blank\">10.1371\/journal.pone.0136487<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1932-6203\" target=\"_blank\">1932-6203<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC4558030\" target=\"_blank\">4558030<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/26332211\" target=\"_blank\">26332211<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&amp;rft.atitle=BEEtag%3A+A+Low-Cost%2C+Image-Based+Tracking+System+for+the+Study+of+Animal+Behavior+and+Locomotion&amp;rft.volume=10&amp;rft.issue=9&amp;rft.pages=e0136487&amp;rft.date=2015-09-02&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4558030%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015PLoSO..1036487C&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26332211&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0136487&amp;rft.issn=1932-6203&amp;rft.aulast=Combes&amp;rft.aufirst=Stacey+A.&amp;rft.au=Mountcastle%2C+Andrew+M.&amp;rft.au=Gravish%2C+Nick&amp;rft.au=Crall%2C+James+D.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4558030&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-49\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-49\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/github.com\/piql\/boxing\" target=\"_blank\">\"GitHub - piql\/Boxing: High capacity 2D barcode format\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GitHub\" title=\"GitHub\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1d117079b531cc0208769e0cee3597eb\">GitHub<\/a><\/i>. 4 November 2021. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20201221234210\/https:\/\/github.com\/piql\/boxing\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 21 December 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 March<\/span> 2021<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=GitHub&amp;rft.atitle=GitHub+-+piql%2FBoxing%3A+High+capacity+2D+barcode+format&amp;rft.date=2021-11-04&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgithub.com%2Fpiql%2Fboxing&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-50\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-50\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAdams2009\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Adams, Russ (15 June 2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.adams1.com\/stack.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"2-Dimensional Bar Code Page\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110707082929\/http:\/\/www.adams1.com\/stack.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 7 July 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">6 June<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=2-Dimensional+Bar+Code+Page&amp;rft.date=2009-06-15&amp;rft.aulast=Adams&amp;rft.aufirst=Russ&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.adams1.com%2Fstack.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-51\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-51\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.colorzip.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Colorzip.com\"<\/a>. Colorzip.com. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141216204205\/http:\/\/colorzip.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 16 December 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">28 November<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Colorzip.com&amp;rft.pub=Colorzip.com&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.colorzip.com%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-52\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-52\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/adverlab.blogspot.com\/2006\/01\/barcodes-for-tv-commercials.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Barcodes for TV Commercials\"<\/a>. Adverlab. 31 January 2006. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20091208143758\/http:\/\/adverlab.blogspot.com\/2006\/01\/barcodes-for-tv-commercials.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 8 December 2009<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">10 June<\/span> 2009<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Barcodes+for+TV+Commercials&amp;rft.pub=Adverlab&amp;rft.date=2006-01-31&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fadverlab.blogspot.com%2F2006%2F01%2Fbarcodes-for-tv-commercials.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-53\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-53\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120829213507\/http:\/\/www.colourcodetech.com\/about.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"About\"<\/a>. Colour Code Technologies. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.colourcodetech.com\/about.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 29 August 2012<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">4 November<\/span> 2012<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=About&amp;rft.pub=Colour+Code+Technologies&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.colourcodetech.com%2Fabout.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-54\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-54\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.today\/20130221173001\/http:\/\/www.colorccode.net\/?q=faq\" target=\"_blank\">\"Frequently Asked Questions\"<\/a>. ColorCCode. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.colorccode.net\/?q=faq\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 21 February 2013<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">4 November<\/span> 2012<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Frequently+Asked+Questions&amp;rft.pub=ColorCCode&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.colorccode.net%2F%3Fq%3Dfaq&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-cronto-55\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-cronto_55-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cam.ac.uk\/research\/news\/new-system-to-combat-online-banking-fraud\" target=\"_blank\">\"New system to combat online banking fraud\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/University_of_Cambridge\" title=\"University of Cambridge\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"804ee5e182344c3f5f780777b651e1e6\">University of Cambridge<\/a>. 18 April 2013. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200726141647\/https:\/\/www.cam.ac.uk\/research\/news\/new-system-to-combat-online-banking-fraud\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 26 July 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 January<\/span> 2020<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=New+system+to+combat+online+banking+fraud&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Cambridge&amp;rft.date=2013-04-18&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cam.ac.uk%2Fresearch%2Fnews%2Fnew-system-to-combat-online-banking-fraud&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-56\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-56\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation cs2\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onespan.com\/products\/transaction-signing\/cronto\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Cronto Visual Transaction Signing<\/i><\/a>, OneSpan, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20191206163141\/https:\/\/www.onespan.com\/products\/transaction-signing\/cronto\" target=\"_blank\">archived<\/a> from the original on 6 December 2019<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">6 December<\/span> 2019<\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Cronto+Visual+Transaction+Signing&amp;rft.pub=OneSpan&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.onespan.com%2Fproducts%2Ftransaction-signing%2Fcronto&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-57\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-57\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation cs2\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20080302032843\/http:\/\/web.media.mit.edu\/~enrico\/research\/research.php?projectTitle=d-touch\" target=\"_blank\"><i>d-touch topological fiducial recognition<\/i><\/a>, MIT, archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/web.media.mit.edu\/~enrico\/research\/research.php?projectTitle=d-touch\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 2 March 2008<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=d-touch+topological+fiducial+recognition&amp;rft.pub=MIT&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.media.mit.edu%2F~enrico%2Fresearch%2Fresearch.php%3FprojectTitle%3Dd-touch&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-58\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-58\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation cs2\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20080621191310\/http:\/\/web.media.mit.edu\/~enrico\/research\/research.php?projectTitle=Sleight%20of%20Hands\" target=\"_blank\"><i>d-touch markers are applied to deformable gloves<\/i><\/a>, MIT, archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/web.media.mit.edu\/~enrico\/research\/research.php?projectTitle=Sleight%20of%20Hands\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 21 June 2008<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=d-touch+markers+are+applied+to+deformable+gloves&amp;rft.pub=MIT&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.media.mit.edu%2F~enrico%2Fresearch%2Fresearch.php%3FprojectTitle%3DSleight%2520of%2520Hands&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-59\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-59\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">See <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.xerox.com\/Static_HTML\/xsis\/dataglph.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Xerox.com<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20090607214025\/http:\/\/www.xerox.com\/Static_HTML\/xsis\/dataglph.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 7 June 2009 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a> for details.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-60\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-60\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.microglyphs.com\/english\/html\/dataglyphs.shtml\" target=\"_blank\">\"DataGlyphs: Embedding Digital Data\"<\/a>. Microglyphs. 3 May 2006. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140226211404\/http:\/\/www.microglyphs.com\/english\/html\/dataglyphs.shtml\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 26 February 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">10 March<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=DataGlyphs%3A+Embedding+Digital+Data&amp;rft.pub=Microglyphs&amp;rft.date=2006-05-03&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.microglyphs.com%2Fenglish%2Fhtml%2Fdataglyphs.shtml&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-61\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-61\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.tauzero.com\/Rob_Tow\/DataGlyph.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"<span class=\"cs1-kern-left\"><\/span>\"DataGlyph\" Embedded Digital Data\"<\/a>. Tauzero. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131122020922\/http:\/\/www.tauzero.com\/Rob_Tow\/DataGlyph.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 22 November 2013<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">10 March<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=%22DataGlyph%22+Embedded+Digital+Data&amp;rft.pub=Tauzero&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tauzero.com%2FRob_Tow%2FDataGlyph.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-62\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-62\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.xerox.com\/Static_HTML\/xsis\/dataglph.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"DataGlyphs\"<\/a>. Xerox. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20121123144057\/http:\/\/www.xerox.com\/Static_HTML\/xsis\/dataglph.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 23 November 2012<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">10 March<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=DataGlyphs&amp;rft.pub=Xerox&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.xerox.com%2FStatic_HTML%2Fxsis%2Fdataglph.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-63\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-63\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161122153422\/https:\/\/www.digimarc.com\/docs\/default-source\/solution-briefs\/barcodebrief.pdf?sfvrsn=4\" target=\"_blank\">\"Better Barcodes, Better Business\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.digimarc.com\/docs\/default-source\/solution-briefs\/barcodebrief.pdf?sfvrsn=4\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 22 November 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 June<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Better+Barcodes%2C+Better+Business&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.digimarc.com%2Fdocs%2Fdefault-source%2Fsolution-briefs%2Fbarcodebrief.pdf%3Fsfvrsn%3D4&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-64\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-64\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.barcode.ro\/tutorials\/barcodes\/dotcode-a.html\" target=\"_blank\">Dot Code A<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170509032225\/http:\/\/www.barcode.ro\/tutorials\/barcodes\/dotcode-a.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 9 May 2017 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a> at barcode.ro<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-65\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-65\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.adams1.com\/patents\/US4745269.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Dot Code A Patent\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160310120100\/http:\/\/www.adams1.com\/patents\/US4745269.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 10 March 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">1 September<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Dot+Code+A+Patent&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.adams1.com%2Fpatents%2FUS4745269.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-66\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-66\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation pressrelease cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.prnewswire.com\/news-releases\/gs1-germany-and-digimarc-announce-collaboration-to-bring-dwcode-to-the-german-market-300331518.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"GS1 Germany and Digimarc Announce Collaboration to Bring DWCode to the German Market\"<\/a> (Press release).<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=GS1+Germany+and+Digimarc+Announce+Collaboration+to+Bring+DWCode+to+the+German+Market&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.prnewswire.com%2Fnews-releases%2Fgs1-germany-and-digimarc-announce-collaboration-to-bring-dwcode-to-the-german-market-300331518.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-67\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-67\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.scanbuy.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Scanbuy\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20080820014344\/http:\/\/www.scanbuy.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 20 August 2008<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">28 November<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Scanbuy&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scanbuy.com%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Steeman-68\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Steeman_68-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Steeman_68-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSteeman\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Steeman, Jeroen. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140109233243\/http:\/\/blog.qr4.nl\/Online-QR-Code_Decoder.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Online QR Code Decoder\"<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/blog.qr4.nl\/Online-QR-Code_Decoder.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 9 January 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">9 January<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Online+QR+Code+Decoder&amp;rft.aulast=Steeman&amp;rft.aufirst=Jeroen&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblog.qr4.nl%2FOnline-QR-Code_Decoder.aspx&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-69\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-69\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081103113810\/http:\/\/www.adams1.com\/pub\/russadam\/stack.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"BarCode-1 2-Dimensional Bar Code Page\"<\/a>. Adams. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.adams1.com\/pub\/russadam\/stack.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 3 November 2008<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">10 June<\/span> 2009<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=BarCode-1+2-Dimensional+Bar+Code+Page&amp;rft.pub=Adams&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.adams1.com%2Fpub%2Frussadam%2Fstack.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-70\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-70\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/grs.weebly.com\/2d-barcodes.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Global Research Solutions \u2013 2D Barcodes\"<\/a>. <i>grs.weebly.com<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190113003934\/https:\/\/grs.weebly.com\/2d-barcodes.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 13 January 2019<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">12 January<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=grs.weebly.com&amp;rft.atitle=Global+Research+Solutions+%E2%80%93+2D+Barcodes&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgrs.weebly.com%2F2d-barcodes.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:0-71\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_71-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_71-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKatoTanChai2010\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Kato, Hiroko; Tan, Keng T.; Chai, Douglas (8 April 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=gHhPiMwiUX8C&q=trillcode&pg=PA73\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Barcodes for Mobile Devices<\/i><\/a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781139487511<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Barcodes+for+Mobile+Devices&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2010-04-08&amp;rft.isbn=9781139487511&amp;rft.aulast=Kato&amp;rft.aufirst=Hiroko&amp;rft.au=Tan%2C+Keng+T.&amp;rft.au=Chai%2C+Douglas&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgHhPiMwiUX8C%26q%3Dtrillcode%26pg%3DPA73&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-72\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-72\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ocode.fr\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Ocode - Authentifiez vos produits par le marquage d'un code unique\"<\/a>. <i>www.ocode.fr<\/i> (in French)<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">27 November<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=www.ocode.fr&amp;rft.atitle=Ocode+-+Authentifiez+vos+produits+par+le+marquage+d%27un+code+unique&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ocode.fr%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-73\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-73\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFChenYuXuWang2019\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Chen, Rongjun; Yu, Yongxing; Xu, Xiansheng; Wang, Leijun; Zhao, Huimin; Tan, Hong-Zhou (11 December 2019). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC6960674\" target=\"_blank\">\"Adaptive Binarization of QR Code Images for Fast Automatic Sorting in Warehouse Systems\"<\/a>. <i>Sensors<\/i>. <b>19<\/b> (24): 5466. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2019Senso..19.5466C\" target=\"_blank\">2019Senso..19.5466C<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390%2Fs19245466\" target=\"_blank\">10.3390\/s19245466<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC6960674\" target=\"_blank\">6960674<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/31835866\" target=\"_blank\">31835866<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Sensors&amp;rft.atitle=Adaptive+Binarization+of+QR+Code+Images+for+Fast+Automatic+Sorting+in+Warehouse+Systems&amp;rft.volume=19&amp;rft.issue=24&amp;rft.pages=5466&amp;rft.date=2019-12-11&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6960674%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31835866&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fs19245466&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019Senso..19.5466C&amp;rft.aulast=Chen&amp;rft.aufirst=Rongjun&amp;rft.au=Yu%2C+Yongxing&amp;rft.au=Xu%2C+Xiansheng&amp;rft.au=Wang%2C+Leijun&amp;rft.au=Zhao%2C+Huimin&amp;rft.au=Tan%2C+Hong-Zhou&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6960674&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-74\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-74\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/patents.justia.com\/patent\/9270846\" target=\"_blank\">\"<span class=\"cs1-kern-left\"><\/span>\"US Patent 9270846: Content encoded luminosity modulation\"<span class=\"cs1-kern-right\"><\/span>\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20181202070442\/https:\/\/patents.justia.com\/patent\/9270846\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2 December 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">1 December<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=%22US+Patent+9270846%3A+Content+encoded+luminosity+modulation%22&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpatents.justia.com%2Fpatent%2F9270846&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-75\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-75\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/patents.justia.com\/patent\/8180163\" target=\"_blank\">\"<span class=\"cs1-kern-left\"><\/span>\"US Patent 8180163: Encoder and decoder and methods of encoding and decoding sequence information with inserted monitor flags\"<span class=\"cs1-kern-right\"><\/span>\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20181202070452\/https:\/\/patents.justia.com\/patent\/8180163\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2 December 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">1 December<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=%22US+Patent+8180163%3A+Encoder+and+decoder+and+methods+of+encoding+and+decoding+sequence+information+with+inserted+monitor+flags%22&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpatents.justia.com%2Fpatent%2F8180163&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-76\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-76\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/personal.ee.surrey.ac.uk\/Personal\/J.Collomosse\/pubs\/Collomosse-HOTm-2008.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"<span class=\"cs1-kern-left\"><\/span>\"Screen Codes: Visual Hyperlinks for Displays\"<span class=\"cs1-kern-right\"><\/span>\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20191211051343\/http:\/\/personal.ee.surrey.ac.uk\/Personal\/J.Collomosse\/pubs\/Collomosse-HOTm-2008.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 11 December 2019<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">1 December<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=%22Screen+Codes%3A+Visual+Hyperlinks+for+Displays%22&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpersonal.ee.surrey.ac.uk%2FPersonal%2FJ.Collomosse%2Fpubs%2FCollomosse-HOTm-2008.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-77\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-77\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theverge.com\/2015\/7\/1\/8861131\/snapchat-update-2015-tap-to-play-story\" target=\"_blank\">\"<span class=\"cs1-kern-left\"><\/span>\"Snapchat is changing the way you watch snaps and add friends\"<span class=\"cs1-kern-right\"><\/span>\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210127025916\/https:\/\/www.theverge.com\/2015\/7\/1\/8861131\/snapchat-update-2015-tap-to-play-story\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 27 January 2021<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 August<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=%22Snapchat+is+changing+the+way+you+watch+snaps+and+add+friends%22&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theverge.com%2F2015%2F7%2F1%2F8861131%2Fsnapchat-update-2015-tap-to-play-story&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-78\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-78\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/techcrunch.com\/2015\/01\/28\/snaptags\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"<span class=\"cs1-kern-left\"><\/span>\"Snapchat Lets You Add People Via QR Snaptags Thanks To Secret Scan.me Acquisition\"<span class=\"cs1-kern-right\"><\/span>\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170224132115\/https:\/\/techcrunch.com\/2015\/01\/28\/snaptags\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 24 February 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 February<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=%22Snapchat+Lets+You+Add+People+Via+QR+Snaptags+Thanks+To+Secret+Scan.me+Acquisition%22&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftechcrunch.com%2F2015%2F01%2F28%2Fsnaptags%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-79\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-79\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/techcrunch.com\/2015\/05\/04\/snapcode\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"<span class=\"cs1-kern-left\"><\/span>\"How Snapchat Made QR Codes Cool Again\"<span class=\"cs1-kern-right\"><\/span>\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160914064250\/https:\/\/techcrunch.com\/2015\/05\/04\/snapcode\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 14 September 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 February<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=%22How+Snapchat+Made+QR+Codes+Cool+Again%22&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftechcrunch.com%2F2015%2F05%2F04%2Fsnapcode%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-80\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-80\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562\" \/><span class=\"citation patent\" id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFChanGB1998\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/worldwide.espacenet.com\/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US5825015\" target=\"_blank\">US 5825015<\/a>, Chan, John Paul &amp; GB, \"Machine readable binary codes\", issued 20 October 1998<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Apatent&amp;rft.number=5825015&amp;rft.cc=US&amp;rft.title=Machine+readable+binary+codes&amp;rft.inventor=Chan&amp;rft.date=20 October 1998\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-81\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-81\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/pdfpiw.uspto.gov\/.piw?Docid=05825015&homeurl=http%3A%2F%2Fpatft.uspto.gov%2Fnetacgi%2Fnph-Parser%3FSect1%3DPTO2%2526Sect2%3DHITOFF%2526p%3D1%2526u%3D%25252Fnetahtml%25252FPTO%25252Fsearch-bool.html%2526r%3D1%2526f%3DG%2526l%3D50%2526co1%3DAND%2526d%3DPTXT%2526s1%3D5825015.PN.%2526OS%3DPN%2F5825015%2526RS%3DPN%2F5825015&PageNum=&Rtype=&SectionNum=&idkey=NONE&Input=View+first+page\" target=\"_blank\">\"US Patent 5825015\"<\/a>. <i>pdfpiw.uspto.gov<\/i>. 20 October 1998. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190113062829\/http:\/\/pdfpiw.uspto.gov\/.piw?Docid=05825015&homeurl=http%3A%2F%2Fpatft.uspto.gov%2Fnetacgi%2Fnph-Parser%3FSect1%3DPTO2%2526Sect2%3DHITOFF%2526p%3D1%2526u%3D%25252Fnetahtml%25252FPTO%25252Fsearch-bool.html%2526r%3D1%2526f%3DG%2526l%3D50%2526co1%3DAND%2526d%3DPTXT%2526s1%3D5825015.PN.%2526OS%3DPN%2F5825015%2526RS%3DPN%2F5825015&PageNum=&Rtype=&SectionNum=&idkey=NONE&Input=View+first+page\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 13 January 2019<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">12 January<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=pdfpiw.uspto.gov&amp;rft.atitle=US+Patent+5825015&amp;rft.date=1998-10-20&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpdfpiw.uspto.gov%2F.piw%3FDocid%3D05825015%26homeurl%3Dhttp%253A%252F%252Fpatft.uspto.gov%252Fnetacgi%252Fnph-Parser%253FSect1%253DPTO2%252526Sect2%253DHITOFF%252526p%253D1%252526u%253D%2525252Fnetahtml%2525252FPTO%2525252Fsearch-bool.html%252526r%253D1%252526f%253DG%252526l%253D50%252526co1%253DAND%252526d%253DPTXT%252526s1%253D5825015.PN.%252526OS%253DPN%252F5825015%252526RS%253DPN%252F5825015%26PageNum%3D%26Rtype%3D%26SectionNum%3D%26idkey%3DNONE%26Input%3DView%2Bfirst%2Bpage&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-82\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-82\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/tritonstore.com.au\/what-are-tlc39-barcodes\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Understanding TLC-39 Barcodes: All You Need to Know\"<\/a>. 9 August 2023<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">27 November<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Understanding+TLC-39+Barcodes%3A+All+You+Need+to+Know&amp;rft.date=2023-08-09&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftritonstore.com.au%2Fwhat-are-tlc39-barcodes%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-83\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-83\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200726140825\/https:\/\/www.barcoding.com\/blog\/trillcode-barcode\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Trillcode Barcode\"<\/a>. <i>Barcoding, Inc<\/i>. 17 February 2009. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.barcoding.com\/blog\/trillcode-barcode\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 26 July 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">12 January<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Barcoding%2C+Inc.&amp;rft.atitle=Trillcode+Barcode&amp;rft.date=2009-02-17&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.barcoding.com%2Fblog%2Ftrillcode-barcode%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-84\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-84\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/developers.weixin.qq.com\/miniprogram\/en\/dev\/framework\/open-ability\/qr-code.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Getting Mini Program Code\"<\/a>. <i>Weixin public doc<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Weixin+public+doc&amp;rft.atitle=Getting+Mini+Program+Code&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdevelopers.weixin.qq.com%2Fminiprogram%2Fen%2Fdev%2Fframework%2Fopen-ability%2Fqr-code.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-85\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-85\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.denso-wave.com\/qrcode\/qrstandard-e.html\" target=\"_blank\">(\u682a)\u30c7\u30f3\u30bd\u30fc\u30a6\u30a7\u30fc\u30d6<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120607102221\/http:\/\/www.denso-wave.com\/qrcode\/qrstandard-e.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 7 June 2012 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a>, denso-wave.com <span class=\"languageicon\">(in Japanese)<\/span> Copyright<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-86\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-86\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.gmp.de\/en\/projects\/549\/barcode-halls-standard-facades-for-manufacturing-buildings\" target=\"_blank\">\"Barcode Halls, Standard Facades for Manufacturing Buildings - Projects - gmp Architekten\"<\/a>. <i>www.gmp.de<\/i>. 2009. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20231216013407\/https:\/\/www.gmp.de\/en\/projects\/549\/barcode-halls-standard-facades-for-manufacturing-buildings\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 16 December 2023<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">16 December<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=www.gmp.de&amp;rft.atitle=Barcode+Halls%2C+Standard+Facades+for+Manufacturing+Buildings+-+Projects+-+gmp+Architekten&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gmp.de%2Fen%2Fprojects%2F549%2Fbarcode-halls-standard-facades-for-manufacturing-buildings&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-87\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-87\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/peterburg2.ru\/restplaces\/2530.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"image\"<\/a>. Peterburg2.ru. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20111110051507\/http:\/\/peterburg2.ru\/restplaces\/2530.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 10 November 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">28 November<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=image&amp;rft.pub=Peterburg2.ru&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpeterburg2.ru%2Frestplaces%2F2530.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NFB_blog-88\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-NFB_blog_88-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLavigne2011\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Lavigne, Anne-Marie (5 October 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/blog.nfb.ca\/2011\/10\/05\/introducing-barcode\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Introducing Barcode.tv, a new interactive doc about the objects that surround us\"<\/a>. <i>NFB Blog<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_Film_Board_of_Canada\" title=\"National Film Board of Canada\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fbae8fac329dfe9cdf654b20b4184a4f\">National Film Board of Canada<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20111011174058\/http:\/\/blog.nfb.ca\/2011\/10\/05\/introducing-barcode\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 11 October 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">7 October<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=NFB+Blog&amp;rft.atitle=Introducing+Barcode.tv%2C+a+new+interactive+doc+about+the+objects+that+surround+us&amp;rft.date=2011-10-05&amp;rft.aulast=Lavigne&amp;rft.aufirst=Anne-Marie&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblog.nfb.ca%2F2011%2F10%2F05%2Fintroducing-barcode%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Reelscreen-89\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Reelscreen_89-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAnderson2011\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Anderson, Kelly (6 October 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/realscreen.com\/2011\/10\/06\/nfb-and-arte-france-launch-bar-code\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"NFB, ARTE France launch 'Bar Code'<span class=\"cs1-kern-right\"><\/span>\"<\/a>. <i>Reelscreen<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20111010041947\/http:\/\/realscreen.com\/2011\/10\/06\/nfb-and-arte-france-launch-bar-code\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 10 October 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">7 October<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Reelscreen&amp;rft.atitle=NFB%2C+ARTE+France+launch+%27Bar+Code%27&amp;rft.date=2011-10-06&amp;rft.aulast=Anderson&amp;rft.aufirst=Kelly&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frealscreen.com%2F2011%2F10%2F06%2Fnfb-and-arte-france-launch-bar-code%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-90\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-90\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http:\/\/www.attitudetees.com\/items\/dxbarcode.html\" target=\"_blank\">[1]<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150316205717\/http:\/\/www.attitudetees.com\/items\/dxbarcode.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 16 March 2015 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-91\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-91\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=BkvplmOtmX4\" target=\"_blank\">\"Dx theme song 2009\u20132010\"<\/a>. YouTube. 19 December 2009. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ghostarchive.org\/varchive\/youtube\/20211211\/BkvplmOtmX4\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 11 December 2021<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">10 March<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Dx+theme+song+2009%E2%80%932010&amp;rft.pub=YouTube&amp;rft.date=2009-12-19&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DBkvplmOtmX4&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-92\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-92\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDiego_Agruello2019\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Diego Agruello (27 June 2019). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.eurogamer.net\/articles\/2019-06-26-judgment-qr-codes-drone-parts-6032\" target=\"_blank\">\"Judgment QR code locations to upgrade Drone Parts explained \u2022 Eurogamer.net\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Eurogamer\" title=\"Eurogamer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8d6812ff66d366f95cec7d63db53bb3d\">Eurogamer<\/a><\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190828223321\/https:\/\/www.eurogamer.net\/articles\/2019-06-26-judgment-qr-codes-drone-parts-6032\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 28 August 2019<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">3 August<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Eurogamer&amp;rft.atitle=Judgment+QR+code+locations+to+upgrade+Drone+Parts+explained+%E2%80%A2+Eurogamer.net&amp;rft.date=2019-06-27&amp;rft.au=Diego+Agruello&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eurogamer.net%2Farticles%2F2019-06-26-judgment-qr-codes-drone-parts-6032&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-93\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-93\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/cuecat.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"CueCat History\"<\/a>. <i>CueCat History<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20191112235022\/https:\/\/cuecat.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 12 November 2019<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">12 November<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=CueCat+History&amp;rft.atitle=CueCat+History&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcuecat.org%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-94\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-94\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.av1611.org\/666\/barcode.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"What about barcodes and 666: The Mark of the Beast?\"<\/a>. Av1611.org. 1999. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131127041006\/http:\/\/www.av1611.org\/666\/barcode.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 27 November 2013<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">14 March<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=What+about+barcodes+and+666%3A+The+Mark+of+the+Beast%3F&amp;rft.pub=Av1611.org&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.av1611.org%2F666%2Fbarcode.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-95\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-95\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSerafino2018\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Serafino, Jay (26 July 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.mentalfloss.com\/article\/551659\/karp-lykov-russian-family-secluded-from-civilization-40-years\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Russian Family That Cut Itself Off From Civilization for More Than 40 Years\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mental_Floss\" title=\"Mental Floss\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"32f217bc46d1e756e446f64db74247df\">Mental Floss<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200507041702\/https:\/\/www.mentalfloss.com\/article\/551659\/karp-lykov-russian-family-secluded-from-civilization-40-years\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 7 May 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">6 May<\/span> 2020<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=The+Russian+Family+That+Cut+Itself+Off+From+Civilization+for+More+Than+40+Years&amp;rft.pub=Mental+Floss&amp;rft.date=2018-07-26&amp;rft.aulast=Serafino&amp;rft.aufirst=Jay&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mentalfloss.com%2Farticle%2F551659%2Fkarp-lykov-russian-family-secluded-from-civilization-40-years&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-96\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-96\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBishop2004\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Bishop, Tricia (5 July 2004). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20040823004929\/http:\/\/www.sfgate.com\/cgi-bin\/article.cgi?file=%2Fchronicle%2Farchive%2F2004%2F07%2F05%2FBUG6Q7G4AJ1.DTL&type=business\" target=\"_blank\">\"UPC bar code has been in use 30 years\"<\/a>. SFgate.com. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.sfgate.com\/cgi-bin\/article.cgi?file=\/chronicle\/archive\/2004\/07\/05\/BUG6Q7G4AJ1.DTL&type=business\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 23 August 2004<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">22 December<\/span> 2009<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=UPC+bar+code+has+been+in+use+30+years&amp;rft.pub=SFgate.com&amp;rft.date=2004-07-05&amp;rft.aulast=Bishop&amp;rft.aufirst=Tricia&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sfgate.com%2Fcgi-bin%2Farticle.cgi%3Ffile%3D%2Fchronicle%2Farchive%2F2004%2F07%2F05%2FBUG6Q7G4AJ1.DTL%26type%3Dbusiness&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"refbegin\" style=\"\">\n<ul><li><i>Automating Management Information Systems: Barcode Engineering and Implementation<\/i> \u2013 Harry E. Burke, Thomson Learning, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-442-20712-3<\/li>\n<li><i>Automating Management Information Systems: Principles of Barcode Applications<\/i> \u2013 Harry E. Burke, Thomson Learning, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-442-20667-4<\/li>\n<li><i>The Bar Code Book<\/i> \u2013 Roger C. Palmer, Helmers Publishing, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-911261-09-5, 386 pages<\/li>\n<li><i>The Bar Code Manual<\/i> \u2013 Eugene F. Brighan, Thompson Learning, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-03-016173-8<\/li>\n<li><i>Handbook of Bar Coding Systems<\/i> \u2013 Harry E. Burke, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;978-0-442-21430-2, 219 pages<\/li>\n<li><i>Information Technology for Retail:Automatic Identification &amp; Data Capture Systems<\/i> \u2013 Girdhar Joshi, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oxford_University_Press\" title=\"Oxford University Press\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d18ae98bb880a41214eeea3e78f31ffe\">Oxford University Press<\/a>, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-19-569796-0, 416 pages<\/li>\n<li><i>Lines of Communication<\/i> \u2013 Craig K. Harmon, Helmers Publishing, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-911261-07-9, 425 pages<\/li>\n<li><i>Punched Cards to Bar Codes<\/i> \u2013 Benjamin Nelson, Helmers Publishing, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-911261-12-5, 434 pages<\/li>\n<li><i>Revolution at the Checkout Counter: The Explosion of the Bar Code<\/i> \u2013 Stephen A. Brown, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Harvard_University_Press\" title=\"Harvard University Press\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9c2bafa6e75012683f00beee29a660ca\">Harvard University Press<\/a>, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-674-76720-9<\/li>\n<li><i>Reading Between The Lines<\/i> \u2013 Craig K. Harmon and Russ Adams, Helmers Publishing, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-911261-00-1, 297 pages<\/li>\n<li><i>The Black and White Solution: Bar Code and the IBM PC<\/i> \u2013 Russ Adams and Joyce Lane, Helmers Publishing, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-911261-01-X, 169 pages<\/li>\n<li><i>Sourcebook of Automatic Identification and Data Collection<\/i> \u2013 Russ Adams, Van Nostrand Reinhold, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-442-31850-2, 298 pages<\/li>\n<li><i>Inside Out: The Wonders of Modern Technology<\/i> \u2013 Carol J. Amato, Smithmark Pub, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0831746572, 1993<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/curlie.org\/Computers\/Data_Formats\/Barcodes\/\" target=\"_blank\">Barcode<\/a> at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Curlie\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Curlie\" data-key=\"f2bf78e9dbc70f166d4b3bd9f21cf9f3\">Curlie<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/barcode.wiki\/\" target=\"_blank\">Free Online Barcode Generator<\/a>.<\/li><\/ul>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\" \/><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\" \/><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw\u2010web.codfw.main\u201069dcdff757\u2010sdbxs\nCached time: 20240109230505\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 1.206 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.451 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 10254\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 218850\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 8474\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 14\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 15\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 331626\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.679\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 17147838\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 1191.316 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>51.85% 617.731 1 Template:Reflist\n23.71% 282.485 60 Template:Cite_web\n 7.74% 92.193 1 Template:In_lang\n 6.81% 81.100 2 Template:Navbox\n 6.76% 80.528 1 Template:Barcodes\n 5.17% 61.621 8 Template:Fix\n 4.65% 55.446 13 Template:ISBN\n 4.04% 48.106 1 Template:Short_description\n 4.02% 47.889 9 Template:Cite_journal\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:60600-0!canonical and timestamp 20240109230504 and revision id 1194625249. Rendering was triggered because: page-view\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Barcode\" data-key=\"d1852a2c48f6042c16ca0c8a87abed56\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110112613\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.206 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.534 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 311674\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 444.056 1 wikipedia:Barcode\n100.00% 444.056 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:76-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110112612 and revision id 39024. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Barcode\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Barcode<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","e0952b5b262392be0995237aec36d355_images":[],"e0952b5b262392be0995237aec36d355_timestamp":1704907014,"0c45a597361ca47e1cd8112af676276e_type":"article","0c45a597361ca47e1cd8112af676276e_title":"Artificial intelligence","0c45a597361ca47e1cd8112af676276e_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Artificial_intelligence","0c45a597361ca47e1cd8112af676276e_plaintext":"\n\nArtificial intelligenceFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchIntelligence of machines or software\n\"AI\" redirects here. For other uses, see AI (disambiguation), Artificial intelligence (disambiguation), and Intelligent agent.\n\n \n\nPart of a series onArtificial intelligence\nMajor goals\nArtificial general intelligence\nPlanning\nComputer vision\nGeneral game playing\nKnowledge reasoning\nMachine learning\nNatural language processing\nRobotics\nAI safety\n\nApproaches\nSymbolic\nDeep learning\nBayesian networks\nEvolutionary algorithms\nSituated approach\nHybrid intelligent systems\nSystems integration\n\nApplications\nProjects\nDeepfake\nMachine translation\nArt\nHealthcare\nMental health\nGovernment\nMusic\nIndustry\nEarth sciences\nBioinformatics\nPhysics\n\nPhilosophy\nChinese room\nFriendly AI\nControl problem\/Takeover\nEthics\nExistential risk\nTuring test\nRegulation\n\nHistory\nTimeline\nProgress\nAI winter\nAI boom\n\nTechnology\nProgramming languages\n\nGlossary\nGlossary\nvte\nArtificial intelligence (AI) is the intelligence of machines or software, as opposed to the intelligence of humans or animals. It is a field of study in computer science that develops and studies intelligent machines. Such machines may be called AIs.\nAI technology is widely used throughout industry, government, and science. Some high-profile applications are: advanced web search engines (e.g., Google Search), recommendation systems (used by YouTube, Amazon, and Netflix), understanding human speech (such as Google Assistant, Siri, and Alexa), self-driving cars (e.g., Waymo), generative and creative tools (ChatGPT and AI art), and superhuman play and analysis in strategy games (such as chess and Go).[1]\nAlan Turing was the first person to conduct substantial research in the field that he called Machine Intelligence.[2] Artificial intelligence was founded as an academic discipline in 1956.[3] The field went through multiple cycles of optimism[4][5] followed by disappointment and loss of funding.[6][7] Funding and interest vastly increased after 2012 when deep learning surpassed all previous AI techniques,[8] and after 2017 with the transformer architecture.[9] This led to the AI spring of the 2020s, with companies, universities, and laboratories overwhelmingly based in the United States pioneering significant advances in artificial intelligence.[10]\nThe various sub-fields of AI research are centered around particular goals and the use of particular tools. The traditional goals of AI research include reasoning, knowledge representation, planning, learning, natural language processing, perception, and support for robotics.[a] General intelligence (the ability to complete any task performable by a human) is among the field's long-term goals.[11]\nTo solve these problems, AI researchers have adapted and integrated a wide range of problem-solving techniques, including search and mathematical optimization, formal logic, artificial neural networks, and methods based on statistics, operations research, and economics.[b] AI also draws upon psychology, linguistics, philosophy, neuroscience and other fields.[12]\n\n\n\nGoals \nThe general problem of simulating (or creating) intelligence has been broken into sub-problems. These consist of particular traits or capabilities that researchers expect an intelligent system to display. The traits described below have received the most attention and cover the scope of AI research.[a]\n\n Reasoning, problem-solving \nEarly researchers developed algorithms that imitated step-by-step reasoning that humans use when they solve puzzles or make logical deductions.[13] By the late 1980s and 1990s, methods were developed for dealing with uncertain or incomplete information, employing concepts from probability and economics.[14]\nMany of these algorithms are insufficient for solving large reasoning problems because they experience a \"combinatorial explosion\": they became exponentially slower as the problems grew larger.[15] Even humans rarely use the step-by-step deduction that early AI research could model. They solve most of their problems using fast, intuitive judgments.[16] Accurate and efficient reasoning is an unsolved problem.\n\nKnowledge representation \nAn ontology represents knowledge as a set of concepts within a domain and the relationships between those concepts.\n\nKnowledge representation and knowledge engineering[17] allow AI programs to answer questions intelligently and make deductions about real-world facts. Formal knowledge representations are used in content-based indexing and retrieval,[18] scene interpretation,[19] clinical decision support,[20] knowledge discovery (mining \"interesting\" and actionable inferences from large databases),[21] and other areas.[22]\nA knowledge base is a body of knowledge represented in a form that can be used by a program. An ontology is the set of objects, relations, concepts, and properties used by a particular domain of knowledge.[23] Knowledge bases need to represent things such as: objects, properties, categories and relations between objects;[24] situations, events, states and time;[25] causes and effects;[26] knowledge about knowledge (what we know about what other people know);[27] default reasoning (things that humans assume are true until they are told differently and will remain true even when other facts are changing);[28] and many other aspects and domains of knowledge.\nAmong the most difficult problems in knowledge representation are: the breadth of commonsense knowledge (the set of atomic facts that the average person knows is enormous);[29] and the sub-symbolic form of most commonsense knowledge (much of what people know is not represented as \"facts\" or \"statements\" that they could express verbally).[16] There is also the difficulty of knowledge acquisition, the problem of obtaining knowledge for AI applications.[c]\n\nPlanning and decision making \nAn \"agent\" is anything that perceives and takes actions in the world. A rational agent has goals or preferences and takes actions to make them happen.[d][32] In automated planning, the agent has a specific goal.[33] In automated decision making, the agent has preferences \u2013 there are some situations it would prefer to be in, and some situations it is trying to avoid. The decision making agent assigns a number to each situation (called the \"utility\") that measures how much the agent prefers it. For each possible action, it can calculate the \"expected utility\": the utility of all possible outcomes of the action, weighted by the probability that the outcome will occur. It can then choose the action with the maximum expected utility.[34]\nIn classical planning, the agent knows exactly what the effect of any action will be.[35] In most real-world problems, however, the agent may not be certain about the situation they are in (it is \"unknown\" or \"unobservable\") and it may not know for certain what will happen after each possible action (it is not \"deterministic\"). It must choose an action by making a probabilistic guess and then reassess the situation to see if the action worked.[36]\nIn some problems, the agent's preferences may be uncertain, especially if there are other agents or humans involved. These can be learned (e.g., with inverse reinforcement learning) or the agent can seek information to improve its preferences.[37] Information value theory can be used to weigh the value of exploratory or experimental actions.[38] The space of possible future actions and situations is typically intractably large, so the agents must take actions and evaluate situations while being uncertain what the outcome will be.\nA Markov decision process has a transition model that describes the probability that a particular action will change the state in a particular way, and a reward function that supplies the utility of each state and the cost of each action. A policy associates a decision with each possible state. The policy could be calculated (e.g. by iteration), be heuristic, or it can be learned.[39]\nGame theory describes rational behavior of multiple interacting agents, and is used in AI programs that make decisions that involve other agents.[40]\n\nLearning \nMachine learning is the study of programs that can improve their performance on a given task automatically.[41] It has been a part of AI from the beginning.[e]\nThere are several kinds of machine learning. Unsupervised learning analyzes a stream of data and finds patterns and makes predictions without any other guidance.[44] Supervised learning requires a human to label the input data first, and comes in two main varieties: classification (where the program must learn to predict what category the input belongs in) and regression (where the program must deduce a numeric function based on numeric input).[45]\nIn reinforcement learning the agent is rewarded for good responses and punished for bad ones. The agent learns to choose responses that are classified as \"good\".[46] Transfer learning is when the knowledge gained from one problem is applied to a new problem.[47] Deep learning is a type of machine learning that runs inputs through biologically inspired artificial neural networks for all of these types of learning.[48]\nComputational learning theory can assess learners by computational complexity, by sample complexity (how much data is required), or by other notions of optimization.[49]\n\n\nNatural language processing \nNatural language processing (NLP)[50] allows programs to read, write and communicate in human languages such as English. Specific problems include speech recognition, speech synthesis, machine translation, information extraction, information retrieval and question answering.[51]\nEarly work, based on Noam Chomsky's generative grammar and semantic networks, had difficulty with word-sense disambiguation[f] unless restricted to small domains called \"micro-worlds\" (due to the common sense knowledge problem[29]). Margaret Masterman believed that it was meaning, and not grammar that was the key to understanding languages, and that thesauri and not dictionaries should be the basis of computational language structure.\nModern deep learning techniques for NLP include word embedding (representing words, typically as vectors encoding their meaning),[52] transformers (a deep learning architecture using an attention mechanism),[53] and others.[54] In 2019, generative pre-trained transformer (or \"GPT\") language models began to generate coherent text,[55][56] and by 2023 these models were able to get human-level scores on the bar exam, SAT test, GRE test, and many other real-world applications.[57]\n\nPerception \nMachine perception is the ability to use input from sensors (such as cameras, microphones, wireless signals, active lidar, sonar, radar, and tactile sensors) to deduce aspects of the world. Computer vision is the ability to analyze visual input.[58]\nThe field includes speech recognition,[59] image classification,[60] facial recognition, object recognition,[61] and robotic perception.[62]\n\nSocial intelligence \nKismet, a robot head which was made in the 1990s; a machine that can recognize and simulate emotions.[63]\n\nAffective computing is an interdisciplinary umbrella that comprises systems that recognize, interpret, process or simulate human feeling, emotion and mood.[64] For example, some virtual assistants are programmed to speak conversationally or even to banter humorously; it makes them appear more sensitive to the emotional dynamics of human interaction, or to otherwise facilitate human\u2013computer interaction.\nHowever, this tends to give na\u00efve users an unrealistic conception of the intelligence of existing computer agents.[65] Moderate successes related to affective computing include textual sentiment analysis and, more recently, multimodal sentiment analysis, wherein AI classifies the affects displayed by a videotaped subject.[66]\n\nGeneral intelligence \nA machine with artificial general intelligence should be able to solve a wide variety of problems with breadth and versatility similar to human intelligence.[11]\n\nTechniques \nAI research uses a wide variety of techniques to accomplish the goals above.[b]\n\nSearch and optimization \nAI can solve many problems by intelligently searching through many possible solutions.[67] There are two very different kinds of search used in AI: state space search and local search.\n\nState space search \nState space search searches through a tree of possible states to try to find a goal state.[68] For example, planning algorithms search through trees of goals and subgoals, attempting to find a path to a target goal, a process called means-ends analysis.[69]\nSimple exhaustive searches[70] are rarely sufficient for most real-world problems: the search space (the number of places to search) quickly grows to astronomical numbers. The result is a search that is too slow or never completes.[15] \"Heuristics\" or \"rules of thumb\" can help to prioritize choices that are more likely to reach a goal.[71]\nAdversarial search is used for game-playing programs, such as chess or Go. It searches through a tree of possible moves and counter-moves, looking for a winning position.[72]\n\nLocal search \nIllustration of gradient descent for 3 different starting points. Two parameters (represented by the plan coordinates) are adjusted in order to minimize the loss function (the height).\n\nLocal search uses mathematical optimization to find a numeric solution to a problem. It begins with some form of a guess and then refines the guess incrementally until no more refinements can be made. These algorithms can be visualized as blind hill climbing: we begin the search at a random point on the landscape, and then, by jumps or steps, we keep moving our guess uphill, until we reach the top. This process is called stochastic gradient descent.[73]\nEvolutionary computation uses a form of optimization search. For example, they may begin with a population of organisms (the guesses) and then allow them to mutate and recombine, selecting only the fittest to survive each generation (refining the guesses).[74]\nDistributed search processes can coordinate via swarm intelligence algorithms. Two popular swarm algorithms used in search are particle swarm optimization (inspired by bird flocking) and ant colony optimization (inspired by ant trails).[75]\nNeural networks and statistical classifiers (discussed below), also use a form of local search, where the \"landscape\" to be searched is formed by learning.\n\nLogic \nFormal Logic is used for reasoning and knowledge representation.[76]\nFormal logic comes in two main forms: propositional logic (which operates on statements that are true or false and uses logical connectives such as \"and\", \"or\", \"not\" and \"implies\")[77]\nand predicate logic (which also operates on objects, predicates and relations and uses quantifiers such as \"Every X is a Y\" and \"There are some Xs that are Ys\").[78]\nLogical inference (or deduction) is the process of proving a new statement (conclusion) from other statements that are already known to be true (the premises).[79]\nA logical knowledge base also handles queries and assertions as a special case of inference.[80]\nAn inference rule describes what is a valid step in a proof. The most general inference rule is resolution.[81]\nInference can be reduced to performing a search to find a path that leads from premises to conclusions, where each step is the application of an inference rule.[82]\nInference performed this way is intractable except for short proofs in restricted domains. No efficient, powerful and general method has been discovered.\n\nFuzzy logic assigns a \"degree of truth\" between 0 and 1. It can therefore handle propositions that are vague and partially true.[83]\nNon-monotonic logics are designed to handle default reasoning.[28]\nOther specialized versions of logic have been developed to describe many complex domains (see knowledge representation above).\n\n\nProbabilistic methods for uncertain reasoning \nA simple Bayesian network, with the associated conditional probability tables.\n\nMany problems in AI (including in reasoning, planning, learning, perception, and robotics) require the agent to operate with incomplete or uncertain information. AI researchers have devised a number of tools to solve these problems using methods from probability theory and economics.[84]\nBayesian networks[85]\nare a very general tool that can be used for many problems, including reasoning (using the Bayesian inference algorithm),[g][87] learning (using the expectation-maximization algorithm),[h][89] planning (using decision networks)[90]\nand perception (using dynamic Bayesian networks).[91]\n\nProbabilistic algorithms can also be used for filtering, prediction, smoothing and finding explanations for streams of data, helping perception systems to analyze processes that occur over time (e.g., hidden Markov models or Kalman filters).[91]\n\nPrecise mathematical tools have been developed that analyze how an agent can make choices and plan, using decision theory, decision analysis,[92] and information value theory.[93] These tools include models such as Markov decision processes,[94] dynamic decision networks,[91] game theory and mechanism design.[95]Expectation-maximization clustering of Old Faithful eruption data starts from a random guess but then successfully converges on an accurate clustering of the two physically distinct modes of eruption.\nClassifiers and statistical learning methods \nThe simplest AI applications can be divided into two types: classifiers (e.g. \"if shiny then diamond\"), on one hand, and controllers (e.g. \"if diamond then pick up\"), on the other hand. Classifiers[96]\nare functions that use pattern matching to determine the closest match. They can be fine-tuned based on chosen examples using supervised learning. Each pattern (also called an \"observation\") is labeled with a certain predefined class. All the observations combined with their class labels are known as a data set. When a new observation is received, that observation is classified based on previous experience.[45]\nThere are many kinds of classifiers in use. The decision tree is the simplest and most widely used symbolic machine learning algorithm.[97] K-nearest neighbor algorithm was the most widely used analogical AI until the mid-1990s, and Kernel methods such as the support vector machine (SVM) displaced k-nearest neighbor in the 1990s.[98]\nThe naive Bayes classifier is reportedly the \"most widely used learner\"[99] at Google, due in part to its scalability.[100]\nNeural networks are also used as classifiers.[101]\n\n\nArtificial neural networks \nA neural network is an interconnected group of nodes, akin to the vast network of neurons in the human brain.\n\nAn Artificial neural network is based on a collection of nodes also known as artificial neurons, which loosely model the neurons in a biological brain. It is trained to recognise patterns, once trained it can recognise those patterns in fresh data. There is an input, at least one hidden layer of nodes and an output. Each node applies a function and once the weight crosses it\u2019s specified threshold, the data is transmitted to the next layer. A network is typically called a deep neural network if it has at least 2 hidden layers.[101]\nLearning algorithms for neural networks use local search to choose the weights that will get the right output for each input during training. The most common training technique is the backpropagation algorithm.[102]\nNeural networks learn to model complex relationships between inputs and outputs and find patterns in data. In theory, a neural network can learn any function.[103]\n\nIn feedforward neural networks the signal passes in only one direction.[104]\nRecurrent neural networks feed the output signal back into the input, which allows short-term memories of previous input events. Long short term memory is the most successful network architecture for recurrent networks.[105]\nPerceptrons[106]\nuse only a single layer of neurons, deep learning[107] uses multiple layers.\nConvolutional neural networks strengthen the connection between neurons that are \"close\" to each other \u2013 this is especially important in image processing, where a local set of neurons must identify an \"edge\" before the network can identify an object.[108]\n\n\n\nDeep learning \n\n\nDeep learning[107]\nuses several layers of neurons between the network's inputs and outputs. The multiple layers can progressively extract higher-level features from the raw input. For example, in image processing, lower layers may identify edges, while higher layers may identify the concepts relevant to a human such as digits or letters or faces.[109]\nDeep learning has drastically improved the performance of programs in many important subfields of artificial intelligence, including computer vision, speech recognition, natural language processing, image classification[110]\nand others. The reason that deep learning performs so well in so many applications is not known as of 2023.[111]\nThe sudden success of deep learning in 2012\u20132015 did not occur because of some new discovery or theoretical breakthrough (deep neural networks and backpropagation had been described by many people, as far back as the 1950s)[i]\nbut because of two factors: the incredible increase in computer power (including the hundred-fold increase in speed by switching to GPUs) and the availability of vast amounts of training data, especially the giant curated datasets used for benchmark testing, such as ImageNet.[j]\n\n\nGPT \nGenerative pre-trained transformers (GPT) are large language models that are based on the semantic relationships between words in sentences (natural language processing). Text-based GPT models are pre-trained on a large corpus of text which can be from the internet. The pre-training consists in predicting the next token (a token being usually a word, subword, or punctuation). Throughout this pre-training, GPT models accumulate knowledge about the world, and can then generate human-like text by repeatedly predicting the next token. Typically, a subsequent training phase makes the model more truthful, useful and harmless, usually with a technique called reinforcement learning from human feedback (RLHF). Current GPT models are still prone to generating falsehoods called \"hallucinations\", although this can be reduced with RLHF and quality data. They are used in chatbots which allow you to ask a question or request a task in simple text.[120][121]\nCurrent models and services include: Bard, ChatGPT, Claude, Copilot and LLaMA.[122] Multimodal GPT models can process different types of data (modalities) such as images, videos, sound and text.[123]\n\nSpecialized hardware and software \nMain articles: Programming languages for artificial intelligence and Hardware for artificial intelligence\nIn the late 2010s, graphics processing units (GPUs) that were increasingly designed with AI-specific enhancements and used with specialized TensorFlow software, had replaced previously used central processing unit (CPUs) as the dominant means for large-scale (commercial and academic) machine learning models' training.[124]\nHistorically, specialized languages, such as Lisp, Prolog, Python and others, had been used.\n\nApplications \nMain article: Applications of artificial intelligenceAI and machine learning technology is used in most of the essential applications of the 2020s, including: search engines (such as Google Search), targeting online advertisements, recommendation systems (offered by Netflix, YouTube or Amazon), driving internet traffic, targeted advertising (AdSense, Facebook), virtual assistants (such as Siri or Alexa), autonomous vehicles (including drones, ADAS and self-driving cars), automatic language translation (Microsoft Translator, Google Translate), facial recognition (Apple's Face ID or Microsoft's DeepFace and Google's FaceNet) and image labeling (used by Facebook, Apple's iPhoto and TikTok).\nHealth and Medicine \nMain article: Artificial intelligence in healthcare\nThe application of AI in medicine and medical research has the potential to increase patient care and quality of life.[125] Through the lens of the Hippocratic Oath, medical professionals are ethically compelled to use AI, if applications can more accurately diagnose and treat patients.\nFor medical research, AI is an important tool for processing and integrating Big Data. This is particularly important for organoid and tissue engineering development which use microscopy imaging as a key technique in fabrication.[126] \nIt has been suggested that AI can overcome discrepancies in funding allocated to different fields of research, such as cardiovascular research which typically receives a disproportionately less funding that areas such as cancer research, relative to the morbidity and mortality of these diseases.[126] New AI tools can deepen our understanding of biomedically relevant pathways. For example, AlphaFold 2 (2021) demonstrated the ability to approximate, in hours rather than months, the 3D structure of a protein.[127]\n\n\nGames \n This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2024 ) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) \nMain article: Game artificial intelligence\nGame playing programs have been used since the 1950s to demonstrate and test AI's most advanced techniques. Deep Blue became the first computer chess-playing system to beat a reigning world chess champion, Garry Kasparov, on 11 May 1997. In 2011, in a Jeopardy! quiz show exhibition match, IBM's question answering system, Watson, defeated the two greatest Jeopardy! champions, Brad Rutter and Ken Jennings, by a significant margin. In March 2016, AlphaGo won 4 out of 5 games of Go in a match with Go champion Lee Sedol, becoming the first computer Go-playing system to beat a professional Go player without handicaps. Then it defeated Ke Jie in 2017, who at the time continuously held the world No. 1 ranking for two years. Other programs handle imperfect-information games; such as for poker at a superhuman level, Pluribus and Cepheus. DeepMind in the 2010s developed a \"generalized artificial intelligence\" that could learn many diverse Atari games on its own. In 2021 an AI agent competed in a Playstation Gran Turismo competition, winning against four of the world\u2019s best Gran Turismo drivers using deep reinforcement learning.[128]\n\nMilitary \n This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2024 ) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) \nMain article: Military artificial intelligence\nVarious countries are deploying AI military applications. The main applications enhance command and control, communications, sensors, integration and interoperability. Research is targeting intelligence collection and analysis, logistics, cyber operations, information operations, and semiautonomous and autonomous vehicles. AI technologies enable coordination of sensors and effectors, threat detection and identification, marking of enemy positions, target acquisition, coordination and deconfliction of distributed Joint Fires between networked combat vehicles involving manned and unmanned teams. AI was incorporated into military operations in Iraq and Syria.\n\nGenerative AI \n This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2024 ) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) \nMain article: Generative artificial intelligence\nVincent van Gogh in watercolour created by generative AI software\n\nIn the early 2020s, generative AI gained widespread prominence. ChatGPT, based on GPT-3, and other large language models, were tried by 14% of Americans adults. The increasing realism and ease-of-use of AI-based text-to-image generators such as Midjourney, DALL-E, and Stable Diffusion sparked a trend of viral AI-generated photos. Widespread attention was gained by a fake photo of Pope Francis wearing a white puffer coat, the fictional arrest of Donald Trump, and a hoax of an attack on the Pentagon, as well as the usage in professional creative arts.\n\nIndustry Specific Tasks \n This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2024 ) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) \nThere are also thousands of successful AI applications used to solve specific problems for specific industries or institutions. In a 2017 survey, one in five companies reported they had incorporated \"AI\" in some offerings or processes. A few examples are energy storage, medical diagnosis, military logistics, applications that predict the result of judicial decisions, foreign policy, or supply chain management.\nIn agriculture, AI has helped farmers identify areas that need irrigation, fertilization, pesticide treatments or increasing yield. Agronomists use AI to conduct research and development. AI has been used to predict the ripening time for crops such as tomatoes, monitor soil moisture, operate agricultural robots, conduct predictive analytics, classify livestock pig call emotions, automate greenhouses, detect diseases and pests, and save water.\nArtificial intelligence is used in astronomy to analyze increasing amounts of available data and applications, mainly for \"classification, regression, clustering, forecasting, generation, discovery, and the development of new scientific insights\" for example for discovering exoplanets, forecasting solar activity, and distinguishing between signals and instrumental effects in gravitational wave astronomy. It could also be used for activities in space such as space exploration, including analysis of data from space missions, real-time science decisions of spacecraft, space debris avoidance, and more autonomous operation.\n\nEthics \nAI, like any powerful technology, has potential benefits and potential risks. AI may be able to advance science and find solutions for serious problems: Demis Hassabis of Deep Mind hopes to \"solve intelligence, and then use that to solve everything else\".[129] However, as the use of AI has become widespread, several unintended consequences and risks have been identified.[130]\nAnyone looking to use machine learning as part of real-world, in-production systems needs to factor ethics into their AI training processes and strive to avoid bias. This is especially true when using AI algorithms that are inherently unexplainable in deep learning.[131]\n\nRisks and harm \nPrivacy and copyright \nFurther information: Information privacy and Artificial intelligence and copyright\nMachine learning algorithms require large amounts of data. The techniques used to acquire this data have raised concerns about privacy, surveillance and copyright.\nTechnology companies collect a wide range of data from their users, including online activity, geolocation data, video and audio.[132]\nFor example, in order to build speech recognition algorithms, Amazon have recorded millions of private conversations and allowed temps to listen to and transcribe some of them.[133]\nOpinions about this widespread surveillance range from those who see it as a necessary evil to those for whom it is clearly unethical and a violation of the right to privacy.[134]\n\nAI developers argue that this is the only way to deliver valuable applications. and have developed several techniques that attempt to preserve privacy while still obtaining the data, such as data aggregation, de-identification and differential privacy.[135] Since 2016, some privacy experts, such as Cynthia Dwork, began to view privacy in terms of fairness. Brian Christian wrote that experts have pivoted \"from the question of 'what they know' to the question of 'what they're doing with it'.\".[136] \nGenerative AI is often trained on unlicensed copyrighted works, including in domains such as images or computer code; the output is then used under a rationale of \"fair use\". Also website owners who do not wish to have their copyrighted content be AI indexed or \u2018scraped\u2019 can add code to their site, as you would, if you did not want your website to be indexed by a search engine which is currently available to certain services such as OpenAI. Experts disagree about how well, and under what circumstances, this rationale will hold up in courts of law; relevant factors may include \"the purpose and character of the use of the copyrighted work\" and \"the effect upon the potential market for the copyrighted work\".[137] In 2023, leading authors (including John Grisham and Jonathan Franzen) sued AI companies for using their work to train generative AI.[138][139]\n\nMisinformation \nSee also: YouTube \u00a7&#160;Moderation and offensive content\nYouTube, Facebook and others use recommender systems to guide users to more content. These AI programs were given the goal of maximizing user engagement (that is, the only goal was to keep people watching). The AI learned that users tended to choose misinformation, conspiracy theories, and extreme partisan content, and, to keep them watching, the AI recommended more of it. Users also tended to watch more content on the same subject, so the AI led people into filter bubbles where they received multiple versions of the same misinformation.[140] This convinced many users that the misinformation was true, and ultimately undermined trust in institutions, the media and the government.[141] The AI program had correctly learned to maximize its goal, but the result was harmful to society. After the U.S. election in 2016, major technology companies took steps to mitigate the problem.\nIn 2022, generative AI began to create images, audio, video and text that are indistinguishable from real photographs, recordings, films or human writing. It is possible for bad actors to use this technology to create massive amounts of misinformation or propaganda.[142] AI pioneer Geoffrey Hinton expressed concern about AI enabling \"authoritarian leaders to manipulate their electorates\" on a large scale, among other risks.[143]\n\nAlgorithmic bias and fairness \nMain articles: Algorithmic bias and Fairness (machine learning)\nMachine learning applications will be biased if they learn from biased data.[144]\nThe developers may not be aware that the bias exists.[145]\nBias can be introduced by the way training data is selected and by the way a model is deployed.[146][144] If a biased algorithm is used to make decisions that can seriously harm people (as it can in medicine, finance, recruitment, housing or policing) then the algorithm may cause discrimination.[147]\nFairness in machine learning is the study of how to prevent the harm caused by algorithmic bias. It has become serious area of academic study within AI. Researchers have discovered it is not always possible to define \"fairness\" in a way that satisfies all stakeholders.[148]\nOn June 28, 2015, Google Photos's new image labeling feature mistakenly identified Jacky Alcine and a friend as \"gorillas\" because they were black. The system was trained on a dataset that contained very few images of black people,[149] a problem called \"sample size disparity\".[150] Google \"fixed\" this problem by preventing the system from labelling anything as a \"gorilla\". Eight years later, in 2023, Google Photos still could not identify a gorilla, and neither could similar products from Apple, Facebook, Microsoft and Amazon.[151]\nCOMPAS is a commercial program widely used by U.S. courts to assess the likelihood of a defendant becoming a recidivist.\nIn 2016, Julia Angwin at ProPublica discovered that COMPAS exhibited racial bias, despite the fact that the program was not told the races of the defendants. Although the error rate for both whites and blacks was calibrated equal at exactly 61%, the errors for each race were different\u2014the system consistently overestimated the chance that a black person would re-offend and would underestimate the chance that a white person would not re-offend.[152] In 2017, several researchers[k] showed that it was mathematically impossible for COMPAS to accommodate all possible measures of fairness when the base rates of re-offense were different for whites and blacks in the data.[154]\n\nA program can make biased decisions even if the data does not explicitly mention a problematic feature (such as \"race\" or \"gender\"). The feature will correlate with other features (like \"address\", \"shopping history\" or \"first name\"), and the program will make the same decisions based on these features as it would on \"race\" or \"gender\".[155]\nMoritz Hardt said \"the most robust fact in this research area is that fairness through blindness doesn't work.\"[156]\n\nCriticism of COMPAS highlighted a deeper problem with the misuse of AI. Machine learning models are designed to make \"predictions\" that are only valid if we assume that the future will resemble the past. If they are trained on data that includes the results of racist decisions in the past, machine learning models must predict that racist decisions will be made in the future. Unfortunately, if an application then uses these predictions as recommendations, some of these \"recommendations\" will likely be racist.[157] Thus, machine learning is not well suited to help make decisions in areas where there is hope that the future will be better than the past. It is necessarily descriptive and not proscriptive.[l]\nBias and unfairness may go undetected because the developers are overwhelmingly white and male: among AI engineers, about 4% are black and 20% are women.[150]\nAt its 2022 Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency (ACM FAccT 2022) the Association for Computing Machinery, in Seoul, South Korea, presented and published findings recommending that until AI and robotics systems are demonstrated to be free of bias mistakes, they are unsafe and the use of self-learning neural networks trained on vast, unregulated sources of flawed internet data should be curtailed.[159]\n\nLack of transparency \nSee also: Explainable AI, Algorithmic transparency, and Right to explanation\nLidar testing vehicle for autonomous driving\n\nMany AI systems are so complex that their designers cannot explain how they reach their decisions.[160] Particularly with deep neural networks, in which there are a large amount of non-linear relationships between inputs and outputs. But some popular explainability techniques exist.[161]\nThere have been many cases where a machine learning program passed rigorous tests, but nevertheless learned something different than what the programmers intended. For example, a system that could identify skin diseases better than medical professionals was found to actually have a strong tendency to classify images with a ruler as \"cancerous\", because pictures of malignancies typically include a ruler to show the scale.[162] Another machine learning system designed to help effectively allocate medical resources was found to classify patients with asthma as being at \"low risk\" of dying from pneumonia. Having asthma is actually a severe risk factor, but since the patients having asthma would usually get much more medical care, they were relatively unlikely to die according to the training data. The correlation between asthma and low risk of dying from pneumonia was real, but misleading.[163]\nPeople who have been harmed by an algorithm's decision have a right to an explanation. Doctors, for example, are required to clearly and completely explain the reasoning behind any decision they make.[clarification needed ][164] Early drafts of the European Union's General Data Protection Regulation in 2016 included an explicit statement that this right exists.[m] Industry experts noted that this is an unsolved problem with no solution in sight. Regulators argued that nevertheless the harm is real: if the problem has no solution, the tools should not be used.[165]\nDARPA established the XAI (\"Explainable Artificial Intelligence\") program in 2014 to try and solve these problems.[166]\nThere are several potential solutions to the transparency problem. SHAP helps visualise the contribution of each feature to the output.[167] LIME can locally approximate a model with a simpler, interpretable model.[168] Multitask learning provides a large number of outputs in addition to the target classification. These other outputs can help developers deduce what the network has learned.[169] Deconvolution, DeepDream and other generative methods can allow developers to see what different layers of a deep network have learned and produce output that can suggest what the network is learning.[170]\n\n Conflict, surveillance and weaponized AI \nMain articles: Lethal autonomous weapon, Artificial intelligence arms race, and AI safety\nA lethal autonomous weapon is a machine that locates, selects and engages human targets without human supervision.[n] By 2015, over fifty countries were reported to be researching battlefield robots.[172] These weapons are considered especially dangerous for several reasons: if they kill an innocent person it is not clear who should be held accountable, it is unlikely they will reliably choose targets, and, if produced at scale, they are potentially weapons of mass destruction.[173] In 2014, 30 nations (including China) supported a ban on autonomous weapons under the United Nations' Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, however the United States and others disagreed.[174]\nAI provides a number of tools that are particularly useful for authoritarian governments: smart spyware, face recognition and voice recognition allow widespread surveillance; such surveillance allows machine learning to classify potential enemies of the state and can prevent them from hiding; recommendation systems can precisely target propaganda and misinformation for maximum effect; deepfakes and generative AI aid in producing misinformation; advanced AI can make authoritarian centralized decision making more competitive with liberal and decentralized systems such as markets.[175]\nAI facial recognition systems are used for mass surveillance, notably in China.[176][177] In 2019, Bengaluru, India deployed AI-managed traffic signals. This system uses cameras to monitor traffic density and adjust signal timing based on the interval needed to clear traffic.[178] Terrorists, criminals and rogue states can use weaponized AI such as advanced digital warfare and lethal autonomous weapons. Machine-learning AI is also able to design tens of thousands of toxic molecules in a matter of hours.[179]\n\nTechnological unemployment \nMain articles: Workplace impact of artificial intelligence and Technological unemployment\nFrom the early days of the development of artificial intelligence there have been arguments, for example those put forward by Joseph Weizenbaum, about whether tasks that can be done by computers actually should be done by them, given the difference between computers and humans, and between quantitative calculation and qualitative, value-based judgement.[180]\nEconomists have frequently highlighted the risks of redundancies from AI, and speculated about unemployment if there is no adequate social policy for full employment.[181]\nIn the past, technology has tended to increase rather than reduce total employment, but economists acknowledge that \"we're in uncharted territory\" with AI.[182] A survey of economists showed disagreement about whether the increasing use of robots and AI will cause a substantial increase in long-term unemployment, but they generally agree that it could be a net benefit if productivity gains are redistributed.[183] Risk estimates vary; for example, in the 2010s, Michael Osborne and Carl Benedikt Frey estimated 47% of U.S. jobs are at \"high risk\" of potential automation, while an OECD report classified only 9% of U.S. jobs as \"high risk\".[o][185] The methodology of speculating about future employment levels has been criticised as lacking evidential foundation, and for implying that technology, rather than social policy, creates unemployment, as opposed to redundancies.[181]\nUnlike previous waves of automation, many middle-class jobs may be eliminated by artificial intelligence; The Economist stated in 2015 that \"the worry that AI could do to white-collar jobs what steam power did to blue-collar ones during the Industrial Revolution\" is \"worth taking seriously\".[186] Jobs at extreme risk range from paralegals to fast food cooks, while job demand is likely to increase for care-related professions ranging from personal healthcare to the clergy.[187]\nIn April 2023, it was reported that 70% of the jobs for Chinese video game illlustrators had been eliminated by generative artificial intelligence.[188][189]\n\nExistential risk \nMain article: Existential risk from artificial general intelligence\nIt has been argued AI will become so powerful that humanity may irreversibly lose control of it. This could, as physicist Stephen Hawking stated, \"spell the end of the human race\".[190] This scenario has been common in science fiction, when a computer or robot suddenly develops a human-like \"self-awareness\" (or \"sentience\" or \"consciousness\") and becomes a malevolent character.[p] These sci-fi scenarios are misleading in several ways.\nFirst, AI does not require human-like \"sentience\" to be an existential risk. Modern AI programs are given specific goals and use learning and intelligence to achieve them. Philosopher Nick Bostrom argued that if one gives almost any goal to a sufficiently powerful AI, it may choose to destroy humanity to achieve it (he used the example of a paperclip factory manager).[192] Stuart Russell gives the example of household robot that tries to find a way to kill its owner to prevent it from being unplugged, reasoning that \"you can't fetch the coffee if you're dead.\"[193] In order to be safe for humanity, a superintelligence would have to be genuinely aligned with humanity's morality and values so that it is \"fundamentally on our side\".[194]\nSecond, Yuval Noah Harari argues that AI does not require a robot body or physical control to pose an existential risk. The essential parts of civilization are not physical. Things like ideologies, law, government, money and the economy are made of language; they exist because there are stories that billions of people believe. The current prevalence of misinformation suggests that an AI could use language to convince people to believe anything, even to take actions that are destructive.[195]\nThe opinions amongst experts and industry insiders are mixed, with sizable fractions both concerned and unconcerned by risk from eventual superintelligent AI.[196] Personalities such as Stephen Hawking, Bill Gates, and Elon Musk have expressed concern about existential risk from AI.[197]\nIn the early 2010s, experts argued that the risks are too distant in the future to warrant research or that humans will be valuable from the perspective of a superintelligent machine.[198] However, after 2016, the study of current and future risks and possible solutions became a serious area of research.[199]\nAI pioneers including Fei-Fei Li, Geoffrey Hinton, Yoshua Bengio, Cynthia Breazeal, Rana el Kaliouby, Demis Hassabis, Joy Buolamwini, and Sam Altman have expressed concerns about the risks of AI. In 2023, many leading AI experts issued the joint statement that \"Mitigating the risk of extinction from AI should be a global priority alongside other societal-scale risks such as pandemics and nuclear war\".[200]\nOther researchers, however, spoke in favor of a less dystopian view. AI pioneer Juergen Schmidhuber did not sign the joint statement, emphasising that in 95% of all cases, AI research is about making \"human lives longer and healthier and easier.\"[201] While the tools that are now being used to improve lives can also be used by bad actors, \"they can also be used against the bad actors.\"[202][203] Andrew Ng also argued that \"it\u2019s a mistake to fall for the doomsday hype on AI\u2014and that regulators who do will only benefit vested interests.\"[204] Yann LeCun \"scoffs at his peers\u2019 dystopian scenarios of supercharged misinformation and even, eventually, human extinction.\"[205]\n\nLimiting AI \nPossible options for limiting AI include: using Embedded Ethics or Constitutional AI where companies or governments can add a policy, restricting high levels of compute power in training, restricting the ability to rewrite its own code base, restrict certain AI techniques but not in the training phase, open-source (transparency) vs proprietary (could be more restricted), backup model with redundancy, restricting security, privacy and copyright, restricting or controlling the memory, real-time monitoring, risk analysis, emergency shut-off, rigorous simulation and testing, model certification, assess known vulnerabilities, restrict the training material, restrict access to the internet, issue terms of use.\n\nEthical machines and alignment \nMain articles: Machine ethics, AI safety, Friendly artificial intelligence, Artificial moral agents, and Human Compatible\nFriendly AI are machines that have been designed from the beginning to minimize risks and to make choices that benefit humans. Eliezer Yudkowsky, who coined the term, argues that developing friendly AI should be a higher research priority: it may require a large investment and it must be completed before AI becomes an existential risk.[206]\nMachines with intelligence have the potential to use their intelligence to make ethical decisions. The field of machine ethics provides machines with ethical principles and procedures for resolving ethical dilemmas.[207]\nThe field of machine ethics is also called computational morality,[207]\nand was founded at an AAAI symposium in 2005.[208]\n\nOther approaches include Wendell Wallach's \"artificial moral agents\"[209]\nand Stuart J. Russell's three principles for developing provably beneficial machines.[210]\n\n\nFrameworks \nArtificial Intelligence projects can have their ethical permissibility tested while designing, developing, and implementing an AI system. An AI framework such as the Care and Act Framework containing the SUM values \u2013 developed by the Alan Turing Institute tests projects in four main areas:[211][212]\n\nRESPECT the dignity of individual people\nCONNECT with other people sincerely, openly and inclusively\nCARE for the wellbeing of everyone\nPROTECT social values, justice and the public interest\nOther developments in ethical frameworks include those decided upon during the Asilomar Conference, the Montreal Declaration for Responsible AI, and the IEEE's Ethics of Autonomous Systems initiative, among others;[213] however, these principles do not go without their criticisms, especially regards to the people chosen contributes to these frameworks.[214]\nPromotion of the wellbeing of the people and communities that these technologies affect requires consideration of the social and ethical implications at all stages of AI system design, development and implementation, and collaboration between job roles such as data scientists, product managers, data engineers, domain experts, and delivery managers.[215]\n\nRegulation \nMain articles: Regulation of artificial intelligence, Regulation of algorithms, and AI safety\nThe first global AI Safety Summit was held in 2023 with a declaration calling for international co-operation\n\nThe regulation of artificial intelligence is the development of public sector policies and laws for promoting and regulating artificial intelligence (AI); it is therefore related to the broader regulation of algorithms.[216]\nThe regulatory and policy landscape for AI is an emerging issue in jurisdictions globally.[217] According to AI Index at Stanford, the annual number of AI-related laws passed in the 127 survey countries jumped from one passed in 2016 to 37 passed in 2022 alone.[218][219]\nBetween 2016 and 2020, more than 30 countries adopted dedicated strategies for AI.[220]\nMost EU member states had released national AI strategies, as had Canada, China, India, Japan, Mauritius, the Russian Federation, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, US and Vietnam. Others were in the process of elaborating their own AI strategy, including Bangladesh, Malaysia and Tunisia.[220]\nThe Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence was launched in June 2020, stating a need for AI to be developed in accordance with human rights and democratic values, to ensure public confidence and trust in the technology.[220] Henry Kissinger, Eric Schmidt, and Daniel Huttenlocher published a joint statement in November 2021 calling for a government commission to regulate AI.[221]\nIn 2023, OpenAI leaders published recommendations for the governance of superintelligence, which they believe may happen in less than 10 years.[222] In 2023, the United Nations also launched an advisory body to provide recommendations on AI governance; the body comprises technology company executives, governments officials and academics.[223]\nIn a 2022 Ipsos survey, attitudes towards AI varied greatly by country; 78% of Chinese citizens, but only 35% of Americans, agreed that \"products and services using AI have more benefits than drawbacks\".[218] A 2023 Reuters\/Ipsos poll found that 61% of Americans agree, and 22% disagree, that AI poses risks to humanity.[224]\nIn a 2023 Fox News poll, 35% of Americans thought it \"very important\", and an additional 41% thought it \"somewhat important\", for the federal government to regulate AI, versus 13% responding \"not very important\" and 8% responding \"not at all important\".[225][226]\n\nIn November 2023, the first global AI Safety Summit was held in Bletchley Park in the UK to discuss the near and far term risks of AI and the possibility of mandatory and voluntary regulatory frameworks.[227] 28 countries including the United States, China, and the European Union issued a declaration at the start of the summit, calling for international co-operation to manage the challenges and risks of artificial intelligence.[228][229]\n\nHistory \nMain article: History of artificial intelligence\nFor a chronological guide, see Timeline of artificial intelligence.\nThe study of mechanical or \"formal\" reasoning began with philosophers and mathematicians in antiquity. The study of logic led directly to Alan Turing's theory of computation, which suggested that a machine, by shuffling symbols as simple as \"0\" and \"1\", could simulate both mathematical deduction and formal reasoning, which is known as the Church\u2013Turing thesis.[230] This, along with concurrent discoveries in cybernetics and information theory, led researchers to consider the possibility of building an \"electronic brain\".[q][232]\nAlan Turing was thinking about machine intelligence at least as early as 1941, when he circulated a paper on machine intelligence which could be the earliest paper in the field of AI \u2013 though it is now lost.[2] The first available paper generally recognized as \"AI\" was McCullouch and Pitts design for Turing-complete \"artificial neurons\" in 1943 \u2013 the first mathematical model of a neural network.[233] The paper was influenced by Turing's earlier paper 'On Computable Numbers' from 1936 using similar two-state boolean 'neurons', but was the first to apply it to neuronal function.[2]\nThe term 'Machine Intelligence' was used by Alan Turing during his life which was later often referred to as 'Artificial Intelligence' after his death in 1954. In 1950 Turing published the best known of his papers 'Computing Machinery and Intelligence', the paper introduced his concept of what is now known as the Turing test to the general public. Then followed three radio broadcasts on AI by Turing, the lectures: 'Intelligent Machinery, A Heretical Theory\u2019, \u2018Can Digital Computers Think\u2019? and the panel discussion \u2018Can Automatic Calculating Machines be Said to Think\u2019. By 1956 computer intelligence had been actively pursued for more than a decade in Britain; the earliest AI programmes were written there in 1951\u20131952.[2]\nIn 1951, using a Ferranti Mark 1 computer of the University of Manchester, checkers and chess programs were wrote where you could play against the computer.[234] The field of American AI research was founded at a workshop at Dartmouth College in 1956.[r][3] The attendees became the leaders of AI research in the 1960s.[s] They and their students produced programs that the press described as \"astonishing\":[t] computers were learning checkers strategies, solving word problems in algebra, proving logical theorems and speaking English.[u][4] Artificial Intelligence laboratories were set up at a number of British and US Universities in the latter 1950s and early 1960s.[2]\nThey had, however, underestimated the difficulty of the problem.[v] Both the U.S. and British governments cut off exploratory research in response to the criticism of Sir James Lighthill[239] and ongoing pressure from the U.S. Congress to fund more productive projects. Minsky's and Papert's book Perceptrons was understood as proving that artificial neural networks would never be useful for solving real-world tasks, thus discrediting the approach altogether.[240] The \"AI winter\", a period when obtaining funding for AI projects was difficult, followed.[6]\nIn the early 1980s, AI research was revived by the commercial success of expert systems,[241] a form of AI program that simulated the knowledge and analytical skills of human experts. By 1985, the market for AI had reached over a billion dollars. At the same time, Japan's fifth generation computer project inspired the U.S. and British governments to restore funding for academic research.[5] However, beginning with the collapse of the Lisp Machine market in 1987, AI once again fell into disrepute, and a second, longer-lasting winter began.[7]\nMany researchers began to doubt that the current practices would be able to imitate all the processes of human cognition, especially perception, robotics, learning and pattern recognition.[242] A number of researchers began to look into \"sub-symbolic\" approaches.[243] Robotics researchers, such as Rodney Brooks, rejected \"representation\" in general and focussed directly on engineering machines that move and survive.[w] Judea Pearl, Lofti Zadeh and others developed methods that handled incomplete and uncertain information by making reasonable guesses rather than precise logic.[84][248] But the most important development was the revival of \"connectionism\", including neural network research, by Geoffrey Hinton and others.[249] In 1990, Yann LeCun successfully showed that convolutional neural networks can recognize handwritten digits, the first of many successful applications of neural networks.[250]\nAI gradually restored its reputation in the late 1990s and early 21st century by exploiting formal mathematical methods and by finding specific solutions to specific problems. This \"narrow\" and \"formal\" focus allowed researchers to produce verifiable results and collaborate with other fields (such as statistics, economics and mathematics).[251]\nBy 2000, solutions developed by AI researchers were being widely used, although in the 1990s they were rarely described as \"artificial intelligence\".[252]\n\nSeveral academic researchers became concerned that AI was no longer pursuing the original goal of creating versatile, fully intelligent machines. Beginning around 2002, they founded the subfield of artificial general intelligence (or \"AGI\"), which had several well-funded institutions by the 2010s.[11]\nDeep learning began to dominate industry benchmarks in 2012 and was adopted throughout the field.[8]\nFor many specific tasks, other methods were abandoned.[x]\nDeep learning's success was based on both hardware improvements (faster computers,[254] graphics processing units, cloud computing[255])\nand access to large amounts of data[256] (including curated datasets,[255] such as ImageNet).\n\nDeep learning's success led to an enormous increase in interest and funding in AI.[y]\nThe amount of machine learning research (measured by total publications) increased by 50% in the years 2015\u20132019,[220]\nand WIPO reported that AI was the most prolific emerging technology in terms of the number of patent applications and granted patents.[257]\nAccording to 'AI Impacts', about $50 billion annually was invested in \"AI\" around 2022 in the US alone and about 20% of new US Computer Science PhD graduates have specialized in \"AI\";[258]\nabout 800,000 \"AI\"-related US job openings existed in 2022.[259] The large majority of the advances have occurred within the United States, with its companies, universities, and research labs leading artificial intelligence research.[10]\n\nIn 2016, issues of fairness and the misuse of technology were catapulted into center stage at machine learning conferences, publications vastly increased, funding became available, and many researchers re-focussed their careers on these issues. The alignment problem became a serious field of academic study.[199]\n\nPhilosophy \nMain article: Philosophy of artificial intelligence\nDefining artificial intelligence \nMain articles: Turing test, Intelligent agent, Dartmouth workshop, and Synthetic intelligence\nAlan Turing wrote in 1950 \"I propose to consider the question 'can machines think'?\"[260] He advised changing the question from whether a machine \"thinks\", to \"whether or not it is possible for machinery to show intelligent behaviour\".[260] He devised the Turing test, which measures the ability of a machine to simulate human conversation.[261] Since we can only observe the behavior of the machine, it does not matter if it is \"actually\" thinking or literally has a \"mind\". Turing notes that we can not determine these things about other people[z] but \"it is usual to have a polite convention that everyone thinks\"[262]\nRussell and Norvig agree with Turing that AI must be defined in terms of \"acting\" and not \"thinking\".[263] However, they are critical that the test compares machines to people. \"Aeronautical engineering texts,\" they wrote, \"do not define the goal of their field as making 'machines that fly so exactly like pigeons that they can fool other pigeons.' \"[264] AI founder John McCarthy agreed, writing that \"Artificial intelligence is not, by definition, simulation of human intelligence\".[265]\nMcCarthy defines intelligence as \"the computational part of the ability to achieve goals in the world.\"[266] Another AI founder, Marvin Minsky similarly defines it as \"the ability to solve hard problems\".[267] These definitions view intelligence in terms of well-defined problems with well-defined solutions, where both the difficulty of the problem and the performance of the program are direct measures of the \"intelligence\" of the machine\u2014and no other philosophical discussion is required, or may not even be possible.\nAnother definition has been adopted by Google,[268] a major practitioner in the field of AI. This definition stipulates the ability of systems to synthesize information as the manifestation of intelligence, similar to the way it is defined in biological intelligence.\n\nEvaluating approaches to AI \nNo established unifying theory or paradigm has guided AI research for most of its history.[aa] The unprecedented success of statistical machine learning in the 2010s eclipsed all other approaches (so much so that some sources, especially in the business world, use the term \"artificial intelligence\" to mean \"machine learning with neural networks\"). This approach is mostly sub-symbolic, soft and narrow (see below). Critics argue that these questions may have to be revisited by future generations of AI researchers.\n\nSymbolic AI and its limits \nSymbolic AI (or \"GOFAI\")[270] simulated the high-level conscious reasoning that people use when they solve puzzles, express legal reasoning and do mathematics. They were highly successful at \"intelligent\" tasks such as algebra or IQ tests. In the 1960s, Newell and Simon proposed the physical symbol systems hypothesis: \"A physical symbol system has the necessary and sufficient means of general intelligent action.\"[271]\nHowever, the symbolic approach failed on many tasks that humans solve easily, such as learning, recognizing an object or commonsense reasoning. Moravec's paradox is the discovery that high-level \"intelligent\" tasks were easy for AI, but low level \"instinctive\" tasks were extremely difficult.[272] Philosopher Hubert Dreyfus had argued since the 1960s that human expertise depends on unconscious instinct rather than conscious symbol manipulation, and on having a \"feel\" for the situation, rather than explicit symbolic knowledge.[273] Although his arguments had been ridiculed and ignored when they were first presented, eventually, AI research came to agree with him.[ab][16]\nThe issue is not resolved: sub-symbolic reasoning can make many of the same inscrutable mistakes that human intuition does, such as algorithmic bias. Critics such as Noam Chomsky argue continuing research into symbolic AI will still be necessary to attain general intelligence,[275][276] in part because sub-symbolic AI is a move away from explainable AI: it can be difficult or impossible to understand why a modern statistical AI program made a particular decision. The emerging field of neuro-symbolic artificial intelligence attempts to bridge the two approaches.\n\nNeat vs. scruffy \nMain article: Neats and scruffies\n\"Neats\" hope that intelligent behavior is described using simple, elegant principles (such as logic, optimization, or neural networks). \"Scruffies\" expect that it necessarily requires solving a large number of unrelated problems. Neats defend their programs with theoretical rigor, scruffies rely mainly on incremental testing to see if they work. This issue was actively discussed in the 1970s and 1980s,[277] but eventually was seen as irrelevant. Modern AI has elements of both.\n\nSoft vs. hard computing \nMain article: Soft computing\nFinding a provably correct or optimal solution is intractable for many important problems.[15] Soft computing is a set of techniques, including genetic algorithms, fuzzy logic and neural networks, that are tolerant of imprecision, uncertainty, partial truth and approximation. Soft computing was introduced in the late 1980s and most successful AI programs in the 21st century are examples of soft computing with neural networks.\n\nNarrow vs. general AI \nMain article: Artificial general intelligence\nAI researchers are divided as to whether to pursue the goals of artificial general intelligence and superintelligence directly or to solve as many specific problems as possible (narrow AI) in hopes these solutions will lead indirectly to the field's long-term goals.[278][279] General intelligence is difficult to define and difficult to measure, and modern AI has had more verifiable successes by focusing on specific problems with specific solutions. The experimental sub-field of artificial general intelligence studies this area exclusively.\n\n Machine consciousness, sentience and mind \nMain articles: Philosophy of artificial intelligence and Artificial consciousness\nThe philosophy of mind does not know whether a machine can have a mind, consciousness and mental states, in the same sense that human beings do. This issue considers the internal experiences of the machine, rather than its external behavior. Mainstream AI research considers this issue irrelevant because it does not affect the goals of the field: to build machines that can solve problems using intelligence. Russell and Norvig add that \"[t]he additional project of making a machine conscious in exactly the way humans are is not one that we are equipped to take on.\"[280] However, the question has become central to the philosophy of mind. It is also typically the central question at issue in artificial intelligence in fiction.\n\nConsciousness \nMain articles: Hard problem of consciousness and Theory of mind\nDavid Chalmers identified two problems in understanding the mind, which he named the \"hard\" and \"easy\" problems of consciousness.[281] The easy problem is understanding how the brain processes signals, makes plans and controls behavior. The hard problem is explaining how this feels or why it should feel like anything at all, assuming we are right in thinking that it truly does feel like something (Dennett's consciousness illusionism says this is an illusion). Human information processing is easy to explain, however, human subjective experience is difficult to explain. For example, it is easy to imagine a color-blind person who has learned to identify which objects in their field of view are red, but it is not clear what would be required for the person to know what red looks like.[282]\n\nComputationalism and functionalism \nMain articles: Computational theory of mind, Functionalism (philosophy of mind), and Chinese room\nComputationalism is the position in the philosophy of mind that the human mind is an information processing system and that thinking is a form of computing. Computationalism argues that the relationship between mind and body is similar or identical to the relationship between software and hardware and thus may be a solution to the mind\u2013body problem. This philosophical position was inspired by the work of AI researchers and cognitive scientists in the 1960s and was originally proposed by philosophers Jerry Fodor and Hilary Putnam.[283]\nPhilosopher John Searle characterized this position as \"strong AI\": \"The appropriately programmed computer with the right inputs and outputs would thereby have a mind in exactly the same sense human beings have minds.\"[ac] Searle counters this assertion with his Chinese room argument, which attempts to show that, even if a machine perfectly simulates human behavior, there is still no reason to suppose it also has a mind.[287]\n\nRobot rights \nMain article: Robot rights\nIf a machine has a mind and subjective experience, then it may also have sentience (the ability to feel), and if so it could also suffer; it has been argued that this could entitle it to certain rights.[288] Any hypothetical robot rights would lie on a spectrum with animal rights and human rights.[289] This issue has been considered in fiction for centuries,[290] and is now being considered by, for example, California's Institute for the Future; however, critics argue that the discussion is premature.[291]\n\nFuture \nSuperintelligence and the singularity \nA superintelligence is a hypothetical agent that would possess intelligence far surpassing that of the brightest and most gifted human mind.[279]\nIf research into artificial general intelligence produced sufficiently intelligent software, it might be able to reprogram and improve itself. The improved software would be even better at improving itself, leading to what I. J. Good called an \"intelligence explosion\" and Vernor Vinge called a \"singularity\".[292]\nHowever, technologies cannot improve exponentially indefinitely, and typically follow an S-shaped curve, slowing when they reach the physical limits of what the technology can do.[293]\n\nTranshumanism \nRobot designer Hans Moravec, cyberneticist Kevin Warwick, and inventor Ray Kurzweil have predicted that humans and machines will merge in the future into cyborgs that are more capable and powerful than either. This idea, called transhumanism, has roots in Aldous Huxley and Robert Ettinger.[294]\nEdward Fredkin argues that \"artificial intelligence is the next stage in evolution\", an idea first proposed by Samuel Butler's \"Darwin among the Machines\" as far back as 1863, and expanded upon by George Dyson in his book of the same name in 1998.[295]\n\nIn fiction \nMain article: Artificial intelligence in fiction\nThe word \"robot\" itself was coined by Karel \u010capek in his 1921 play R.U.R., the title standing for \"Rossum's Universal Robots\".\n\nThought-capable artificial beings have appeared as storytelling devices since antiquity,[296] and have been a persistent theme in science fiction.[297]\nA common trope in these works began with Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, where a human creation becomes a threat to its masters. This includes such works as Arthur C. Clarke's and Stanley Kubrick's 2001: A Space Odyssey (both 1968), with HAL 9000, the murderous computer in charge of the Discovery One spaceship, as well as The Terminator (1984) and The Matrix (1999). In contrast, the rare loyal robots such as Gort from The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951) and Bishop from Aliens (1986) are less prominent in popular culture.[298]\nIsaac Asimov introduced the Three Laws of Robotics in many books and stories, most notably the \"Multivac\" series about a super-intelligent computer of the same name. Asimov's laws are often brought up during lay discussions of machine ethics;[299] while almost all artificial intelligence researchers are familiar with Asimov's laws through popular culture, they generally consider the laws useless for many reasons, one of which is their ambiguity.[300]\nSeveral works use AI to force us to confront the fundamental question of what makes us human, showing us artificial beings that have the ability to feel, and thus to suffer. This appears in Karel \u010capek's R.U.R., the films A.I. Artificial Intelligence and Ex Machina, as well as the novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, by Philip K. Dick. Dick considers the idea that our understanding of human subjectivity is altered by technology created with artificial intelligence.[301]\n\nSee also \nAI effect\nArtificial intelligence detection software&#160;\u2013 Software to detect AI-generated contentPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets \nArtificial intelligence in healthcare&#160;\u2013 Overview of the use of artificial intelligence in healthcare\nBehavior selection algorithm&#160;\u2013 Algorithm that selects actions for intelligent agents\nBusiness process automation&#160;\u2013 Technology-enabled automation of complex business processes\nCase-based reasoning&#160;\u2013 Process of solving new problems based on the solutions of similar past problems\nEmergent algorithm&#160;\u2013 Algorithm exhibiting emergent behavior\nFemale gendering of AI technologies\nGlossary of artificial intelligence&#160;\u2013 List of definitions of terms and concepts commonly used in the study of artificial intelligence\nRobotic process automation&#160;\u2013 Form of business process automation technology\nWeak artificial intelligence&#160;\u2013 Form of artificial intelligence\nWetware computer&#160;\u2013 Computer composed of organic material\nIntelligence amplification&#160;\u2013 Use of information technology to augment human intelligence\nExplanatory notes \n\n\n^ a b This list of intelligent traits is based on the topics covered by the major AI textbooks, including: Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), Luger &amp; Stubblefield (2004), Poole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998) and Nilsson (1998) \n\n^ a b This list of tools is based on the topics covered by the major AI textbooks, including: Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), Luger &amp; Stubblefield (2004), Poole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998) and Nilsson (1998) \n\n^ It is among the reasons that expert systems proved to be inefficient for capturing knowledge.[30][31] \n\n^ \n\"Rational agent\" is general term used in economics, philosophy and theoretical artificial intelligence. It can refer to anything that directs its behavior to accomplish goals, such as a person, an animal, a corporation, a nation, or, in the case of AI, a computer program. \n\n^ Alan Turing discussed the centrality of learning as early as 1950, in his classic paper \"Computing Machinery and Intelligence\".[42] In 1956, at the original Dartmouth AI summer conference, Ray Solomonoff wrote a report on unsupervised probabilistic machine learning: \"An Inductive Inference Machine\".[43] \n\n^ See AI winter \u00a7&#160;Machine translation and the ALPAC report of 1966 \n\n^ \nCompared with symbolic logic, formal Bayesian inference is computationally expensive. For inference to be tractable, most observations must be conditionally independent of one another. AdSense uses a Bayesian network with over 300&#160;million edges to learn which ads to serve.[86] \n\n^ Expectation-maximization, one of the most popular algorithms in machine learning, allows clustering in the presence of unknown latent variables.[88] \n\n^ \nSome form of deep neural networks (without a specific learning algorithm) were described by:\nAlan Turing (1948);[112]\nFrank Rosenblatt(1957);[112]\nKarl Steinbuch and Roger David Joseph (1961).[113]\nDeep or recurrent networks that learned (or used gradient descent) were developed by:\nErnst Ising and Wilhelm Lenz (1925);[114]\nOliver Selfridge (1959);[113]\nAlexey Ivakhnenko and Valentin Lapa (1965);[114]\nKaoru Nakano (1977);[115]\nShun-Ichi Amari (1972);[115]\nJohn Joseph Hopfield (1982).[115]\nBackpropagation was independently discovered by:\nHenry J. Kelley (1960);[112]\nArthur E. Bryson (1962);[112]\nStuart Dreyfus (1962);[112]\nArthur E. Bryson and Yu-Chi Ho (1969);[112]\nSeppo Linnainmaa (1970);[116]\nPaul Werbos (1974).[112]\nIn fact, backpropagation and gradient descent are straight forward applications of Gottfried Leibniz' chain rule in calculus (1676),[117] and is essentially identical (for one layer) to the method of least squares, developed independently by Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss (1795) and Adrien-Marie Legendre (1805).[118] There are probably many others, yet to be discovered by historians of science. \n\n^ Geoffrey Hinton said, of his work on neural networks in the 1990s, \"our labeled datasets were thousands of times too small. [And] our computers were millions of times too slow\"[119] \n\n^ Including Jon Kleinberg (Cornell), Sendhil Mullainathan (University of Chicago), Cynthia Chouldechova (Carnegie Mellon) and Sam Corbett-Davis (Stanford)[153] \n\n^ Moritz Hardt (a director at the Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems) argues that machine learning \"is fundamentally the wrong tool for a lot of domains, where you're trying to design interventions and mechanisms that change the world.\"[158] \n\n^ When the law was passed in 2018, it still contained a form of this provision. \n\n^ This is the United Nations' definition, and includes things like land mines as well.[171] \n\n^ See table 4; 9% is both the OECD average and the US average.[184] \n\n^ Sometimes called a \"robopocalypse\".[191] \n\n^ \"Electronic brain\" was the term used by the press around this time.[231] \n\n^ \nDaniel Crevier wrote, \"the conference is generally recognized as the official birthdate of the new science.\"[235] Russell and Norvig called the conference \"the inception of artificial intelligence.\"[233] \n\n^ \nRussell and Norvig wrote \"for the next 20 years the field would be dominated by these people and their students.\"[236] \n\n^ \nRussell and Norvig wrote \"it was astonishing whenever a computer did anything kind of smartish\".[237] \n\n^ \nThe programs described are Arthur Samuel's checkers program for the IBM 701, Daniel Bobrow's STUDENT, Newell and Simon's Logic Theorist and Terry Winograd's SHRDLU. \n\n^ Russell and Norvig write: \"in almost all cases, these early systems failed on more difficult problems\"[238] \n\n^ \nEmbodied approaches to AI[244] were championed by Hans Moravec[245] and Rodney Brooks[246] and went by many names: Nouvelle AI.[246] Developmental robotics,[247] \n\n^ Matteo Wong wrote in The Atlantic: \"Whereas for decades, computer-science fields such as natural-language processing, computer vision, and robotics used extremely different methods, now they all use a programming method called \"deep learning.\" As a result, their code and approaches have become more similar, and their models are easier to integrate into one another.\"[253] \n\n^ Jack Clark wrote in Bloomberg: \"After a half-decade of quiet breakthroughs in artificial intelligence, 2015 has been a landmark year. Computers are smarter and learning faster than ever,\" and noted that the number of software projects that use machine learning at Google increased from a \"sporadic usage\" in 2012 to more than 2,700 projects in 2015.[255] \n\n^ See Problem of other minds \n\n^ Nils Nilsson wrote in 1983: \"Simply put, there is wide disagreement in the field about what AI is all about.\"[269] \n\n^ \nDaniel Crevier wrote that \"time has proven the accuracy and perceptiveness of some of Dreyfus's comments. Had he formulated them less aggressively, constructive actions they suggested might have been taken much earlier.\"[274] \n\n^ \nSearle presented this definition of \"Strong AI\" in 1999.[284] Searle's original formulation was \"The appropriately programmed computer really is a mind, in the sense that computers given the right programs can be literally said to understand and have other cognitive states.\"[285] Strong AI is defined similarly by Russell and Norvig: \"Stong AI \u2013 the assertion that machines that do so are actually thinking (as opposed to simulating thinking).\"[286] \n\n\nReferences \n\n\n^ Google (2016). \n\n^ a b c d e Copeland, J., ed. (2004). The Essential Turing: the ideas that gave birth to the computer age. Oxford, England: Clarendon Press. ISBN&#160;0-19-825079-7. \n\n^ a b \nDartmouth workshop:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, p.&#160;18)\nMcCorduck (2004, pp.&#160;111\u2013136)\nNRC (1999, pp.&#160;200\u2013201)\nThe proposal:\n\nMcCarthy et al. (1955)\n \n^ a b \nSuccessful programs the 1960s:\n\nMcCorduck (2004, pp.&#160;243\u2013252)\nCrevier (1993, pp.&#160;52\u2013107)\nMoravec (1988, p.&#160;9)\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;19\u201321)\n \n^ a b \nFunding initiatives in the early 1980s: Fifth Generation Project (Japan), Alvey (UK), Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation (US), Strategic Computing Initiative (US):\n\nMcCorduck (2004, pp.&#160;426\u2013441)\nCrevier (1993, pp.&#160;161\u2013162, 197\u2013203, 211, 240)\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, p.&#160;23)\nNRC (1999, pp.&#160;210\u2013211)\nNewquist (1994, pp.&#160;235\u2013248)\n \n^ a b \nFirst AI Winter, Lighthill report, Mansfield Amendment\nCrevier (1993, pp.&#160;115\u2013117)\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;21\u201322)\nNRC (1999, pp.&#160;212\u2013213)\nHowe (1994)\nNewquist (1994, pp.&#160;189\u2013201)\n \n^ a b \nSecond AI Winter:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, p.&#160;24)\nMcCorduck (2004, pp.&#160;430\u2013435)\nCrevier (1993, pp.&#160;209\u2013210)\nNRC (1999, pp.&#160;214\u2013216)\nNewquist (1994, pp.&#160;301\u2013318)\n \n^ a b \nDeep learning revolution, AlexNet:\nGoldman (2022)\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, p.&#160;26)\nMcKinsey (2018)\n \n^ Toews (2023). \n\n^ a b Frank (2023). \n\n^ a b c \nArtificial general intelligence:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;32\u201333, 1020\u20131021)\nProposal for the modern version:\n\nPennachin &amp; Goertzel (2007)\nWarnings of overspecialization in AI from leading researchers:\n\nNilsson (1995)\nMcCarthy (2007)\nBeal &amp; Winston (2009)\n \n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a71.2). \n\n^ \nProblem solving, puzzle solving, game playing and deduction:\n\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 3\u20135)\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 6) (constraint satisfaction)\nPoole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998, chpt. 2, 3, 7, 9)\nLuger &amp; Stubblefield (2004, chpt. 3, 4, 6, 8)\nNilsson (1998, chpt. 7\u201312)\n \n^ \nUncertain reasoning:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 12\u201318)\nPoole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998, pp.&#160;345\u2013395)\nLuger &amp; Stubblefield (2004, pp.&#160;333\u2013381)\nNilsson (1998, chpt. 7\u201312)\n \n^ a b c \nIntractability and efficiency and the combinatorial explosion:\n\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, p.&#160;21)\n \n^ a b c \nPsychological evidence of the prevalence sub-symbolic reasoning and knowledge:\nKahneman (2011)\nDreyfus &amp; Dreyfus (1986)\nWason &amp; Shapiro (1966)\nKahneman, Slovic &amp; Tversky (1982)\n \n^ \nKnowledge representation and knowledge engineering:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 10)\nPoole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998, pp.&#160;23\u201346, 69\u201381, 169\u2013233, 235\u2013277, 281\u2013298, 319\u2013345)\nLuger &amp; Stubblefield (2004, pp.&#160;227\u2013243),\nNilsson (1998, chpt. 17.1\u201317.4, 18)\n \n^ Smoliar &amp; Zhang (1994). \n\n^ Neumann &amp; M\u00f6ller (2008). \n\n^ Kuperman, Reichley &amp; Bailey (2006). \n\n^ McGarry (2005). \n\n^ Bertini, Del Bimbo &amp; Torniai (2006). \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), pp.&#160;272. \n\n^ \nRepresenting categories and relations: Semantic networks, description logics, inheritance (including frames and scripts):\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a710.2 &amp; 10.5),\nPoole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998, pp.&#160;174\u2013177),\nLuger &amp; Stubblefield (2004, pp.&#160;248\u2013258),\nNilsson (1998, chpt. 18.3)\n \n^ Representing events and time:Situation calculus, event calculus, fluent calculus (including solving the frame problem):\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a710.3),\nPoole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998, pp.&#160;281\u2013298),\nNilsson (1998, chpt. 18.2)\n \n^ \nCausal calculus:\nPoole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998, pp.&#160;335\u2013337)\n \n^ \nRepresenting knowledge about knowledge: Belief calculus, modal logics:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a710.4),\nPoole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998, pp.&#160;275\u2013277)\n \n^ a b \nDefault reasoning, Frame problem, default logic, non-monotonic logics, circumscription, closed world assumption, abduction:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a710.6)\nPoole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998, pp.&#160;248\u2013256, 323\u2013335)\nLuger &amp; Stubblefield (2004, pp.&#160;335\u2013363)\nNilsson (1998, ~18.3.3)\n(Poole et al. places abduction under \"default reasoning\". Luger et al. places this under \"uncertain reasoning\").\n\n \n^ a b \nBreadth of commonsense knowledge:\nLenat &amp; Guha (1989, Introduction)\nCrevier (1993, pp.&#160;113\u2013114),\nMoravec (1988, p.&#160;13),\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;241, 385, 982) (qualification problem)\n \n^ Newquist (1994), p.&#160;296. \n\n^ Crevier (1993), pp.&#160;204\u2013208. \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;528. \n\n^ \nAutomated planning:\n\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 11).\n \n^ \nAutomated decision making, Decision theory:\n\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 16\u201318).\n \n^ \nClassical planning:\n\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, Section 11.2).\n \n^ \nSensorless or \"conformant\" planning, contingent planning, replanning (a.k.a online planning):\n\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, Section 11.5).\n \n^ \nUncertain preferences:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, Section 16.7)\nInverse reinforcement learning:\n\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, Section 22.6)\n \n^ \nInformation value theory:\n\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, Section 16.6).\n \n^ \nMarkov decision process:\n\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 17).\n \n^ \nGame theory and multi-agent decision theory:\n\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 18).\n \n^ \nLearning:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 19\u201322)\nPoole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998, pp.&#160;397\u2013438)\nLuger &amp; Stubblefield (2004, pp.&#160;385\u2013542)\nNilsson (1998, chpt. 3.3, 10.3, 17.5, 20)\n \n^ Turing (1950). \n\n^ Solomonoff (1956). \n\n^ \nUnsupervised learning:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;653) (definition)\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;738\u2013740) (cluster analysis)\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;846\u2013860) (word embedding)\n \n^ a b \nSupervised learning:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a719.2) (Definition)\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, Chpt. 19\u201320) (Techniques)\n \n^ \nReinforcement learning:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 22)\nLuger &amp; Stubblefield (2004, pp.&#160;442\u2013449)\n \n^ \nTransfer learning:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;281)\nThe Economist (2016)\n \n^ \"Artificial Intelligence (AI): What Is AI and How Does It Work? | Built In\". builtin.com. Retrieved 30 October 2023 . \n\n^ \nComputational learning theory:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;672\u2013674)\nJordan &amp; Mitchell (2015)\n \n^ \nNatural language processing (NLP):\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 23\u201324)\nPoole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998, pp.&#160;91\u2013104)\nLuger &amp; Stubblefield (2004, pp.&#160;591\u2013632)\n \n^ \nSubproblems of NLP:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;849\u2013850)\n \n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;856\u2013858. \n\n^ Dickson (2022). \n\n^ Modern statistical and deep learning approaches to NLP:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 24)\nCambria &amp; White (2014)\n \n^ Vincent (2019). \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;875\u2013878. \n\n^ Bushwick (2023). \n\n^ \nComputer vision:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 25)\nNilsson (1998, chpt. 6)\n \n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), pp.&#160;849\u2013850. \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), pp.&#160;895\u2013899. \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), pp.&#160;899\u2013901. \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), pp.&#160;931\u2013938. \n\n^ MIT AIL (2014). \n\n^ \nAffective computing:\nThro (1993)\nEdelson (1991)\nTao &amp; Tan (2005)\nScassellati (2002)\n \n^ Waddell (2018). \n\n^ Poria et al. (2017). \n\n^ \nSearch algorithms:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, Chpt. 3\u20135)\nPoole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998, pp.&#160;113\u2013163)\nLuger &amp; Stubblefield (2004, pp.&#160;79\u2013164, 193\u2013219)\nNilsson (1998, chpt. 7\u201312)\n \n^ \nState space search:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 3)\n \n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), \u00a711.2. \n\n^ Uninformed searches (breadth first search, depth-first search and general state space search):\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a73.4)\nPoole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998, pp.&#160;113\u2013132)\nLuger &amp; Stubblefield (2004, pp.&#160;79\u2013121)\nNilsson (1998, chpt. 8)\n \n^ \nHeuristic or informed searches (e.g., greedy best first and A*):\n\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, s\u00a73.5)\nPoole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998, pp.&#160;132\u2013147)\nPoole &amp; Mackworth (2017, \u00a73.6)\nLuger &amp; Stubblefield (2004, pp.&#160;133\u2013150)\n \n^ \nAdversarial search:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 5)\n \n^ \nLocal or \"optimization\" search:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 4)\n \n^ \nEvolutionary computation:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a74.1.2)\n \n^ Merkle &amp; Middendorf (2013). \n\n^ \nLogic:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 6\u20139)\nLuger &amp; Stubblefield (2004, pp.&#160;35\u201377)\nNilsson (1998, chpt. 13\u201316)\n \n^ \nPropositional logic:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 6)\nLuger &amp; Stubblefield (2004, pp.&#160;45\u201350)\nNilsson (1998, chpt. 13)\n \n^ \nFirst-order logic and features such as equality:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 7)\nPoole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998, pp.&#160;268\u2013275),\nLuger &amp; Stubblefield (2004, pp.&#160;50\u201362),\nNilsson (1998, chpt. 15)\n \n^ \nLogical inference:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 10)\n \n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), \u00a78.3.1. \n\n^ \nResolution and unification:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a77.5.2, \u00a79.2, \u00a79.5)\n \n^ Forward chaining, backward chaining, Horn clauses, and logical deduction as search:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a79.3, \u00a79.4)\nPoole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998, pp.&#160;~46\u201352)\nLuger &amp; Stubblefield (2004, pp.&#160;62\u201373)\nNilsson (1998, chpt. 4.2, 7.2)\n \n^ \nFuzzy logic:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;214, 255, 459)\nScientific American (1999)\n \n^ a b \nStochastic methods for uncertain reasoning:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, Chpt. 12\u201318 and 20),\nPoole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998, pp.&#160;345\u2013395),\nLuger &amp; Stubblefield (2004, pp.&#160;165\u2013191, 333\u2013381),\nNilsson (1998, chpt. 19)\n \n^ \nBayesian networks:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a712.5\u201312.6, \u00a713.4\u201313.5, \u00a714.3\u201314.5, \u00a716.5, \u00a720.2 -20.3),\nPoole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998, pp.&#160;361\u2013381),\nLuger &amp; Stubblefield (2004, pp.&#160;~182\u2013190, \u2248363\u2013379),\nNilsson (1998, chpt. 19.3\u20134)\n \n^ Domingos (2015), chapter 6. \n\n^ \nBayesian inference algorithm:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a713.3\u201313.5),\nPoole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998, pp.&#160;361\u2013381),\nLuger &amp; Stubblefield (2004, pp.&#160;~363\u2013379),\nNilsson (1998, chpt. 19.4 &amp; 7)\n \n^ Domingos (2015), p.&#160;210. \n\n^ \nBayesian learning and the expectation-maximization algorithm:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, Chpt. 20),\nPoole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998, pp.&#160;424\u2013433),\nNilsson (1998, chpt. 20)\nDomingos (2015, p.&#160;210)\n \n^ Bayesian decision theory and Bayesian decision networks:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a716.5)\n \n^ a b c \nStochastic temporal models:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, Chpt. 14)\nHidden Markov model:\n\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a714.3)\nKalman filters:\n\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a714.4)\nDynamic Bayesian networks:\n\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a714.5)\n \n^ \ndecision theory and decision analysis:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, Chpt. 16\u201318),\nPoole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998, pp.&#160;381\u2013394)\n \n^ \nInformation value theory:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a716.6)\n \n^ Markov decision processes and dynamic decision networks:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 17)\n \n^ Game theory and mechanism design:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 18)\n \n^ \nStatistical learning methods and classifiers:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 20),\n \n^ \nDecision trees:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a719.3)\nDomingos (2015, p.&#160;88)\n \n^ \nNon-parameteric learning models such as K-nearest neighbor and support vector machines:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a719.7)\nDomingos (2015, p.&#160;187) (k-nearest neighbor)\nDomingos (2015, p.&#160;88) (kernel methods)\n \n^ Domingos (2015), p.&#160;152. \n\n^ \nNaive Bayes classifier:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a712.6)\nDomingos (2015, p.&#160;152)\n \n^ a b \nNeural networks:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, Chpt. 21),\nDomingos (2015, Chapter 4)\n \n^ \nGradient calculation in computational graphs, backpropagation, automatic differentiation:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a721.2),\nLuger &amp; Stubblefield (2004, pp.&#160;467\u2013474),\nNilsson (1998, chpt. 3.3)\n \n^ \nUniversal approximation theorem:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, p.&#160;752)\nThe theorem:\n\nCybenko (1988)\nHornik, Stinchcombe &amp; White (1989)\n \n^ \nFeedforward neural networks:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a721.1)\n \n^ \nRecurrent neural networks:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a721.6)\n \n^ \nPerceptrons:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;21, 22, 683, 22)\n \n^ a b \nDeep learning:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, Chpt. 21)\nGoodfellow, Bengio &amp; Courville (2016)\nHinton et al. (2016)\nSchmidhuber (2015)\n \n^ \nConvolutional neural networks:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a721.3)\n \n^ Deng &amp; Yu (2014), pp.&#160;199\u2013200. \n\n^ Ciresan, Meier &amp; Schmidhuber (2012). \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;751. \n\n^ a b c d e f g Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;785. \n\n^ a b Schmidhuber (2022), \u00a75. \n\n^ a b Schmidhuber (2022), \u00a76. \n\n^ a b c Schmidhuber (2022), \u00a77. \n\n^ Schmidhuber (2022), \u00a78. \n\n^ Schmidhuber (2022), \u00a72. \n\n^ Schmidhuber (2022), \u00a73. \n\n^ Quoted in Christian (2020, p.&#160;22) \n\n^ Smith (2023). \n\n^ \"Explained: Generative AI\". 9 November 2023. \n\n^ \"AI Writing and Content Creation Tools\". MIT Sloan Teaching &amp; Learning Technologies. Retrieved 25 December 2023 . \n\n^ Marmouyet (2023). \n\n^ Kobielus (2019). \n\n^ Davenport, T; Kalakota, R (June 2019). \"The potential for artificial intelligence in healthcare\". Future Healthc J. 6 (2): 94\u201398. doi:10.7861\/futurehosp.6-2-94. PMC&#160;6616181 . PMID&#160;31363513. \n\n^ a b Bax, Monique; Thorpe, Jordan; Romanov, Valentin (December 2023). \"The future of personalized cardiovascular medicine demands 3D and 4D printing, stem cells, and artificial intelligence\". Frontiers in Sensors. 4. doi:10.3389\/fsens.2023.1294721 . ISSN&#160;2673-5067. \n\n^ Jumper, J; Evans, R; Pritzel, A (2021). \"Highly accurate protein structure prediction with AlphaFold\". Nature. 596 (7873): 583\u2013589. Bibcode:2021Natur.596..583J. doi:10.1038\/s41586-021-03819-2. PMC&#160;8371605 . PMID&#160;34265844. \n\n^ Wurman, P.R.; Barrett, S.; Kawamoto, K. (2022). \"Outracing champion Gran Turismo drivers with deep reinforcement learning\". Nature 602. 602: 223\u2013228. doi:10.1038\/s41586-021-04357-7. \n\n^ Simonite (2016). \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;987. \n\n^ Laskowski (2023). \n\n^ GAO (2022). \n\n^ Valinsky (2019). \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;991. \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;991\u2013992. \n\n^ Christian (2020), p.&#160;63. \n\n^ Vincent (2022). \n\n^ Reisner (2023). \n\n^ Alter &amp; Harris (2023). \n\n^ Nicas (2018). \n\n^ \"Trust and Distrust in America\". 22 July 2019. \n\n^ Williams (2023). \n\n^ Taylor &amp; Hern (2023). \n\n^ a b Rose (2023). \n\n^ CNA (2019). \n\n^ Goffrey (2008), p.&#160;17. \n\n^ Berdahl et al. (2023); Goffrey (2008, p.&#160;17); Rose (2023); Russell &amp; Norvig (2021, p.&#160;995) \n\n^ \nAlgorithmic bias and Fairness (machine learning):\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, section 27.3.3)\nChristian (2020, Fairness)\n \n^ Christian (2020), p.&#160;25. \n\n^ a b Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;995. \n\n^ Grant &amp; Hill (2023). \n\n^ Larson &amp; Angwin (2016). \n\n^ Christian (2020), p.&#160;67\u201370. \n\n^ Christian (2020, pp.&#160;67\u201370); Russell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;993\u2013994) \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021, p.&#160;995); Lipartito (2011, p.&#160;36); Goodman &amp; Flaxman (2017, p.&#160;6); Christian (2020, pp.&#160;39\u201340, 65) \n\n^ Quoted in Christian (2020, p.&#160;65). \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021, p.&#160;994); Christian (2020, pp.&#160;40, 80\u201381) \n\n^ Quoted in Christian (2020, p.&#160;80) \n\n^ Dockrill (2022). \n\n^ Sample (2017). \n\n^ \"Black Box AI\". 16 June 2023. \n\n^ Christian (2020), p.&#160;110. \n\n^ Christian (2020), pp.&#160;88\u201391. \n\n^ Christian (2020, p.&#160;83); Russell &amp; Norvig (2021, p.&#160;997) \n\n^ Christian (2020), p.&#160;91. \n\n^ Christian (2020), p.&#160;83. \n\n^ Verma (2021). \n\n^ Rothman (2020). \n\n^ Christian (2020), p.&#160;105-108. \n\n^ Christian (2020), pp.&#160;108\u2013112. \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;989. \n\n^ Robitzski (2018); Sainato (2015) \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;987-990. \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;988. \n\n^ Harari (2018). \n\n^ Buckley, Chris; Mozur, Paul (22 May 2019). \"How China Uses High-Tech Surveillance to Subdue Minorities\". The New York Times. \n\n^ \"Security lapse exposed a Chinese smart city surveillance system\". 3 May 2019. Archived from the original on 7 March 2021. Retrieved 14 September 2020 . \n\n^ \"AI traffic signals to be installed in Bengaluru soon\". NextBigWhat. 24 September 2019. Retrieved 1 October 2019 . \n\n^ Urbina et al. (2022). \n\n^ Tarnoff, Ben (4 August 2023). \"Lessons from Eliza\". The Guardian Weekly. pp.&#160;34\u20139. \n\n^ a b E McGaughey, 'Will Robots Automate Your Job Away? Full Employment, Basic Income, and Economic Democracy' (2022) 51(3) Industrial Law Journal 511\u2013559 Archived 27 May 2023 at the Wayback Machine \n\n^ Ford &amp; Colvin (2015);McGaughey (2022) \n\n^ IGM Chicago (2017). \n\n^ Arntz, Gregory &amp; Zierahn (2016), p.&#160;33. \n\n^ Lohr (2017); Frey &amp; Osborne (2017); Arntz, Gregory &amp; Zierahn (2016, p.&#160;33) \n\n^ Morgenstern (2015). \n\n^ Mahdawi (2017); Thompson (2014) \n\n^ Zhou, Viola (11 April 2023). \"AI is already taking video game illustrators' jobs in China\". Rest of World. Retrieved 17 August 2023 . \n\n^ Carter, Justin (11 April 2023). \"China's game art industry reportedly decimated by growing AI use\". Game Developer. Retrieved 17 August 2023 . \n\n^ Cellan-Jones (2014). \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig 2021, p.&#160;1001. \n\n^ Bostrom (2014). \n\n^ Russell (2019). \n\n^ Bostrom (2014); M\u00fcller &amp; Bostrom (2014); Bostrom (2015). \n\n^ Harari (2023). \n\n^ M\u00fcller &amp; Bostrom (2014). \n\n^ \nLeaders' concerns about the existential risks of AI around 2015:\nRawlinson (2015)\nHolley (2015)\nGibbs (2014)\nSainato (2015)\n \n^ \nArguments that AI is not an imminent risk:\nBrooks (2014)\nGeist (2015)\nMadrigal (2015)\nLee (2014)\n \n^ a b Christian (2020), pp.&#160;67, 73. \n\n^ Valance (2023). \n\n^ Taylor, Josh (7 May 2023). \"Rise of artificial intelligence is inevitable but should not be feared, 'father of AI' says\". The Guardian. Retrieved 26 May 2023 . \n\n^ Colton, Emma (7 May 2023). \" 'Father of AI' says tech fears misplaced: 'You cannot stop it' \". Fox News. Retrieved 26 May 2023 . \n\n^ Jones, Hessie (23 May 2023). \"Juergen Schmidhuber, Renowned 'Father Of Modern AI,' Says His Life's Work Won't Lead To Dystopia\". Forbes. Retrieved 26 May 2023 . \n\n^ McMorrow, Ryan (19 December 2023). \"Andrew Ng: 'Do we think the world is better off with more or less intelligence?' \". Financial Times. Retrieved 30 December 2023 . \n\n^ Levy, Steven (22 December 2023). \"How Not to Be Stupid About AI, With Yann LeCun\". Wired. Retrieved 30 December 2023 . \n\n^ Yudkowsky (2008). \n\n^ a b Anderson &amp; Anderson (2011). \n\n^ AAAI (2014). \n\n^ Wallach (2010). \n\n^ Russell (2019), p.&#160;173. \n\n^ Alan Turing Institute (2019). \"Understanding artificial intelligence ethics and safety\" (PDF) . \n\n^ Alan Turing Institute (2023). \"AI Ethics and Governance in Practice\" (PDF) . \n\n^ Floridi, Luciano; Cowls, Josh (23 June 2019). \"A Unified Framework of Five Principles for AI in Society\". Harvard Data Science Review. 1 (1). doi:10.1162\/99608f92.8cd550d1 . S2CID&#160;198775713. \n\n^ Buruk, Banu; Ekmekci, Perihan Elif; Arda, Berna (1 September 2020). \"A critical perspective on guidelines for responsible and trustworthy artificial intelligence\". Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy. 23 (3): 387\u2013399. doi:10.1007\/s11019-020-09948-1. ISSN&#160;1572-8633. PMID&#160;32236794. S2CID&#160;214766800. \n\n^ Kamila, Manoj Kumar; Jasrotia, Sahil Singh (1 January 2023). \"Ethical issues in the development of artificial intelligence: recognizing the risks\". International Journal of Ethics and Systems. ahead-of-print (ahead-of-print). doi:10.1108\/IJOES-05-2023-0107. ISSN&#160;2514-9369. S2CID&#160;259614124. \n\n^ \nRegulation of AI to mitigate risks:\nBerryhill et al. (2019)\nBarfield &amp; Pagallo (2018)\nIphofen &amp; Kritikos (2019)\nWirtz, Weyerer &amp; Geyer (2018)\nBuiten (2019)\n \n^ Law Library of Congress (U.S.). Global Legal Research Directorate (2019). \n\n^ a b Vincent (2023). \n\n^ Stanford University (2023). \n\n^ a b c d UNESCO (2021). \n\n^ Kissinger (2021). \n\n^ Altman, Brockman &amp; Sutskever (2023). \n\n^ VOA News (25 October 2023). \"UN Announces Advisory Body on Artificial Intelligence\". \n\n^ Edwards (2023). \n\n^ Kasperowicz (2023). \n\n^ Fox News (2023). \n\n^ Milmo, Dan (3 November 2023). \"Hope or Horror? The great AI debate dividing its pioneers\". The Guardian Weekly. pp.&#160;10\u201312. \n\n^ \"The Bletchley Declaration by Countries Attending the AI Safety Summit, 1-2 November 2023\". GOV.UK. 1 November 2023. Archived from the original on 1 November 2023. Retrieved 2 November 2023 . \n\n^ \"Countries agree to safe and responsible development of frontier AI in landmark Bletchley Declaration\". GOV.UK (Press release). Archived from the original on 1 November 2023. Retrieved 1 November 2023 . \n\n^ Berlinski (2000). \n\n^ \"Google books ngram\". \n\n^ \nAI's immediate precursors:\nMcCorduck (2004, pp.&#160;51\u2013107)\nCrevier (1993, pp.&#160;27\u201332)\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;8\u201317)\nMoravec (1988, p.&#160;3)\n \n^ a b Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;17. \n\n^ See \"A Brief History of Computing\" at AlanTuring.net. \n\n^ Crevier (1993), pp.&#160;47\u201349. \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2003), p.&#160;17. \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2003), p.&#160;18. \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;21. \n\n^ Lighthill (1973). \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;22. \n\n^ \nExpert systems:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;23, 292)\nLuger &amp; Stubblefield (2004, pp.&#160;227\u2013331)\nNilsson (1998, chpt. 17.4)\nMcCorduck (2004, pp.&#160;327\u2013335, 434\u2013435)\nCrevier (1993, pp.&#160;145\u201362, 197\u2013203)\nNewquist (1994, pp.&#160;155\u2013183)\n \n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;24. \n\n^ Nilsson (1998), p.&#160;7. \n\n^ McCorduck (2004), pp.&#160;454\u2013462. \n\n^ Moravec (1988). \n\n^ a b Brooks (1990). \n\n^ \nDevelopmental robotics:\nWeng et al. (2001)\nLungarella et al. (2003)\nAsada et al. (2009)\nOudeyer (2010)\n \n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;25. \n\n^ \nCrevier (1993, pp.&#160;214\u2013215)\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;24, 26)\n \n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;26. \n\n^ \nFormal and narrow methods adopted in the 1990s:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;24\u201326)\nMcCorduck (2004, pp.&#160;486\u2013487)\n \n^ \nAI widely used in the late 1990s:\nKurzweil (2005, p.&#160;265)\nNRC (1999, pp.&#160;216\u2013222)\nNewquist (1994, pp.&#160;189\u2013201)\n \n^ Wong (2023). \n\n^ \nMoore's Law and AI:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;14, 27)\n \n^ a b c Clark (2015b). \n\n^ \nBig data:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, p.&#160;26)\n \n^ \"Intellectual Property and Frontier Technologies\". WIPO. Archived from the original on 2 April 2022. Retrieved 30 March 2022 . \n\n^ DiFeliciantonio (2023). \n\n^ Goswami (2023). \n\n^ a b Turing (1950), p.&#160;1. \n\n^ \nTuring's original publication of the Turing test in \"Computing machinery and intelligence\":\nTuring (1950)\nHistorical influence and philosophical implications:\n\nHaugeland (1985, pp.&#160;6\u20139)\nCrevier (1993, p.&#160;24)\nMcCorduck (2004, pp.&#160;70\u201371)\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;2 and 984)\n \n^ Turing (1950), Under \"The Argument from Consciousness\". \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), chpt. 2. \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;3. \n\n^ Maker (2006). \n\n^ McCarthy (1999). \n\n^ Minsky (1986). \n\n^ \"What Is Artificial Intelligence (AI)?\". Google Cloud Platform. Archived from the original on 31 July 2023. Retrieved 16 October 2023 . \n\n^ Nilsson (1983), p.&#160;10. \n\n^ Haugeland (1985), pp.&#160;112\u2013117. \n\n^ \nPhysical symbol system hypothesis:\nNewell &amp; Simon (1976, p.&#160;116)\nHistorical significance:\n\nMcCorduck (2004, p.&#160;153)\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, p.&#160;19)\n \n^ \nMoravec's paradox:\nMoravec (1988, pp.&#160;15\u201316)\nMinsky (1986, p.&#160;29)\nPinker (2007, pp.&#160;190\u201391)\n \n^ \nDreyfus' critique of AI:\nDreyfus (1972)\nDreyfus &amp; Dreyfus (1986)\nHistorical significance and philosophical implications:\n\nCrevier (1993, pp.&#160;120\u2013132)\nMcCorduck (2004, pp.&#160;211\u2013239)\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;981\u2013982)\nFearn (2007, Chpt. 3)\n \n^ Crevier (1993), p.&#160;125. \n\n^ Langley (2011). \n\n^ Katz (2012). \n\n^ \nNeats vs. scruffies, the historic debate:\nMcCorduck (2004, pp.&#160;421\u2013424, 486\u2013489)\nCrevier (1993, p.&#160;168)\nNilsson (1983, pp.&#160;10\u201311)\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, p.&#160;24)\nA classic example of the \"scruffy\" approach to intelligence:\n\nMinsky (1986)\nA modern example of neat AI and its aspirations in the 21st century:\n\nDomingos (2015)\n \n^ Pennachin &amp; Goertzel (2007). \n\n^ a b Roberts (2016). \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;986. \n\n^ Chalmers (1995). \n\n^ Dennett (1991). \n\n^ Horst (2005). \n\n^ Searle (1999). \n\n^ Searle (1980), p.&#160;1. \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;9817. \n\n^ \nSearle's Chinese room argument:\nSearle (1980). Searle's original presentation of the thought experiment.\nSearle (1999).\nDiscussion:\n\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;985)\nMcCorduck (2004, pp.&#160;443\u2013445)\nCrevier (1993, pp.&#160;269\u2013271)\n \n^ \nRobot rights:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;1000\u20131001)\nBBC (2006)\nMaschafilm (2010) (the film Plug &amp; Pray)\n \n^ Evans (2015). \n\n^ McCorduck (2004), pp.&#160;19\u201325. \n\n^ Henderson (2007). \n\n^ \nThe Intelligence explosion and technological singularity:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;1004\u20131005)\nOmohundro (2008)\nKurzweil (2005)\nI. J. Good's \"intelligence explosion\"\n\nGood (1965)\nVernor Vinge's \"singularity\"\n\nVinge (1993)\n \n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;1005. \n\n^ \nTranshumanism:\nMoravec (1988)\nKurzweil (2005)\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, p.&#160;1005)\n \n^ \nAI as evolution:\nEdward Fredkin is quoted in McCorduck (2004, p.&#160;401)\nButler (1863)\nDyson (1998)\n \n^ \nAI in myth:\nMcCorduck (2004, pp.&#160;4\u20135)\n \n^ McCorduck (2004), pp.&#160;340\u2013400. \n\n^ Buttazzo (2001). \n\n^ Anderson (2008). \n\n^ McCauley (2007). \n\n^ Galvan (1997). \n\n\nAI textbooks \nThe two most widely used textbooks in 2023. (See the Open Syllabus).\n\nRussell, Stuart J.; Norvig, Peter. (2021). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (4th&#160;ed.). Hoboken: Pearson. ISBN&#160;978-0134610993. LCCN&#160;20190474. \nRich, Elaine; Knight, Kevin; Nair, Shivashankar B (2010). Artificial Intelligence (3rd&#160;ed.). New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill India. ISBN&#160;978-0070087705. \nThese were the four of the most widely used AI textbooks in 2008:\n\n\nLuger, George; Stubblefield, William (2004). Artificial Intelligence: Structures and Strategies for Complex Problem Solving (5th&#160;ed.). Benjamin\/Cummings. ISBN&#160;978-0-8053-4780-7. Archived from the original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved 17 December 2019 . \nNilsson, Nils (1998). Artificial Intelligence: A New Synthesis . Morgan Kaufmann. ISBN&#160;978-1-55860-467-4. Archived from the original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved 18 November 2019 . \nRussell, Stuart J.; Norvig, Peter (2003), Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (2nd&#160;ed.), Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, ISBN&#160;0-13-790395-2 .\nPoole, David; Mackworth, Alan; Goebel, Randy (1998). Computational Intelligence: A Logical Approach. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN&#160;978-0-19-510270-3. Archived from the original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved 22 August 2020 . \nLater editions.\n\nPoole, David; Mackworth, Alan (2017). Artificial Intelligence: Foundations of Computational Agents (2nd&#160;ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN&#160;978-1-107-19539-4. Archived from the original on 7 December 2017. Retrieved 6 December 2017 . \n\nHistory of AI \n\nCrevier, Daniel (1993). AI: The Tumultuous Search for Artificial Intelligence. New York, NY: BasicBooks. ISBN&#160;0-465-02997-3. .\nMcCorduck, Pamela (2004), Machines Who Think (2nd&#160;ed.), Natick, MA: A. K. Peters, Ltd., ISBN&#160;1-56881-205-1 .\nNewquist, H. P. (1994). The Brain Makers: Genius, Ego, And Greed In The Quest For Machines That Think. New York: Macmillan\/SAMS. ISBN&#160;978-0-672-30412-5. \n\nOther sources \n\nAI &amp; ML in Fusion\nAI &amp; ML in Fusion, video lecture Archived 2 July 2023 at the Wayback Machine\n\"AlphaGo \u2013 Google DeepMind\". Archived from the original on 10 March 2016. \nAlter, Alexandra; Harris, Elizabeth A. (20 September 2023), \"Franzen, Grisham and Other Prominent Authors Sue OpenAI\", The New York Times \nAltman, Sam; Brockman, Greg; Sutskever, Ilya (22 May 2023). \"Governance of Superintelligence\". openai.com. Archived from the original on 27 May 2023. Retrieved 27 May 2023 . \nAnderson, Susan Leigh (2008). \"Asimov's \"three laws of robotics\" and machine metaethics\". AI &amp; Society. 22 (4): 477\u2013493. doi:10.1007\/s00146-007-0094-5. S2CID&#160;1809459. \nAnderson, Michael; Anderson, Susan Leigh (2011). Machine Ethics. Cambridge University Press. \nArntz, Melanie; Gregory, Terry; Zierahn, Ulrich (2016), \"The risk of automation for jobs in OECD countries: A comparative analysis\", OECD Social, Employment, and Migration Working Papers 189 \nAsada, M.; Hosoda, K.; Kuniyoshi, Y.; Ishiguro, H.; Inui, T.; Yoshikawa, Y.; Ogino, M.; Yoshida, C. (2009). \"Cognitive developmental robotics: a survey\". IEEE Transactions on Autonomous Mental Development. 1 (1): 12\u201334. doi:10.1109\/tamd.2009.2021702. S2CID&#160;10168773. \n\"Ask the AI experts: What's driving today's progress in AI?\". McKinsey &amp; Company. Archived from the original on 13 April 2018. Retrieved 13 April 2018 . \nBarfield, Woodrow; Pagallo, Ugo (2018). Research handbook on the law of artificial intelligence. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing. ISBN&#160;978-1-78643-904-8. OCLC&#160;1039480085. \nBeal, J.; Winston, Patrick (2009), \"The New Frontier of Human-Level Artificial Intelligence\", IEEE Intelligent Systems, 24: 21\u201324, doi:10.1109\/MIS.2009.75, hdl:1721.1\/52357 , S2CID&#160;32437713 \nBerdahl, Carl Thomas; Baker, Lawrence; Mann, Sean; Osoba, Osonde; Girosi, Federico (7 February 2023). \"Strategies to Improve the Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Health Equity: Scoping Review\". JMIR AI. 2: e42936. doi:10.2196\/42936 . ISSN&#160;2817-1705. S2CID&#160;256681439. 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George Dyson, historian of computing, writes (in what might be called \"Dyson's Law\") that \"Any system simple enough to be understandable will not be complicated enough to behave intelligently, while any system complicated enough to behave intelligently will be too complicated to understand.\" (p.&#160;197.) Computer scientist Alex Pentland writes: \"Current AI machine-learning algorithms are, at their core, dead simple stupid. They work, but they work by brute force.\" (p.&#160;198.)\nDomingos, Pedro, \"Our Digital Doubles: AI will serve our species, not control it\", Scientific American, vol. 319, no. 3 (September 2018), pp.&#160;88\u201393. \"AIs are like autistic savants and will remain so for the foreseeable future.... AIs lack common sense and can easily make errors that a human never would... They are also liable to take our instructions too literally, giving us precisely what we asked for instead of what we actually wanted.\" (p.&#160;93.)\nGertner, Jon. 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Artificial intelligences \u2013 disembodied, strangers to blood, sweat, and tears \u2013 have no occasion for that.\" (p. 30.)\nHughes-Castleberry, Kenna, \"A Murder Mystery Puzzle: The literary puzzle Cain's Jawbone, which has stumped humans for decades, reveals the limitations of natural-language-processing algorithms\", Scientific American, vol. 329, no. 4 (November 2023), pp.&#160;81\u201382. \"This murder mystery competition has revealed that although NLP (natural-language processing) models are capable of incredible feats, their abilities are very much limited by the amount of context they receive. This [...] could cause [difficulties] for researchers who hope to use them to do things such as analyze ancient languages. In some cases, there are few historical records on long-gone civilizations to serve as training data for such a purpose.\" (p.&#160;82.)\nImmerwahr, Daniel, \"Your Lying Eyes: People now use A.I. to generate fake videos indistinguishable from real ones. 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Our brain is so good at comprehending language that we do not usually notice.\" A prominent example is the \"pronoun disambiguation problem\" (\"PDP\"): a machine has no way of determining to whom or what a pronoun in a sentence\u2014such as \"he\", \"she\" or \"it\"\u2014refers.\nMarcus, Gary, \"Artificial Confidence: Even the newest, buzziest systems of artificial general intelligence are stymmied by the same old problems\", Scientific American, vol. 327, no. 4 (October 2022), pp.&#160;42\u201345.\nMitchell, Melanie (2019). Artificial intelligence: a guide for thinking humans. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN&#160;9780374257835. \nMnih, Volodymyr; Kavukcuoglu, Koray; Silver, David; et&#160;al. (26 February 2015). \"Human-level control through deep reinforcement learning\". Nature. 518 (7540): 529\u2013533. Bibcode:2015Natur.518..529M. doi:10.1038\/nature14236. PMID&#160;25719670. S2CID&#160;205242740. Archived from the original on 19 June 2023. Retrieved 19 June 2023 . Introduced DQN, which produced human-level performance on some Atari games.\nPress, Eyal, \"In Front of Their Faces: Does facial-recognition technology lead police to ignore contradictory evidence?\", The New Yorker, 20 November 2023, pp.&#160;20\u201326.\nRoivainen, Eka, \"AI's IQ: ChatGPT aced a [standard intelligence] test but showed that intelligence cannot be measured by IQ alone\", Scientific American, vol. 329, no. 1 (July\/August 2023), p.&#160;7. \"Despite its high IQ, ChatGPT fails at tasks that require real humanlike reasoning or an understanding of the physical and social world.... ChatGPT seemed unable to reason logically and tried to rely on its vast database of... facts derived from online texts.\"\nSerenko, Alexander; Michael Dohan (2011). \"Comparing the expert survey and citation impact journal ranking methods: Example from the field of Artificial Intelligence\" (PDF) . Journal of Informetrics. 5 (4): 629\u201349. doi:10.1016\/j.joi.2011.06.002. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 October 2013. Retrieved 12 September 2013 . \nSilver, David; Huang, Aja; Maddison, Chris J.; et&#160;al. (28 January 2016). \"Mastering the game of Go with deep neural networks and tree search\". Nature. 529 (7587): 484\u2013489. Bibcode:2016Natur.529..484S. doi:10.1038\/nature16961. PMID&#160;26819042. S2CID&#160;515925. Archived from the original on 18 June 2023. Retrieved 19 June 2023 . \nWhite Paper: On Artificial Intelligence \u2013 A European approach to excellence and trust (PDF) . Brussels: European Commission. 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 February 2020. Retrieved 20 February 2020 . \n\nExternal links \n\n\nArtificial intelligence at Wikipedia's sister projects \n\n Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Data from Wikidata \n\n\"Artificial Intelligence\". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. \nThomason, Richmond. \"Logic and Artificial Intelligence\". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. \nArtificial Intelligence. BBC Radio 4 discussion with John Agar, Alison Adam &amp; Igor Aleksander (In Our Time, 8 December 2005).\nTheranostics and AI\u2014The Next Advance in Cancer Precision Medicine.\nArticles related to Artificial intelligence\nvteJohn McCarthy\nArtificial intelligence\nCircumscription\nDartmouth workshop\nFrame problem\nGarbage collection\nLisp\nALGOL 60\nMcCarthy Formalism\nMcCarthy 91 function\nSituation calculus\nSpace fountain\n\nvtePhilosophy of mindPhilosophers\nAnscombe\nAustin\nAquinas\nBain\nBergson\nBlock\nBrentano\nBroad\nBurge\nChalmers\nChurchland\nDennett\nDharmakirti\nDavidson\nDescartes\nGoldman\nHeidegger\nHusserl\nFeyerabend\nFodor\nJames\nKierkegaard\nLeibniz\nLewis\nMcDowell\nMerleau-Ponty\nMinsky\nMoore\nNagel\nParfit\nPutnam\nPopper\nRorty\nRyle\nSearle\nSpinoza\nTuring\nVasubandhu\nWittgenstein\nZhuangzi\nmore...\nTheories\nBehaviorism\nBiological naturalism\nDualism\nEliminative materialism\nEmergent materialism\nEpiphenomenalism\nFunctionalism\nIdealism\nInteractionism\nMaterialism\nMonism\nNa\u00efve realism\nNeurophenomenology\nNeutral monism\nNew mysterianism\nNondualism\nOccasionalism\nParallelism\nPhenomenalism\nPhenomenology\nPhysicalism\nType physicalism\nProperty dualism\nRepresentational\nSolipsism\nSubstance dualism\nConcepts\nAbstract object\nArtificial intelligence\nChinese room\nCreativity\nCognition\nCognitive closure\nConcept\nConsciousness\nHard problem of consciousness\nHypostatic abstraction\nIdea\nIdentity\nIntelligence\nIntentionality\nIntrospection\nIntuition\nLanguage of thought\nMental event\nMental image\nMental process\nMental property\nMental representation\nMind\nMind\u2013body problem\nPain\nProblem of other minds\nPropositional attitude\nQualia\nTabula rasa\nUnderstanding\nZombie\nRelated\nMetaphysics\nPhilosophy of artificial intelligence&#160;\/ information&#160;\/ perception&#160;\/ self\n\nCategory\nPhilosophers category\nProject\nTask Force\n\nvtePhilosophy of scienceConcepts\nAnalysis\nAnalytic\u2013synthetic distinction\nA priori and a posteriori\nCausality\nCommensurability\nConsilience\nConstruct\nCreative synthesis\nDemarcation problem\nEmpirical evidence\nExplanatory power\nFact\nFalsifiability\nFeminist method\nFunctional contextualism\nIgnoramus et ignorabimus\nInductive reasoning\nIntertheoretic reduction\nInquiry\nNature\nObjectivity\nObservation\nParadigm\nProblem of induction\nScientific evidence\nEvidence-based practice\nScientific law\nScientific method\nScientific pluralism\nScientific Revolution\nScientific theory\nTestability\nTheory choice\nTheory-ladenness\nUnderdetermination\nUnity of science\nmore...\nTheories\nCoherentism\nConfirmation holism\nConstructive empiricism\nConstructive realism\nConstructivist epistemology\nContextualism\nConventionalism\nDeductive-nomological model\nEpistemological anarchism\nEvolutionism\nFallibilism\nFoundationalism\nHypothetico-deductive model\nInductionism\nInstrumentalism\nModel-dependent realism\nNaturalism\nPhysicalism\nPositivism&#160;\/ Reductionism&#160;\/ Determinism\nPragmatism\nRationalism&#160;\/ Empiricism\nReceived view&#160;\/ Semantic view of theories\nScientific essentialism\nScientific formalism\nScientific realism&#160;\/ Anti-realism\nScientific skepticism\nScientism\nStructuralism\nUniformitarianism\nVitalism\nPhilosophy of...\nBiology\nChemistry\nPhysics\nSpace and time\nSocial science\nArchaeology\nEconomics\u200e\nGeography\nHistory\nLinguistics\nPsychology\nRelated topics\nCriticism of science\nDescriptive science\nEpistemology\nFaith and rationality\nHard and soft science\nHistory and philosophy of science\nNormative science\nPseudoscience\nRelationship between religion and science\nRhetoric of science\nScience studies\nSociology of scientific ignorance\nSociology of scientific knowledge\nPhilosophers of sciencePrecursors\nRoger Bacon\nFrancis Bacon\nGalileo Galilei\nIsaac Newton\n\nAuguste Comte\nHenri Poincar\u00e9\nPierre Duhem\nRudolf Steiner\nKarl Pearson\nCharles Sanders Peirce\nWilhelm Windelband\nAlfred North Whitehead\nBertrand Russell\nOtto Neurath\nC. 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representation and reasoning\nComputer vision\nAutomated planning and scheduling\nSearch methodology\nControl method\nPhilosophy of artificial intelligence\nDistributed artificial intelligence\nMachine learning\nSupervised learning\nUnsupervised learning\nReinforcement learning\nMulti-task learning\nCross-validation\nGraphics\nAnimation\nRendering\nPhotograph manipulation\nGraphics processing unit\nMixed reality\nVirtual reality\nImage compression\nSolid modeling\nApplied computing\nQuantum Computing\nE-commerce\nEnterprise software\nComputational mathematics\nComputational physics\nComputational chemistry\nComputational biology\nComputational social science\nComputational engineering\nComputational healthcare\nDigital art\nElectronic publishing\nCyberwarfare\nElectronic voting\nVideo games\nWord processing\nOperations research\nEducational technology\nDocument management\n\n Category\n Outline\n WikiProject\n Commons\n\nvteEmerging technologiesFieldsInformation 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For other uses, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_(disambiguation)\" class=\"mw-redirect mw-disambig wiki-link\" title=\"AI (disambiguation)\" data-key=\"ee240fd3345b120f2ceeb4bef73e437e\">AI (disambiguation)<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_(disambiguation)\" class=\"mw-disambig wiki-link\" title=\"Artificial intelligence (disambiguation)\" data-key=\"6a79ecad026b8e92c791b4d5c25df30c\">Artificial intelligence (disambiguation)<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intelligent_agent\" title=\"Intelligent agent\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d2ded3658bd39dc370a7970df42c985e\">Intelligent agent<\/a>.<\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\">\n \n<\/p>\n<table class=\"sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist\" style=\"\"><tbody><tr><td class=\"sidebar-pretitle\">Part of a series on<\/td><\/tr><tr><th class=\"sidebar-title-with-pretitle\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Outline_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Outline of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c37a26aa0fabe57fce6dc9d3efc57f0\">Artificial intelligence<\/a><\/th><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-image\"><figure class=\"mw-halign-center\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Anatomy-1751201_1280.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"c3af2ed3786d80b830eea607a8344e75\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/7a\/Anatomy-1751201_1280.png\/100px-Anatomy-1751201_1280.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"100\" height=\"85\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption><\/figcaption><\/figure><\/td><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\"><a class=\"mw-selflink-fragment\" href=\"#Goals\">Major goals<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_general_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial general intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8f53649097e783e63ebea1909d4045f\">Artificial general intelligence<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_planning_and_scheduling\" title=\"Automated planning and scheduling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd62254769426508b9de418255a3e6f9\">Planning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_vision\" title=\"Computer vision\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"082554c667906c00efbfe0986943ab7f\">Computer vision<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/General_game_playing\" title=\"General game playing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43b659f2ed91c7a28bca494393765fd1\">General game playing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning\" title=\"Knowledge representation and reasoning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1f39a572a7265863b802980dc3015f78\">Knowledge reasoning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">Machine learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_language_processing\" title=\"Natural language processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"258d1d348c952c69c2cf806f12baac0d\">Natural language processing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robotics\" title=\"Robotics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d51e34f62697c054ccec4bfed01d9051\">Robotics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_safety\" title=\"AI safety\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fb7e6c3b6e6290bdd2aab3d5c2210b1c\">AI safety<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\">Approaches<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Symbolic_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Symbolic artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"90f04195cac03010b9702e7b8db7ad93\">Symbolic<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_learning\" title=\"Deep learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60a402792d36ac6697fa1e78697b47ee\">Deep learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bayesian_network\" title=\"Bayesian network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebc823a40ca85fe6368464bee686f254\">Bayesian networks<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Evolutionary_algorithm\" title=\"Evolutionary algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2be5565f46780928629b4705cf141f08\">Evolutionary algorithms<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Situated_approach_(artificial_intelligence)\" title=\"Situated approach (artificial intelligence)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d371530e69c0c92a2f6c8ddfec6102dc\">Situated approach<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hybrid_intelligent_system\" title=\"Hybrid intelligent system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"134de857fb48c47e99864f5b0a8a0887\">Hybrid intelligent systems<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_systems_integration\" title=\"Artificial intelligence systems integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"03e8fe4cbdde2b0dfe6d6cf013a21d2c\">Systems integration<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Applications_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Applications of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d70560409a044fef08a6f24b39d11d72\">Applications<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_artificial_intelligence_projects\" title=\"List of artificial intelligence projects\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b22c368db35a66355e3bbe9abefb0276\">Projects<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deepfake\" title=\"Deepfake\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7165f1f34948befd7dc51d4f1941b98f\">Deepfake<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_translation\" title=\"Machine translation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14267942afd7a6873d7e227d71ba74d2\">Machine translation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_art\" title=\"Artificial intelligence art\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e7a322db732edd374428a32ee9b588e4\">Art<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_in_healthcare\" title=\"Artificial intelligence in healthcare\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a83c45f6d758fe57b1fe4cb086a660dd\">Healthcare<\/a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_in_mental_health\" title=\"Artificial intelligence in mental health\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"de7daf7fdd8ae3f7b3c22b6c78b505aa\">Mental health<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_in_government\" title=\"Artificial intelligence in government\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9448e3d83145520174134747105bd90e\">Government<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Music_and_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Music and artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"716b81931e24b5bb1fe02b1e4e6942ea\">Music<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_in_industry\" title=\"Artificial intelligence in industry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"36d21770ca3861059b0f98b63319134e\">Industry<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning_in_earth_sciences\" title=\"Machine learning in earth sciences\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c36894eb9ff1755893995191a5ab3b70\">Earth sciences<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning_in_bioinformatics\" title=\"Machine learning in bioinformatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d5ec4af63e9b8dc58cfeea658e348087\">Bioinformatics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning_in_physics\" title=\"Machine learning in physics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb87665b89561b156f33e004c9e9e3e4\">Physics<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Philosophy of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"72fe09222fe7606d43e990764f3076b4\">Philosophy<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chinese_room\" title=\"Chinese room\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"40e4f68def9042fbadc20dbe8654fdca\">Chinese room<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Friendly_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Friendly artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1d558aa453b40936ba47deaaf4ac9a5b\">Friendly AI<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_control_problem\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"AI control problem\" data-key=\"3a4b505ea3c272cedd95e33aec03d295\">Control problem<\/a>\/<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_takeover\" title=\"AI takeover\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dd96aa0bbc21e9e558b5130997c9dd87\">Takeover<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Ethics of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"608ca5c55237a263936a26d2500d09a6\">Ethics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Existential_risk_from_artificial_general_intelligence\" title=\"Existential risk from artificial general intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2417fff2c86867851343cad51bd9bfb9\">Existential risk<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Turing_test\" title=\"Turing test\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f309ecb31df135db989e843377fb9d\">Turing test<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regulation_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Regulation of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8bbabae0e8e2c822aa2ced8fec6ac219\">Regulation<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"History of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1bb00251245fc858edc9c12e32694439\">History<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Timeline of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e9d017e0ebfd460857b2be655c57964\">Timeline<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Progress_in_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Progress in artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0d8510838c2ea7a333c8e1efa7a70fea\">Progress<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_winter\" title=\"AI winter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0128870650338adbb7c06bbe1dadc305\">AI winter<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_boom\" title=\"AI boom\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb752fa087789f1afcf9c7b8c3e70e85\">AI boom<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\">Technology<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_programming_languages_for_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"List of programming languages for artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d3911d7eb588c4af3da6d6e2d106be4b\">Programming languages<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\">Glossary<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Glossary of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"441c02aab14ebdf235a3e39d66538693\">Glossary<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-navbar\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p><b>Artificial intelligence<\/b> (<b>AI<\/b>) is the intelligence of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine\" title=\"Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"82c1c83750cde10b09ea0b2a4c17a134\">machines<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software\" title=\"Software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce5b1d6b0b754ab3878d8d8ee8d1d94c\">software<\/a>, as opposed to the intelligence of humans or animals. It is a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Field_of_study\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Field of study\" data-key=\"fd2881a45ec3a3bba2c8ca2cd6206810\">field of study<\/a> in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_science\" title=\"Computer science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eadd1655e27d8395813752ae5bd4fd0e\">computer science<\/a> that develops and studies intelligent machines. Such machines may be called AIs.\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Applications_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Applications of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d70560409a044fef08a6f24b39d11d72\">AI technology<\/a> is widely used throughout industry, government, and science. Some high-profile applications are: advanced <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_search_engine\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Web search engine\" data-key=\"dba49baed4bcefee8f46c77c8ad4f862\">web search engines<\/a> (e.g., <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Google_Search\" title=\"Google Search\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fb1a9fb8c521a933a4b422333cf19a4f\">Google Search<\/a>), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Recommender_system\" title=\"Recommender system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dd8c39f11ec163e4c363222f532670c0\">recommendation systems<\/a> (used by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/YouTube\" title=\"YouTube\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ab357cb21b6055014a8cc10ab0698ffd\">YouTube<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Amazon_(company)\" title=\"Amazon (company)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e455f7175d97dce9e9eaba70599f449e\">Amazon<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Netflix\" title=\"Netflix\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"159d2de18846270b7627fe92c6a3a64f\">Netflix<\/a>), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural-language_understanding\" title=\"Natural-language understanding\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dc275c68d99ba7b2527d92dccdd80b8a\">understanding human speech<\/a> (such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Google_Assistant\" title=\"Google Assistant\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e255e0ea7f2fe6eb031cc6c446e1044a\">Google Assistant<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Siri\" title=\"Siri\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d4992c7151554c6a2f8f7236549c6f6e\">Siri<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Amazon_Alexa\" title=\"Amazon Alexa\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43c866ea723bf82b3eec25a4ce0062ce\">Alexa<\/a>), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Self-driving_car\" title=\"Self-driving car\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e20b1b76d62a424b64286c7648a2b960\">self-driving cars<\/a> (e.g., <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Waymo\" title=\"Waymo\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4af69ed1b043a3023638327de1f0c08c\">Waymo<\/a>), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Generative_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Generative artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"651fc063313a0289e8537109ec96d2fc\">generative<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_creativity\" title=\"Computational creativity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe898d050ba0ee71f0ff55201e618591\">creative<\/a> tools (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ChatGPT\" title=\"ChatGPT\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"205da2acb6bbb6260cafb3040cba93fe\">ChatGPT<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_art\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"AI art\" data-key=\"08d2756e2d6963f02f2aa660cfa3fdef\">AI art<\/a>), and superhuman play and analysis in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Strategy_game\" title=\"Strategy game\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e4a5c15abd39e47d75e11a8987191359\">strategy games<\/a> (such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chess\" title=\"Chess\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1cdd58472d9417fa0229c7cf45b7a20\">chess<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Go_(game)\" title=\"Go (game)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5b8c8e702d802b3b6f071b42e8741c6e\">Go<\/a>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoogle2016_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoogle2016-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Alan Turing was the first person to conduct substantial research in the field that he called Machine Intelligence.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-turing_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-turing-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> Artificial intelligence was founded as an academic discipline in 1956.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Dartmouth_workshop_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Dartmouth_workshop-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> The field went through multiple cycles of optimism<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AI_in_the_60s_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AI_in_the_60s-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AI_in_the_80s_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AI_in_the_80s-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> followed by disappointment and loss of funding.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-First_AI_winter_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-First_AI_winter-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Second_AI_winter_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Second_AI_winter-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> Funding and interest vastly increased after 2012 when <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_learning\" title=\"Deep learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60a402792d36ac6697fa1e78697b47ee\">deep learning<\/a> surpassed all previous AI techniques,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Deep_learning_revolution_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Deep_learning_revolution-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> and after 2017 with the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transformer_(machine_learning_model)\" title=\"Transformer (machine learning model)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b03043859b7f60436170330be1fdecf1\">transformer<\/a> architecture.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEToews2023_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEToews2023-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> This led to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_spring\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"AI spring\" data-key=\"ce1f82cf97da2a6695ab3e275cfbb842\">AI spring<\/a> of the 2020s, with companies, universities, and laboratories overwhelmingly based in the United States pioneering significant advances in artificial intelligence.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrank2023_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrank2023-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The various sub-fields of AI research are centered around particular goals and the use of particular tools. The traditional goals of AI research include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_reasoning\" title=\"Automated reasoning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9de14c9c0d69a0cb33e3fcbd45499d1f\">reasoning<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_representation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Knowledge representation\" data-key=\"a51a434d24f3769ccc65859b23494280\">knowledge representation<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_planning_and_scheduling\" title=\"Automated planning and scheduling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd62254769426508b9de418255a3e6f9\">planning<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">learning<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_language_processing\" title=\"Natural language processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"258d1d348c952c69c2cf806f12baac0d\">natural language processing<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_perception\" title=\"Machine perception\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cfffd3cba5956ce2d78ebcd3f401115a\">perception<\/a>, and support for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robotics\" title=\"Robotics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d51e34f62697c054ccec4bfed01d9051\">robotics<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Problems_of_AI_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Problems_of_AI-11\">[a]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_general_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial general intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8f53649097e783e63ebea1909d4045f\">General intelligence<\/a> (the ability to complete any task performable by a human) is among the field's long-term goals.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AGI_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AGI-12\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>To solve these problems, AI researchers have adapted and integrated a wide range of problem-solving techniques, including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/State_space_search\" title=\"State space search\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"416f44b7d5908ce41a1f0e6367790d1a\">search<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mathematical_optimization\" title=\"Mathematical optimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3971a7d176811cdbfe476e66dedd7be2\">mathematical optimization<\/a>, formal logic, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_neural_network\" title=\"Artificial neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73964ffff0d6be12acd68eded7e41d19\">artificial neural networks<\/a>, and methods based on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistics\" title=\"Statistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b33a2c126f998dcb96c31a065f1cf984\">statistics<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operations_research\" title=\"Operations research\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea13bd10effe5b252bd593334c52b8a8\">operations research<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Economics\" title=\"Economics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b6a490a031e67e7a7ea4fca8dc646e1c\">economics<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Tools_of_AI_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Tools_of_AI-13\">[b]<\/a><\/sup> AI also draws upon <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Psychology\" title=\"Psychology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a99444d2a275a5cbb5bb5400a4e9030a\">psychology<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linguistics\" title=\"Linguistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fc033b9e6f4c07c7265d390670edd9f9\">linguistics<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philosophy\" title=\"Philosophy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14ccd0db1fd666754f9f2f851d3a55f7\">philosophy<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neuroscience\" title=\"Neuroscience\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"444cbd0b0bfec2ad88df9337f1a2a161\">neuroscience<\/a> and other fields.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AI_influences_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AI_influences-14\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Goals\">Goals<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The general problem of simulating (or creating) intelligence has been broken into sub-problems. These consist of particular traits or capabilities that researchers expect an intelligent system to display. The traits described below have received the most attention and cover the scope of AI research.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Problems_of_AI_11-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Problems_of_AI-11\">[a]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Reasoning.2C_problem-solving\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Reasoning,_problem-solving\">Reasoning, problem-solving<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Early researchers developed algorithms that imitated step-by-step reasoning that humans use when they solve puzzles or make logical deductions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> By the late 1980s and 1990s, methods were developed for dealing with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Uncertainty\" title=\"Uncertainty\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a3d5a6283c54c37cec2755ceee446628\">uncertain<\/a> or incomplete information, employing concepts from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Probability\" title=\"Probability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"44ea3f63d04643beddabc48ace7e9515\">probability<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Economics\" title=\"Economics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b6a490a031e67e7a7ea4fca8dc646e1c\">economics<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[14]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Many of these algorithms are insufficient for solving large reasoning problems because they experience a \"combinatorial explosion\": they became exponentially slower as the problems grew larger.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Intractability_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Intractability-17\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> Even humans rarely use the step-by-step deduction that early AI research could model. They solve most of their problems using fast, intuitive judgments.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Psychological_evidence_of_sub-symbolic_reasoning_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Psychological_evidence_of_sub-symbolic_reasoning-18\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> Accurate and efficient reasoning is an unsolved problem.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Knowledge_representation\">Knowledge representation<\/span><\/h3>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:General_Formal_Ontology.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"603e73f3ca046d9c994afbc0c94d0a48\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/e\/e8\/General_Formal_Ontology.svg\/260px-General_Formal_Ontology.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"260\" height=\"260\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>An ontology represents knowledge as a set of concepts within a domain and the relationships between those concepts.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_representation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Knowledge representation\" data-key=\"a51a434d24f3769ccc65859b23494280\">Knowledge representation<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_engineering\" title=\"Knowledge engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7267aab1197163e1afb413bc0c1d979b\">knowledge engineering<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[17]<\/a><\/sup> allow AI programs to answer questions intelligently and make deductions about real-world facts. Formal knowledge representations are used in content-based indexing and retrieval,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmoliarZhang1994_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmoliarZhang1994-20\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> scene interpretation,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeumannM\u00f6ller2008_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeumannM\u00f6ller2008-21\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> clinical decision support,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKupermanReichleyBailey2006_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKupermanReichleyBailey2006-22\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> knowledge discovery (mining \"interesting\" and actionable inferences from large databases),<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcGarry2005_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGarry2005-23\">[21]<\/a><\/sup> and other areas.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBertiniDel_BimboTorniai2006_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertiniDel_BimboTorniai2006-24\">[22]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_base\" title=\"Knowledge base\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dae3d5f45726413ec5e9e2654dec91e8\">knowledge base<\/a> is a body of knowledge represented in a form that can be used by a program. An <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ontology_(information_science)\" title=\"Ontology (information science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6cd018caae9a0c95e80b08c71758343\">ontology<\/a> is the set of objects, relations, concepts, and properties used by a particular domain of knowledge.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021272_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021272-25\">[23]<\/a><\/sup> Knowledge bases need to represent things such as: objects, properties, categories and relations between objects;<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Representing_categories_and_relations_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Representing_categories_and_relations-26\">[24]<\/a><\/sup> situations, events, states and time;<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Representing_time_27-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Representing_time-27\">[25]<\/a><\/sup> causes and effects;<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Representing_causation_28-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Representing_causation-28\">[26]<\/a><\/sup> knowledge about knowledge (what we know about what other people know);<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Representing_knowledge_about_knowledge_29-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Representing_knowledge_about_knowledge-29\">[27]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Default_reasoning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Default reasoning\" data-key=\"9a7e44d10e86a591ef9568c20e32790d\">default reasoning<\/a> (things that humans assume are true until they are told differently and will remain true even when other facts are changing);<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Default_reasoning_and_non-monotonic_logic_30-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Default_reasoning_and_non-monotonic_logic-30\">[28]<\/a><\/sup> and many other aspects and domains of knowledge.\n<\/p><p>Among the most difficult problems in knowledge representation are: the breadth of commonsense knowledge (the set of atomic facts that the average person knows is enormous);<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Breadth_of_commonsense_knowledge_31-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Breadth_of_commonsense_knowledge-31\">[29]<\/a><\/sup> and the sub-symbolic form of most commonsense knowledge (much of what people know is not represented as \"facts\" or \"statements\" that they could express verbally).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Psychological_evidence_of_sub-symbolic_reasoning_18-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Psychological_evidence_of_sub-symbolic_reasoning-18\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> There is also the difficulty of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_acquisition\" title=\"Knowledge acquisition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c169d495d82bb1055f0a654e4798285b\">knowledge acquisition<\/a>, the problem of obtaining knowledge for AI applications.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-34\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-34\">[c]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Planning_and_decision_making\">Planning and decision making<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>An \"agent\" is anything that perceives and takes actions in the world. A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rational_agent\" title=\"Rational agent\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a5d568560877e3df5aff4749b55d79b0\">rational agent<\/a> has goals or preferences and takes actions to make them happen.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-35\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-35\">[d]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021528_36-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021528-36\">[32]<\/a><\/sup> In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_planning_and_scheduling\" title=\"Automated planning and scheduling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd62254769426508b9de418255a3e6f9\">automated planning<\/a>, the agent has a specific goal.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-37\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-37\">[33]<\/a><\/sup> In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_decision_making\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Automated decision making\" data-key=\"479c93b186ba68209cc54b136b59728b\">automated decision making<\/a>, the agent has preferences \u2013 there are some situations it would prefer to be in, and some situations it is trying to avoid. The decision making agent assigns a number to each situation (called the \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Utility_(economics)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Utility (economics)\" data-key=\"ff285b4d03c88b36dbf3b40a7508b686\">utility<\/a>\") that measures how much the agent prefers it. For each possible action, it can calculate the \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Expected_utility\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Expected utility\" data-key=\"0a53c9c78a6c543a903387bb09164f20\">expected utility<\/a>\": the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Utility\" title=\"Utility\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"317210b0c67c2128db183f39aa610e39\">utility<\/a> of all possible outcomes of the action, weighted by the probability that the outcome will occur. It can then choose the action with the maximum expected utility.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-38\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-38\">[34]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_planning_and_scheduling#classical_planning\" title=\"Automated planning and scheduling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0b9431a2d8569e4406daa97a4849014e\">classical planning<\/a>, the agent knows exactly what the effect of any action will be.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-39\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-39\">[35]<\/a><\/sup> In most real-world problems, however, the agent may not be certain about the situation they are in (it is \"unknown\" or \"unobservable\") and it may not know for certain what will happen after each possible action (it is not \"deterministic\"). It must choose an action by making a probabilistic guess and then reassess the situation to see if the action worked.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-40\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-40\">[36]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In some problems, the agent's preferences may be uncertain, especially if there are other agents or humans involved. These can be learned (e.g., with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inverse_reinforcement_learning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Inverse reinforcement learning\" data-key=\"44882403715644d66bc206337033a943\">inverse reinforcement learning<\/a>) or the agent can seek information to improve its preferences.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-41\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-41\">[37]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_value_theory\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Information value theory\" data-key=\"cd8cd239f4545d574b1750d05f39a008\">Information value theory<\/a> can be used to weigh the value of exploratory or experimental actions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-42\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-42\">[38]<\/a><\/sup> The space of possible future actions and situations is typically <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intractable_problem\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Intractable problem\" data-key=\"e75be0352f0cf0a91c55e657c1872fbc\">intractably<\/a> large, so the agents must take actions and evaluate situations while being uncertain what the outcome will be.\n<\/p><p>A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Markov_decision_process\" title=\"Markov decision process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a165b52a9ae8569c3987f865361587a4\">Markov decision process<\/a> has a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Finite-state_machine\" title=\"Finite-state machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"40f94d27502cc7e9bbddfff6affffa67\">transition model<\/a> that describes the probability that a particular action will change the state in a particular way, and a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reward_function\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Reward function\" data-key=\"bc28aa695da6c2094cd00efd8a5741a4\">reward function<\/a> that supplies the utility of each state and the cost of each action. A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reinforcement_learning#Policy\" title=\"Reinforcement learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bc1e361ed29cbd50ee06e6cdb7ec347e\">policy<\/a> associates a decision with each possible state. The policy could be calculated (e.g. by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Policy_iteration\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Policy iteration\" data-key=\"6615a996510420be8490ddac5d626f13\">iteration<\/a>), be <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heuristic\" title=\"Heuristic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43bdbf6d64573ad3685511cbc07502fd\">heuristic<\/a>, or it can be learned.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-43\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-43\">[39]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Game_theory\" title=\"Game theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5498b159fb87dc60c8ad0a722348a50a\">Game theory<\/a> describes rational behavior of multiple interacting agents, and is used in AI programs that make decisions that involve other agents.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-44\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-44\">[40]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Learning\">Learning<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">Machine learning<\/a> is the study of programs that can improve their performance on a given task automatically.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-machine_learning_45-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-machine_learning-45\">[41]<\/a><\/sup> It has been a part of AI from the beginning.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-48\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-48\">[e]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>There are several kinds of machine learning. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unsupervised_learning\" title=\"Unsupervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c9e858df53fef2503acd60c11560020\">Unsupervised learning<\/a> analyzes a stream of data and finds patterns and makes predictions without any other guidance.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-49\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-49\">[44]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supervised_learning\" title=\"Supervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5adaeeb5da1f2d0b8ac1f6d9bab6967c\">Supervised learning<\/a> requires a human to label the input data first, and comes in two main varieties: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_classification\" title=\"Statistical classification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1bd89e7f87ae911d07b473e7f48d260\">classification<\/a> (where the program must learn to predict what category the input belongs in) and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regression_analysis\" title=\"Regression analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afc84bb0b3e2e76d4909d879fcbb2ae0\">regression<\/a> (where the program must deduce a numeric function based on numeric input).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Supervised_learning_50-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Supervised_learning-50\">[45]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reinforcement_learning\" title=\"Reinforcement learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cecfb51a025421a8d22a6fa8a7094e15\">reinforcement learning<\/a> the agent is rewarded for good responses and punished for bad ones. The agent learns to choose responses that are classified as \"good\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-51\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-51\">[46]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transfer_learning\" title=\"Transfer learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3fcc29c127bd186329e75098901899d9\">Transfer learning<\/a> is when the knowledge gained from one problem is applied to a new problem.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-52\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-52\">[47]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_learning\" title=\"Deep learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60a402792d36ac6697fa1e78697b47ee\">Deep learning<\/a> is a type of machine learning that runs inputs through biologically inspired <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_neural_networks\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Artificial neural networks\" data-key=\"1adb6b70723b983652f5a8281e957425\">artificial neural networks<\/a> for all of these types of learning.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-53\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-53\">[48]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_learning_theory\" title=\"Computational learning theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9cc562e86774b252f65ad147577243ae\">Computational learning theory<\/a> can assess learners by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_complexity\" title=\"Computational complexity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2e2b22ca011c443bf80419d65389c36\">computational complexity<\/a>, by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sample_complexity\" title=\"Sample complexity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e3965cb1c9e441aa428bd4a5bbad4ae\">sample complexity<\/a> (how much data is required), or by other notions of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Optimization_theory\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Optimization theory\" data-key=\"feb96367d966b48425b47d48285cd29b\">optimization<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-54\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-54\">[49]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Natural_language_processing\">Natural language processing<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_language_processing\" title=\"Natural language processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"258d1d348c952c69c2cf806f12baac0d\">Natural language processing<\/a> (NLP)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-55\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-55\">[50]<\/a><\/sup> allows programs to read, write and communicate in human languages such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/English_(language)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"English (language)\" data-key=\"62dc48a2568ac8c9d37a9b8f473a366b\">English<\/a>. Specific problems include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Speech_recognition\" title=\"Speech recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"067c5c5cfe1e2d0e23c8b0dd8809446d\">speech recognition<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Speech_synthesis\" title=\"Speech synthesis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1243a9c02f4577829aa1c8828755549e\">speech synthesis<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_translation\" title=\"Machine translation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14267942afd7a6873d7e227d71ba74d2\">machine translation<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_extraction\" title=\"Information extraction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5d8bd74625d817b2052a2a36d5529463\">information extraction<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_retrieval\" title=\"Information retrieval\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0faaa582e57a2d62bc65c5c191a810c0\">information retrieval<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Question_answering\" title=\"Question answering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8b154537fa092a2a4ab66739e9a0e1d3\">question answering<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-56\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-56\">[51]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Early work, based on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Noam_Chomsky\" title=\"Noam Chomsky\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3203fd57f938e3ef1ef1ec821e7b67cd\">Noam Chomsky<\/a>'s <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Generative_grammar\" title=\"Generative grammar\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"55d55e27b1477f269111ee85fb939364\">generative grammar<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantic_network\" title=\"Semantic network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"64a11922fbc4867fa40750caf3480c27\">semantic networks<\/a>, had difficulty with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Word-sense_disambiguation\" title=\"Word-sense disambiguation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81d5aa19cc0d5f6db4fd9d9887a808c1\">word-sense disambiguation<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-57\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-57\">[f]<\/a><\/sup> unless restricted to small domains called \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Blocks_world\" title=\"Blocks world\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f273703cf7067792c8cd47da7a2fef3d\">micro-worlds<\/a>\" (due to the common sense knowledge problem<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Breadth_of_commonsense_knowledge_31-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Breadth_of_commonsense_knowledge-31\">[29]<\/a><\/sup>). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Margaret_Masterman\" title=\"Margaret Masterman\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c377c569da5f6424bd4d4ff7bcc1ad0d\">Margaret Masterman<\/a> believed that it was meaning, and not grammar that was the key to understanding languages, and that <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thesauri\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Thesauri\" data-key=\"b090c7f94201c310e5afb62bd6abab4f\">thesauri<\/a> and not dictionaries should be the basis of computational language structure.\n<\/p><p>Modern <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_learning\" title=\"Deep learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60a402792d36ac6697fa1e78697b47ee\">deep learning<\/a> techniques for NLP include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Word_embedding\" title=\"Word embedding\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2af58b92b11d0550e304e03202c56dae\">word embedding<\/a> (representing words, typically as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vector_space\" title=\"Vector space\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a878f83a9babe03af3b46b6d1cb39d2\">vectors<\/a> encoding their meaning),<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021856\u2013858_58-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021856\u2013858-58\">[52]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transformer_(machine_learning_model)\" title=\"Transformer (machine learning model)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b03043859b7f60436170330be1fdecf1\">transformers<\/a> (a deep learning architecture using an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Attention_(machine_learning)\" title=\"Attention (machine learning)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f75cf54ebd91127409e0f853b8ec104a\">attention<\/a> mechanism),<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDickson2022_59-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDickson2022-59\">[53]<\/a><\/sup> and others.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-60\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-60\">[54]<\/a><\/sup> In 2019, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Generative_pre-trained_transformer\" title=\"Generative pre-trained transformer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"21320f84003e9a22957b206278edfddd\">generative pre-trained transformer<\/a> (or \"GPT\") language models began to generate coherent text,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVincent2019_61-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVincent2019-61\">[55]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021875\u2013878_62-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021875\u2013878-62\">[56]<\/a><\/sup> and by 2023 these models were able to get human-level scores on the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bar_exam\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bar exam\" data-key=\"4811b9b68dc2c6ac9a42a638341ea82a\">bar exam<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scholastic_aptitude_test\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Scholastic aptitude test\" data-key=\"f1baaf6a28adb1912ae5f8679bd56fb4\">SAT<\/a> test, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Graduate_Record_Examinations\" title=\"Graduate Record Examinations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d86339bf03b1332da336c975e4f30d78\">GRE<\/a> test, and many other real-world applications.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBushwick2023_63-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBushwick2023-63\">[57]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Perception\">Perception<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_perception\" title=\"Machine perception\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cfffd3cba5956ce2d78ebcd3f401115a\">Machine perception<\/a> is the ability to use input from sensors (such as cameras, microphones, wireless signals, active <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lidar\" title=\"Lidar\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4844b5d4c9d113609acb81c9a6421e8c\">lidar<\/a>, sonar, radar, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tactile_sensor\" title=\"Tactile sensor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a326234e1c4db0d9725579debcb206d7\">tactile sensors<\/a>) to deduce aspects of the world. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_vision\" title=\"Computer vision\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"082554c667906c00efbfe0986943ab7f\">Computer vision<\/a> is the ability to analyze visual input.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-64\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-64\">[58]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The field includes <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Speech_recognition\" title=\"Speech recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"067c5c5cfe1e2d0e23c8b0dd8809446d\">speech recognition<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021849\u2013850_65-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021849\u2013850-65\">[59]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Image_classification\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Image classification\" data-key=\"26307c6f3b411a1d3d7c4a732aa855e9\">image classification<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021895\u2013899_66-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021895\u2013899-66\">[60]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Facial_recognition_system\" title=\"Facial recognition system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a48e820a5eeac01f60fa6d31bf41aac2\">facial recognition<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Object_recognition\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Object recognition\" data-key=\"e0f4220ac83074b756845927988d527f\">object recognition<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021899\u2013901_67-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021899\u2013901-67\">[61]<\/a><\/sup> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robotic_sensing\" title=\"Robotic sensing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0121b955cfc3a92c90bdb3c193c00f62\">robotic perception<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021931\u2013938_68-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021931\u2013938-68\">[62]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Social_intelligence\">Social intelligence<\/span><\/h3>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Kismet-IMG_6007-gradient.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"545b6e499ef294046621165371acdc25\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/27\/Kismet-IMG_6007-gradient.jpg\/220px-Kismet-IMG_6007-gradient.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"147\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kismet_(robot)\" title=\"Kismet (robot)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6d2a32f554b9b31d0efba66c5432a1a9\">Kismet<\/a>, a robot head which was made in the 1990s; a machine that can recognize and simulate emotions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMIT_AIL2014_69-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMIT_AIL2014-69\">[63]<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Affective_computing\" title=\"Affective computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2d2895ad8508fe3d7e92180ab59a670\">Affective computing<\/a> is an interdisciplinary umbrella that comprises systems that recognize, interpret, process or simulate human <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Affect_(psychology)\" title=\"Affect (psychology)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"842f01ba2d297d93717bbe8625ef8432\">feeling, emotion and mood<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-70\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-70\">[64]<\/a><\/sup> For example, some <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Virtual_assistant\" title=\"Virtual assistant\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5cc0ede2ebe08f413668ba2dcd667b17\">virtual assistants<\/a> are programmed to speak conversationally or even to banter humorously; it makes them appear more sensitive to the emotional dynamics of human interaction, or to otherwise facilitate <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction\" title=\"Human\u2013computer interaction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5f223dba7ff4b64f99540c3cb7b28b58\">human\u2013computer interaction<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>However, this tends to give na\u00efve users an unrealistic conception of the intelligence of existing computer agents.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaddell2018_71-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaddell2018-71\">[65]<\/a><\/sup> Moderate successes related to affective computing include textual <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sentiment_analysis\" title=\"Sentiment analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"65a8d6b4bb74d78435b7c0e113f93692\">sentiment analysis<\/a> and, more recently, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multimodal_sentiment_analysis\" title=\"Multimodal sentiment analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73eaf397c9899977f927bb020354844e\">multimodal sentiment analysis<\/a>, wherein AI classifies the affects displayed by a videotaped subject.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoriaCambriaBajpaiHussain2017_72-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoriaCambriaBajpaiHussain2017-72\">[66]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"General_intelligence\">General intelligence<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A machine with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_general_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial general intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8f53649097e783e63ebea1909d4045f\">artificial general intelligence<\/a> should be able to solve a wide variety of problems with breadth and versatility similar to human intelligence.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AGI_12-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AGI-12\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Techniques\">Techniques<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>AI research uses a wide variety of techniques to accomplish the goals above.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Tools_of_AI_13-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Tools_of_AI-13\">[b]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Search_and_optimization\">Search and optimization<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>AI can solve many problems by intelligently searching through many possible solutions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-73\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-73\">[67]<\/a><\/sup> There are two very different kinds of search used in AI: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/State_space_search\" title=\"State space search\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"416f44b7d5908ce41a1f0e6367790d1a\">state space search<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Local_search_(optimization)\" title=\"Local search (optimization)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8cab8b40fc21fbe49622f9597f8273a7\">local search<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"State_space_search\">State space search<\/span><\/h4>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/State_space_search\" title=\"State space search\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"416f44b7d5908ce41a1f0e6367790d1a\">State space search<\/a> searches through a tree of possible states to try to find a goal state.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-State_space_search_74-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-State_space_search-74\">[68]<\/a><\/sup> For example, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_planning_and_scheduling\" title=\"Automated planning and scheduling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd62254769426508b9de418255a3e6f9\">planning<\/a> algorithms search through trees of goals and subgoals, attempting to find a path to a target goal, a process called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Means-ends_analysis\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Means-ends analysis\" data-key=\"cc71a2723ced39f409b832baa01c3ecd\">means-ends analysis<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021\u00a711.2_75-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021\u00a711.2-75\">[69]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Brute_force_search\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Brute force search\" data-key=\"50838d97b07962fd778b9b50ed275d97\">Simple exhaustive searches<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Uninformed_search_76-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Uninformed_search-76\">[70]<\/a><\/sup> are rarely sufficient for most real-world problems: the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Search_algorithm\" title=\"Search algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c8e2192ba143c7f57418b352fefb05f1\">search space<\/a> (the number of places to search) quickly grows to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Astronomically_large\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Astronomically large\" data-key=\"5ea16871a57c704d2e88fce8df53e548\">astronomical numbers<\/a>. The result is a search that is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computation_time\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Computation time\" data-key=\"9ec53af6b0415c650f4f1ba3b5039e82\">too slow<\/a> or never completes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Intractability_17-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Intractability-17\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heuristics\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Heuristics\" data-key=\"47c18358ee6012fc43393af184cc4ccc\">Heuristics<\/a>\" or \"rules of thumb\" can help to prioritize choices that are more likely to reach a goal.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Informed_search_77-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Informed_search-77\">[71]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Adversarial_search\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Adversarial search\" data-key=\"ba1389c9fa8d56c9e078a47bff84c538\">Adversarial search<\/a> is used for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Game_AI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Game AI\" data-key=\"8973687e63103577e4d70d54ddb43aff\">game-playing<\/a> programs, such as chess or Go. It searches through a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Game_tree\" title=\"Game tree\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ac5bff22b78f0515c6474de8a3ff7f7\">tree<\/a> of possible moves and counter-moves, looking for a winning position.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-78\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-78\">[72]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Local_search\">Local search<\/span><\/h4>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Gradient_descent.gif\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"f58b9b5631583ae6cd8c5e0a72c26c98\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/a\/a3\/Gradient_descent.gif\/220px-Gradient_descent.gif\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"178\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Illustration of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gradient_descent\" title=\"Gradient descent\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"854eb1e6a6185271e439c38b497c869a\">gradient descent<\/a> for 3 different starting points. Two parameters (represented by the plan coordinates) are adjusted in order to minimize the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Loss_function\" title=\"Loss function\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"125dea4dead6fff733011b9c4725ddfc\">loss function<\/a> (the height).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Local_search_(optimization)\" title=\"Local search (optimization)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8cab8b40fc21fbe49622f9597f8273a7\">Local search<\/a> uses <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mathematical_optimization\" title=\"Mathematical optimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3971a7d176811cdbfe476e66dedd7be2\">mathematical optimization<\/a> to find a numeric solution to a problem. It begins with some form of a guess and then refines the guess incrementally until no more refinements can be made. These algorithms can be visualized as blind <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hill_climbing\" title=\"Hill climbing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"10499a35ce754ab13c94d320c98f5df4\">hill climbing<\/a>: we begin the search at a random point on the landscape, and then, by jumps or steps, we keep moving our guess uphill, until we reach the top. This process is called stochastic <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gradient_descent\" title=\"Gradient descent\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"854eb1e6a6185271e439c38b497c869a\">gradient descent<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Local_search_79-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Local_search-79\">[73]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Evolutionary_computation\" title=\"Evolutionary computation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5b60cad0a27f9a67815f7da22a51b185\">Evolutionary computation<\/a> uses a form of optimization search. For example, they may begin with a population of organisms (the guesses) and then allow them to mutate and recombine, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_selection\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Artificial selection\" data-key=\"a01e2cdc0618f14f4877a49e8a4c5646\">selecting<\/a> only the fittest to survive each generation (refining the guesses).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-80\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-80\">[74]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Distributed search processes can coordinate via <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Swarm_intelligence\" title=\"Swarm intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f37742882c10162325fa45a9fbebf82e\">swarm intelligence<\/a> algorithms. Two popular swarm algorithms used in search are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Particle_swarm_optimization\" title=\"Particle swarm optimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"05cc276e91b836bf00bb6f20e8f451f7\">particle swarm optimization<\/a> (inspired by bird <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Flocking_(behavior)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Flocking (behavior)\" data-key=\"28e0464373293052e74ba73af67e5f0b\">flocking<\/a>) and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ant_colony_optimization\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Ant colony optimization\" data-key=\"767cabe648af62541f20aa5011f4f033\">ant colony optimization<\/a> (inspired by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ant_trail\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Ant trail\" data-key=\"e9bfdd0e52c1687ecaf9a7ec670f6a83\">ant trails<\/a>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMerkleMiddendorf2013_81-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMerkleMiddendorf2013-81\">[75]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neural_networks\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Neural networks\" data-key=\"9020876aa19c541d6113c18b09f7a5bb\">Neural networks<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_classification\" title=\"Statistical classification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1bd89e7f87ae911d07b473e7f48d260\">statistical classifiers<\/a> (discussed below), also use a form of local search, where the \"landscape\" to be searched is formed by learning.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Logic\">Logic<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Formal <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logic\" title=\"Logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b1765a5c4c6dcb7becba1cf644fe3897\">Logic<\/a> is used for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automatic_reasoning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Automatic reasoning\" data-key=\"87cfabd7428ff2095a8695dd59860b98\">reasoning<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_representation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Knowledge representation\" data-key=\"a51a434d24f3769ccc65859b23494280\">knowledge representation<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Logic_82-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Logic-82\">[76]<\/a><\/sup>\nFormal logic comes in two main forms: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Propositional_logic\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Propositional logic\" data-key=\"c9369aad6f2772123d846a70baa93ee5\">propositional logic<\/a> (which operates on statements that are true or false and uses <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logical_connective\" title=\"Logical connective\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e271610900bf00083b69fb0ba2f6357d\">logical connectives<\/a> such as \"and\", \"or\", \"not\" and \"implies\")<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Propositional_logic_83-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Propositional_logic-83\">[77]<\/a><\/sup>\nand <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Predicate_logic\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Predicate logic\" data-key=\"cbb3800aa12f254ace7b177087c244fe\">predicate logic<\/a> (which also operates on objects, predicates and relations and uses <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quantifier_(logic)\" title=\"Quantifier (logic)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6d9de6880ad9f42fafa5e7566e9bec8\">quantifiers<\/a> such as \"<i>Every<\/i> <i>X<\/i> is a <i>Y<\/i>\" and \"There are <i>some<\/i> <i>X<\/i>s that are <i>Y<\/i>s\").<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Predicate_logic_84-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Predicate_logic-84\">[78]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Logical <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inference\" title=\"Inference\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a83751a82d1ce852f34d85b5ebb0eba\">inference<\/a> (or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deductive_reasoning\" title=\"Deductive reasoning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f2d658529d6b83bb9287b21b3d54d0f2\">deduction<\/a>) is the process of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logical_proof\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Logical proof\" data-key=\"1c3438348a07cc4bac433bea39b06414\">proving<\/a> a new statement (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logical_consequence\" title=\"Logical consequence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eee8632d58670cb1e707d1ede1db7e73\">conclusion<\/a>) from other statements that are already known to be true (the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Premise\" title=\"Premise\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"97e7e0b8fa720a9888afc31e8fde1b14\">premises<\/a>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Inference_85-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Inference-85\">[79]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>A logical <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_base\" title=\"Knowledge base\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dae3d5f45726413ec5e9e2654dec91e8\">knowledge base<\/a> also handles queries and assertions as a special case of inference.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021\u00a78.3.1_86-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021\u00a78.3.1-86\">[80]<\/a><\/sup>\nAn <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inference_rule\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Inference rule\" data-key=\"625a14083c2fe3bd996a4f2efaaec4fe\">inference rule<\/a> describes what is a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Validity_(logic)\" title=\"Validity (logic)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f33e43c0d1793dc25914f467790c48cb\">valid<\/a> step in a proof. The most general inference rule is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Resolution_(logic)\" title=\"Resolution (logic)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0134dc87bf60dfb80a3f5ce91765df7d\">resolution<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Resolution_87-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Resolution-87\">[81]<\/a><\/sup>\nInference can be reduced to performing a search to find a path that leads from premises to conclusions, where each step is the application of an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inference_rule\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Inference rule\" data-key=\"625a14083c2fe3bd996a4f2efaaec4fe\">inference rule<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Logic_as_search_88-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Logic_as_search-88\">[82]<\/a><\/sup>\nInference performed this way is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intractable_problem\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Intractable problem\" data-key=\"e75be0352f0cf0a91c55e657c1872fbc\">intractable<\/a> except for short proofs in restricted domains. No efficient, powerful and general method has been discovered.\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fuzzy_logic\" title=\"Fuzzy logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b5089e9114f91c54ad40c5615094874\">Fuzzy logic<\/a> assigns a \"degree of truth\" between 0 and 1. It can therefore handle propositions that are vague and partially true.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Fuzzy_logic_89-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Fuzzy_logic-89\">[83]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Non-monotonic_logic\" title=\"Non-monotonic logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6c13bba29e69b618970cbd7fe0b603ec\">Non-monotonic logics<\/a> are designed to handle <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Default_reasoning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Default reasoning\" data-key=\"9a7e44d10e86a591ef9568c20e32790d\">default reasoning<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Default_reasoning_and_non-monotonic_logic_30-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Default_reasoning_and_non-monotonic_logic-30\">[28]<\/a><\/sup>\nOther specialized versions of logic have been developed to describe many complex domains (see <a href=\"#Knowledge_representation\">knowledge representation<\/a> above).\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Probabilistic_methods_for_uncertain_reasoning\">Probabilistic methods for uncertain reasoning<\/span><\/h3>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:SimpleBayesNet.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6d9ed5121e2b4c1f6732c2e24e8bc49\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/0\/0e\/SimpleBayesNet.svg\/380px-SimpleBayesNet.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"380\" height=\"215\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>A simple <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bayesian_network\" title=\"Bayesian network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebc823a40ca85fe6368464bee686f254\">Bayesian network<\/a>, with the associated <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conditional_probability_table\" title=\"Conditional probability table\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f1308a1ca7bb12b43748df7859f578cf\">conditional probability tables<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>Many problems in AI (including in reasoning, planning, learning, perception, and robotics) require the agent to operate with incomplete or uncertain information. AI researchers have devised a number of tools to solve these problems using methods from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Probability\" title=\"Probability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"44ea3f63d04643beddabc48ace7e9515\">probability<\/a> theory and economics.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Uncertain_reasoning_90-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Uncertain_reasoning-90\">[84]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bayesian_network\" title=\"Bayesian network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebc823a40ca85fe6368464bee686f254\">Bayesian networks<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Bayesian_networks_91-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Bayesian_networks-91\">[85]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>are a very general tool that can be used for many problems, including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_reasoning\" title=\"Automated reasoning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9de14c9c0d69a0cb33e3fcbd45499d1f\">reasoning<\/a> (using the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bayesian_inference\" title=\"Bayesian inference\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"26d0e9d790d16771f099137b199877f7\">Bayesian inference<\/a> algorithm),<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-93\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-93\">[g]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Bayesian_inference_94-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Bayesian_inference-94\">[87]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">learning<\/a> (usin