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响現實世界嘅科研入面,啲變數好少可會「一係公一係字」咁二元,但個原理一樣:常態分佈[e 30]就係科學入面最常用嘅概率分佈之一,如果由一個常態分佈嘅總體嗰度抽樣,個變數嘅平均值會係出現得最密嘅數值,低過平均嘅數值同高過平均嘅數值出現嘅機會率一樣,而離平均值愈遠嘅數值,抽到出嚟嘅機會率就愈低,如果按住個樣本畫一個概率分佈圖(打橫個條 X 軸係個變數嘅可能數值,而打戙嗰條 Y 軸係每個數值出現嘅機會率),一個常態分佈會俾出一條好似鐘噉嘅形狀嘅線[e 31]。常態分佈嘅概率密度函數係( 係個分佈嘅標準差)[37]:
譬如話以下呢個情況噉:想像有生物學家想研究成年中華白海豚嘅身長,但佢冇可能捉嗮世界上咁多隻白海豚遂隻遂隻嚟度佢哋幾長,於是乎佢就抽個樣本出嚟,用個樣本嚟估計全世界嘅白海豚嘅身長;呢個樣本入面有 20 隻白海豚,佢哋嘅平均身長係 2.2 米,唔係隻隻都啱啱好 2.2 米長-有隻係 1.8 米長,有隻係 2.6 米長呀噉-但一隻白海豚身長高過呢個值嘅機會率大致上等如佢身長低過呢個值嘅機會率,而且離 2.2 米愈遠嘅數值出現嘅機會率愈低。如果畫幅概率分佈圖,「隻白海豚嘅身長」做 X 軸,而「每個身長數值出現嘅機會率」做 Y 軸,幅圖會出一條近似鐘形嘅線。
因為佢哋嗰兩個組入面個體係分別噉抽樣嘅,而且得一個應變數(狼嘅食量),所以佢哋可以用獨立樣本 t 測試。
用好似 t 測試噉嘅統計分析可以提高一份研究嘅說服力:一方面,啲研究者可以淨係靠直接比較兩個組喺個變數上各自嘅平均值( 同 ),但噉做唔會有乜嘢說服力;個變數係大致上呈常態分佈嘅-一隻狼嘅日常食量通常會接近所有狼嘅日常食量嘅平均值,離平均值愈遠嘅數值就會出現得愈少;如果齋靠比較兩個組嘅平均值,就等於冇考慮到抽樣等過程入面嘅隨機性-可能只係抽樣嗰陣唔好彩,大食嘅狼咁橋分嗮去實驗組嗰度,而食嘢少嘅狼就咁啱分嗮去對照組。於是啲研究人員為咗要提高佢哋份研究嘅說服力,就要攞啲數據嚟計吓[55]。
配對樣本 t 測試[e 60]:指做 t 測試嗰兩個組唔係獨立同分佈嘅,研究者做咗某啲嘢,令一組數值當中每一個都喺另外嗰組當中有個對應,例如做個心理學實驗,研究者想知個實驗操作會引致變數 有乜變化,於是就喺實驗前量度 一次,跟住對受試者做實驗操作,然後喺實驗後又量度 一次(睇返重複量數設計)。喺呢個情況下,每位受試者都有一個
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↑Lydia Denworth, A Significant Problem: Standard scientific methods are under fire. Will anything change?, Scientific American, vol. 321, no. 4 (October 2019), pp. 62–67. "The use of p values for nearly a century [since 1925] to determine statistical significance of experimental results has contributed to an illusion of certainty and [to] reproducibility crises in many scientific fields... Some [researchers] suggest changing statistical methods, whereas others would do away with a threshold for defining "significant" results." (p. 63.),呢篇文講到:「(自從 1925 年)近一個世紀以嚟,用 p 值決定一個實驗結果係咪顯著,搞到我哋有種肯定嘅錯覺(有種錯覺以為可以肯定啲實驗結果係啱嘅)同引起咗好多科學領域嘅再現危機(指實驗結果做唔到再現)... 有啲研究者主張改變用緊嘅統計方法,而其他就會放棄唔再用門檻值嚟界定『顯著』嘅結果。」
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